P ' R O R N 2008: Epidemiology/Etiology
P ' R O R N 2008: Epidemiology/Etiology
P ' R O R N 2008: Epidemiology/Etiology
PROSTATE CANCER
Epidemiology/Etiology:
‐1/6th of all men, most common cancer in men, 2nd most common cause of cancer mortality
Risk Factors:
‐Age
‐Chronic testosterone exposure (BPH) – potential risk factor
‐Family hx (clustering, autosomal dominant, possibly accounts for 1/10 cases ‐ RR 2x)
‐Black (30x compared to Asian)
‐High total fat intake (related to hyperinsulinemia Æ ↑androgen, IGF)
‐Cadmium exposure
‐Vasectomy (inconclusive)
‐PIN (warrants close surveillance, up to 1/3rd may develop subsequent cancer)
Protective Factors:
‐Retinol, carotenoids, phytoestrogens, vitamin D
Chemoprevention?
‐LHRH agonists (goserelin, leuprolide) work by reducing LH and secondarily testosterone levels
‐However they have too many side effects (anemia, reproductive organ atrophy, ↓
muscle mass, ↓ libido, vasomotor instability)
‐Nonsteroidal anti‐androgens (flutamide, bicalutamide) competitively bind to androgen
receptors in target tissues
‐Well tolerated but can cause GI disturbance, gynecomastia, vasomotor instability
‐5α reductase inhibitors (finasteride) suppress intraprostatic DHT to castrate levels
‐No significant affect on libido, potency, or male musculature
‐Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial: ~19,000 men, ≥55yo, nDRE, PSA <3ng/mL
‐RCT of finasteride (5mg qd) vs placebo
‐Results: 25% reduction in prostate cancer at 7y from 30.6% Æ 18.6% in favor of
finasteride. However higher grade cancers found in finasteride arm. Absolute numbers
6.4% vs 5.1% (relative % of all tumors: 37% vs 22%).
Recommended Screening:
‐No conclusive evidence of prolonged survival. Recommendations based on indirect evidence of
improved survival in advanced disease (Stephenson data)
‐Current Recommendations:
‐≥50yo with at least 10y life expectancy with annual DRE and PSA or earlier (45yo) if at
high risk (black men, or family hx of 2 first degree relatives)
‐Drawbacks:
‐Lead time bias (probably 5y diagnostic lead time): falsely prolongs survival by
diagnosing earlier prostate cancers
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‐Length time bias: falsely prolongs survival by over‐representing less aggressive disease
‐Results of PLCO (Prostate Lung Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer) screening trial may provide
answers – 38,000 men between 1993 to 2001 randomized to screening vs no screening
Other PSA Factors:
‐High PSA velocity (>0.75ng/mL /y),
‐High PSA density (>0.15ng/mL/cm3) = total serum PSA / volume of prostate gland
‐Volume of prostate gland = length x width x height x 0.52
‐Low free‐to‐total PSA ratio (<7%)
‐The proportion of PSA complexed to α‐antichymotrypsin is greater in pts with prostate
cancer so they have a lower free‐to‐total PSA ratio
Prostate Anatomy:
‐Peripheral zone (70%) – most common site of PIN and prostate cancer
‐Central zone (25%) – includes base of prostate and encompasses ejaculatory ducts
‐Transition zone (5%) – enlarges with age due to BPH
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Staging:
‐T1a: <5% incidental finding in resected tissue
‐T1b: >5% incidental finding in resected tissue
‐T1c: tumor found by needle bx due to ↑PSA
‐T2a: palpable in <1/2 of 1 lobe
‐T2b: palpable in >1/2 of 1 lobe
‐T2c: palpable in both lobes
‐T3a: extracapsular extension
‐T3b: seminal vesical invasion
‐T4: fixed or adjacent structure
pT1 does not exist
pT2‐4 = same as clinical
‐N1: regional LNs (internal, external, hypogastric, sacral, obturator)
‐M1a: non‐regional nodes
‐M1b: bone
‐M1c: other distant mets
Stage Grouping:
‐I: T1a G1 (G1= GS 2‐4)
‐II: All the rest
‐III: T3
‐IV: Either T4, N1 or M1
Risk Stratification: 5y bPFS: 10y bPFS: 5yOS:
‐Low risk: T2a or less, GS ≤6, & PSA ≤10 90% 80% >95%
‐Int Risk: T2b/c, GS 7, or PSA >10–20 65% 50% 80‐90%
‐High Risk: T3 and above, GS 8‐10, or PSA >20 40% 35% 60‐80%
Multiple adverse factors can shift one to next group
Pathology:
‐99% are adenocarcinoma
‐Gleason Score (GS 1‐5 Major + Minor score, 5= poorly differentiated, 1= well differentiated)
‐Based on gland formation, regularity, nuclear and nucleolar enlargements.
‐34βE12 can be used to evaluate basal layer.
Biologic Characteristics:
‐Loss of p53 function on 17p in 25% of advanced disease
‐Tumor suppressor gene DCC shows deletion in 45%
‐RAS and ERBB2 are uncommon in early‐stage prostate cancer
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Predictive Factors:
‐Use the Partin Tables or Roach’s Formulas:
‐EPE 3/2 x PSA + (GS‐3)x10
‐SVI PSA + (GS‐6)x10
‐LN 2/3 x PSA + (GS‐6)x10
Prognostic Factors:
‐Patient related: age at diagnosis, comorbidities, symptoms, performance status, race
‐Tumor related: stage, surgical margins (+ve doubles the risk of death), nodal involvement,
tumor grade (10y DSS 34% with grade 3, 87% with grade 1 or 2 [Chodak]), PSA (6y relapse rate
89% if >20, 51% if 10‐20, and 34% if <10 [Pisansky])
‐PSA doubling time: = log2 x dT/(logB‐logA)
‐A & B are the initial (A) and final (B) PSA measurements, and dT is the time difference
between the calendar dates of the two PSA measurements.
‐<12 mo is bad
‐4–6 mo is likely distant
‐12–14 mo is likely local
‐Note: Median of 2y to reach PSA nadir post‐EBRT, and even longer for post‐brachy.
‐Another prognostic factor is % of +ve biopsies
‐If >50% +ve Æ 11% 4y PSA control
‐If <34% +ve Æ 86% 4y PSA control
‐Old ASTRO definition of recurrence: 3 consecutive rises with failure backdated halfway
between nadir and first rise. PSA bounce can occur due to prostatitis, and other causes, etc.
‐New ASTRO definition of recurrence: A rise by ≥2 above the nadir PSA (defined as the lowest
PSA achieved), with the date of failure “at call” and not backdated.
Zagars Risk Stratification (938 pts, Cancer 1997)
6 groups: 6y risk of relapse:
I: T1,T2, GS6, PSA ≤4 6%
II: T1,T2, GS7, PSA ≤10 or T1,T2, GS8‐10, PSA ≤4 30%
III: T1,T2, GS7, PSA 10‐20 or T1,T2, GS8‐10, PSA 4‐10 40%
IV: T3,T4, any GS, PSA ≤10 46%
V: T3,T4, GS≤7, PSA 10‐20 57%
VI: PSA>20 or GS8‐10, PSA 10‐20 88%
‐Or use Kattan nomogram or use Canadian risk stratification as published in C J Urol
Patient Evaluation:
‐You can incorporate TRUS into staging. Sens 66% Spec 46% Accuracy 58%
‐CT: useful for LN (If PSA<20, 1% yield) Sens 25%
‐Do not order for low risk. Order for Intermediate & above
‐Bone Scan: only order for Intermediate & above. Otherwise yield is on the order of <1%
‐MRI
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‐Prostate biopsy Æ Minimum of 10‐12 cores required
‐Do not forget to repeat the PSA!
PSA: ‐Serine protease produced by acinar and ductal cells of prostatic origin
‐Liquifies secretions
‐PSA half‐life is 2.5 days.
‐Agitation of prostate may take several weeks to return to baseline
‐Upper limits of normal = 4 + 1x(number of decades above 50yo)
‐i.e. 3 if 40‐49yo, 4 if 50‐59yo, 5 if 60‐69yo, 6 if >70yo (DeAntoni, Anderson, Oesterling)
‐Sens 85% Spec 27% (using 4.0 from Dr. S. Tanguay’s data, Canadian Prostate Council)
‐Benign causes of PSA elevation:
‐Rectal examination
‐Acute prostatitis
‐Ejaculation
‐Urinary retention
‐Benign prostatic hyperplasia
‐Prostate biopsy
‐Cystoscopy
‐TURP
‐Endorectal ultrasound
‐Perineal trauma
‐Prostatic infarction
PAP: ‐Acid phosphatase, largely abandoned
Therapeutic Options
Low Risk:
‐Watchful Waiting: (aka Active Surveillance)
‐Not all men develop clinically significant prostate cancer.
‐Supported by data from Sweden/Johansen and Meta‐analysis from Chodak
‐3 studies to know:
‐Swedish study: 300 pts, ≤T2 and low grade tumors
‐10y DSS 87%
‐15y DSS 79%
‐Chodak study:
‐10y DSS Grade 1‐2 tumors 87% vs Grade 3 tumors 34%
‐Holmberg study (Sweden) 695 pts, randomized to RP vs watchful waiting
‐At 8.2y f/u, 25% benefit in local progression (19% vs 44%)
‐At 8.2y f/u, 5% benefit in all‐cause mortality (27% vs 32%)
‐This provides support for using radical treatment in pts with >10y life
expectancy (ie. younger men)
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‐Radiotherapy (RT):
‐2 ways to assess failure:
‐Clinically (palpable disease / symptomatic disease), or
‐PSA biochemical relapse.
‐In the Pre‐PSA era: multiple series show:
DFS OS Cause Spec Survival Local Tumor Control
5y 75‐85% 80‐90% 85‐90% 85‐95%
10y 50‐65% 50‐70% 80‐90% 65‐90%
‐Median life expectancy after appearance of metastatic disease is 2‐3y. The Johns
Hopkins series suggests this to be 5y.
‐Clinical assessment overestimates disease‐free status by 10‐20% at 5y and 20‐40% at
10y compared to PSA level.
‐In this group of pts, 50‐75% will remain clinically disease free after PSA relapse at 5y.
‐Meta‐analysis from Kuban/Pisansky with ASTRO consensus Data showed the following
results for pts with T1‐2 prostate cancer:
5y 8y
OS: 87% 72%
LRC: 93% 89%
CSS: 98% 93%
‐Dose Escalation: Not recommended in low risk pts
‐Radical Prostatectomy (RP): (retropubic/nerve‐sparing)
‐Biochemical control rates: Range of 60‐80% at 10y
‐CSS: 80‐90%
‐OS: 75‐90%
‐RCTs b/w RP and RT have not been completed
‐American College of Surgeons Oncology Group's SPIRIT trial, closed due to poor
accrual
‐Italian trial, results pending (Di Stasi)
‐Side effect profile: Bleeding, MI/DVT/PE 1%, incontinence ~30%, stricture 12%,
impotence 50%
‐Han/Partin have data on the results if you are so inclined
‐Brachytherapy:
‐As monotherapy: can be used in low risk but must supplement with EBRT if
intermediate risk
‐Largely used for low risk disease
‐IPSS Score is predictive of complications with urinary obstruction, discourage if >15.
‐Contraindications:
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‐Absolute:
‐Medically inoperable patients
‐Large defect left from a previous TURP
‐Life expectancy <5y
‐Distant metastases
‐Relative:
‐ Volume >60 cc
‐ Anatomy precluding a good implant (Pubic arch in the way)
‐ High IPSS score (Retentive symptoms)
‐Previous TURP
‐Medium or high risk disease (For brachy alone)
‐Invasion outside the prostate (For brachy alone or as a boost)
‐If prostate volume >60cc, consider using neoadjuvant HT to reduce size.
‐Must have Post‐CT dosimetry.
‐Outcomes are similar to EBRT.
‐LDR choices of Isotope:
‐I‐125: 60d half‐life, 7cGy/h, 28KeV, RBE 1.4, source activity .2‐.9 mCi.
‐Dose to give is 145Gy to isodose surface encompassing prostate.
‐Boost dose is 110Gy.
‐Pd‐103: 17d half‐life, 19cGy/h, 21KeV, RBE 1.9, source activity 1.1‐2.5 mCi.
‐Dose to give is 125Gy to isodose surface encompassing prostate.
‐Boost dose is 100Gy.
‐HDR: Iridium 192.
‐Used largely as CMT with 46Gy + 5.5Gy x3 (William Beaumont does this with T2b, GS7,
PSA>10). Biochemical control 67% (CMT) vs 44% (EBRT alone) for this trial.
‐At McGill, for intermediate risk, CMT is 50Gy + 10Gy x2
‐CMT may be better for patients with higher EPE risk. No definitive evidence for this
though.
‐Urinary retention rates on the order of 30%.
‐Dosimetric Parameters:
‐V100 = Volume of prostate receiving ≥100% of the dose (ideally >90%)
‐D90 = Minimum dose to 90% of prostate volume (ideally >140Gy)
‐According to Stock, is the best parameter to predict outcome
‐D90>140Gy had 4y PSA RFS 92% vs D90<140Gy with 4y PSA RFS of 68%.
‐V200 = Volume of prostate receiving ≥200% of the dose (limit to <20%)
‐Ur150 = Volume of urethra receiving 150% of Rx dose (limit to <40%)
‐R100 = Volume of rectum receiving 100% of recommended dose (limit to <1cc)
Intermediate Risk:
‐RT:
‐MD Anderson (Pollack): 78Gy vs 70Gy, PSA 6y DFS for PSA>10 pts was 62% vs 43%
‐RTOG 0112 will give answers with regards to 79.2 vs 70.2Gy
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‐Zelefsky showed for PSA 10‐20 patients, 8y PSA DFS of 19% if <71.5Gy, 31% if 71.5‐
75.5Gy and 84% with >75.5Gy.
‐Zietman showed for early stage, PSA <15 pts, 50.4Gy by photons + boost with protons
to 79.2Gy vs 70.2Gy had 5y BRFS ~80% vs 60%
‐At this time it is reasonable to treat with 78Gy in these pts.
‐The role of neoadjuvant/concomitant/adjuvant HT in the intermediate risk pt with dose
escalation is unclear!
‐However should you decide to treat these patients with 72Gy, add 6 mo of N&CHT for
the following reason:
‐D’Amico trial, 206 pts, PSA ≥10, Gleason score ≥7, or extraprostatic extension:
‐No HT vs 6 mo HT (N&CHT Æ AHT)
‐5yOS 78% Æ 88% (10% absolute OS benefit!)
‐Critiques: Low OS in RT only arm, only 70Gy RT used
‐Regarding duration of HT:
‐Laverdiere trials, 286 pts, T2‐3N0, consisted of 2 studies:
‐#1: EBRT alone (0mo HT) vs NHT (3mo) vs N&CHT ÆAHT (10mo total)
‐Adding HT improved 7y bPFS 69% vs 42%, but no difference
between HT arms
‐#2: N&CHT (5mo total) vs N&CHT Æ AHT (10mo total)
‐No difference between arms (4y bPFS of 65%)
‐Crook trial, 378 pts, T1c‐4N0:
‐3mo vs 8mo NHT before EBRT
‐No difference between arms
‐Trend for ↑ 5y DFS for high‐risk pts with 8mo HT (39 Æ 52%)
‐Denham trial (TROG 9601), 818 pts, T2b‐T4N0:
‐No HT (0mo) vs NHT (3mo) vs NHT (6mo)
‐Adding HT (3 or 6 mo) improved LF, bPFS, & DFS
‐Complication rates:
‐70Gy or less has 5‐10% complication rate.
‐With 78Gy, Gr2/3 complications increase to 26%, however if we limit dose to
rectum V70 <25% or V60 <40%, the complication rates drop to <15%.
‐DVH for bladders have been inconsistent. Expect 11% complication rate.
‐50% sexual dysfunction rate.
High Risk:
‐Standard Treatment: (non‐gross node positive)
‐Pelvic LN RT (All pts will satisfy Roach’s formula: 2/3 PSA +10(GS‐6) >15%)
‐3y of N&CHT + AHT
‐There are 5 trials supporting this approach:
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‐RTOG 8610 (Pilepich), 456 pts, 4mo N&CHT with EBRT vs EBRT alone (45+25Gy)
‐8y CSS 77% vs 69%
‐OS not significantly improved except on subset of low grade tumors, GS 2‐6.
‐Unusual results (Why would HT be more effective in low risk?)
‐RTOG 8531 (Lawton), 945 pts, indefinite adjuvant HT following EBRT vs EBRT alone (45+25Gy)
‐T3, N+, post‐RP, path T3
‐5yOS 76 vs 71% 10yOS 53% vs 38%
‐5y LRC 85% vs 70% 10y LRC 77% vs 61%
‐5y bNED 55% vs 29% 10y bNED 30% vs 9%
‐Magnitude of the benefit at 10y is on the order of 15‐20% depending on which variable
you look at. OS benefit primarily in GS 7‐10 subset.
‐EORTC (Bolla), 367 pts, conHT with RT + 3y of AHT vs EBRT alone (50+20Gy)
‐T1‐T2 high grade or T3‐T4
‐5.5y f/u
‐OS: 78% vs 62% (16% absolute OS benefit!)
‐CSS: 94% vs 79%
‐RTOG 9202 (Hanks), 1554 pts, N&CHT (4mo total) with RT +/‐ AHT x 2y (46+24Gy)
‐5.8y f/u, T2c‐T4, PSA <150
‐5y DFS 46% vs 28%
‐5yOS not different but all other endpoints showed benefit
‐Subset analysis showed GS8‐10 having OS benefit 81% vs 70.7%
‐RTOG 9413 (Roach), pelvic LN RT vs none, complicated 4 arm trial
‐I: WPRT + 4mo N&CHT
‐II: Prostate only RT + 4mo N&CHT
‐III: WPRT + 4mo AHT
‐IV: Prostate only RT + 4mo AHT
‐Eligible if PSA <100, estimated Roach Formula 2/3 PSA + (GS‐6)x10 >15%
‐Median f/u 5y
‐No survival differences
‐Greatest benefit for Whole Pelvis RT + N&CHT
‐4y PFS 60% in this arm, compared to 44, 49 & 50% in other 3 arms
Node +ve Disease:
‐Some of these pts were included in RTOG 8531 (improved OS with immediate AHT)
‐Treatment outcomes are dismal. It is believed that most already have metastasis.
‐If treating aggressively, treat in combination with HT neoadj+concurrent+adjuvant.
‐PA irradiation is not justified. Attempts to randomize patients on RTOG 9608 failed to accrue.
‐Expected outcomes:
‐5y metastatic rate 30%
‐10y DFS 14%, OS 50%
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‐Important Studies:
‐Messing trial, 98 pts, post‐RP, node +ve:
‐Immediate HT vs Observation
‐7y DFS 77% vs 18%
‐Zagars retrospective study, 255 pts, node +ve:
‐Early HT alone vs HT+ 70Gy EBRT to the prostate
‐↑ 10y OS (46 Æ 67%)
‐↑ 10y bPFS (25 Æ 80%)
Adjuvant RT:
‐Adjuvant RT Æ PSA must reach 0 after surgery otherwise we should call this salvage RT
‐For high risk post‐prostatectomy (+margin, pT3a or pT3b disease)
‐Observation is reasonable but so is treatment.
‐Treat with EBRT 60Gy/30#.
‐EORTC 22911 (Bolla) 1005 pts with high risk features post‐RP (+ve margins, T3a or T3b)
‐Randomized to post‐op RT 60Gy vs observation
‐5y bPFS 72.2% vs 51.8%. No diff in OS (92‐93%) or distant mets at 5y.
‐SWOG 8794 (Thompson) 473 pts with high risk features post‐RP (+ve margins, T3a or T3b)
‐Randomized to post‐op RT 60‐64Gy vs observation
‐10y bPFS 47% vs 23%. Trend for OS only (74% vs 63%)
Salvage RT (For Biochemical Relapse):
‐Do not treat before PSA ≥0.5ng/mL (Consensus recommendations)
‐ASTRO recommends to start treatment before PSA >1.5ng/mL.
‐Natural history of this was defined by Johns Hopkins Surgical Series (Pound/Partin)
‐1997 pts, post‐RP, 315 (15%) developed PSA recurrence.
‐Median time to metastasis was 8y from time of PSA elevation.
‐Hormonal therapy not initiated until mets.
‐Median actuarial time to death after metastasis was 5y.
‐Predictive factors for development of metastasis: PSA recurrence ≤2y, DT ≤10mo, GS 8‐10.
‐If all 3 present % probability of remaining mets free = 35%, if none present = 86%
‐If you decide to treat!
‐Use RT 66Gy/33# to the prostatic bed.
‐Expect a biochem response of 75%, 90% will survive 5y with 45% biochemical control.
‐Best case scenario >10mo PSA DT, PSA <2, involved surgical margins have possibly 80%
biochemical control. (Data from: Perez/Pisansky/Stephenson/Zelefsky)
Post‐RT Prostatectomy:
‐Option if palpable tumor.
‐If accomplishable, may have 5y LC of 92% and 5y bRFS of 65% as per observational series
(Lerner).
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Post‐RT Cryosurgery is also an option.
Metastatic Disease:
‐Traditional HT:
‐The true value of traditional HT for men with PSA‐only progression following local
therapy is unknown because no randomized trials have been conducted in this group.
‐In asymptomatic men, it is unclear what, if any, constitutes the appropriate serum PSA
level at which therapy should be instituted.
‐Early vs Delayed Therapy:
‐Optimal timing of HT for men with advanced prostate cancer is controversial
‐Some advocate initiating treatment early in the course of a PSA recurrence in the hope
of delaying disease progression and possibly prolonging survival
‐Others have argued that there is no evidence for a significant survival benefit with any
form of androgen deprivation, and that treatment is best deferred until clinical
metastases or symptoms develop
‐Androgen deprivation is not curative, and it is associated with side effects that can alter
quality of life (QOL).
‐Randomized Trials:
‐At least three RCTs provide a rationale to initiate early rather than delayed HT in men
with metastatic prostate ca, although none of the study populations consisted of men
with a rising serum PSA after local therapy. Whether these studies can be extrapolated
to justify a benefit for early HT in men with PSA‐only recurrence is unknown.
‐MRC trial 1997, 938 pts w locally advanced or asymptomatic metastatic prostate ca
‐Randomly assigned to either immediate treatment (orchiectomy or an LHRH
agonist) vs deferral until either local or systemic disease progression
‐Results: men undergoing early treatment had fewer pathologic fractures, spinal
cord compression, ureteral obstruction, and extraskeletal metastases.
‐Prostate cancer‐specific survival was significantly better for men with
nonmetastatic (M0) disease (32 vs 49%), but not overt metastatic disease (65 vs
69%).
‐Flaws in this trial: 54 excess cancer deaths in the deferred group, 29 (54%)
never received any endocrine therapy, potentially biasing the results in favor of
early therapy. Furthermore, patients with M0 disease undoubtedly had more
advanced disease than the average contemporary patient with a PSA‐only
recurrence
‐Meta‐analysis (Nair) Cochrane database review of 2167 pts who were assigned to
early versus deferred therapy:
‐Significantly higher bPFS at 1y (OR 4) and 5y (OR 3.15)
‐A small but significant improvement in 10yOS (OR 1.5)
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‐An expert panel convened by ASCO to recommend guidelines for initial hormone
therapy did not provide a specific recommendation for or against early ADT
‐Some favor early HT, especially in younger men with high‐grade disease (eg, GS 7), a
PSA doubling time of <10 to 12 mo, and clear evidence of extraprostatic extension.
‐When do we start at McGill? At PSA 10‐15 ng/mL.
‐Intermittent Androgen‐Deprivation:
‐Role of IAD in the treatment of men with a rising PSA after local therapy is unclear
‐Long‐term outcomes (including the potential for harm) are incompletely characterized,
thus this practice remains investigational
‐Induction treatment until maximal response (usually defined by serum PSA criteria)
‐Temporary withdrawal of therapy
‐Reinitiation based upon predefined threshold levels of serum PSA, which vary from 4 to
20 ng/mL, or upon serum testosterone levels rising out of the castrate range (typically
>50 ng/mL)
‐Men receiving IAD can be expected to spend ~35 ‐ 50% of their time off‐therapy
‐Time off treatment in the first cycle ranges from 6 to 15 mo, and may be longer for men
with less advanced disease such as PSA‐only progression compared to those with overt
metastatic disease.
‐The off‐treatment period is generally associated with an improvement in the sense of
well‐being and recovery of libido and potency in men who report normal or near‐normal
sexual function before the start of therapy
‐At McGill, we can use intermittent HT (8 mo on, reinitiate after PSA >10), 5yOS 92%.
(Published by Cury 2006).
‐Biological Basis for HT in Metastatic Prostate Cancer
‐Prostate cancer is hormone‐dependent
‐Testes account for 90 ‐ 95 % of total circulating testosterone while remaining produced
by the adrenal gland
‐In prostate cancer, testosterone converted into dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the
enzyme 5‐alpha‐reductase.
‐DHT is the primary androgen Æ stimulates benign and malignant cells
‐DHT binds to a high‐affinity androgen receptor (AR)
‐Methods of Androgen Deprivation Therapy (ADT):
‐Bilateral orchiectomy
‐LHRH agonists, which reduce LH production with continuous therapy
‐Leuprolide (Lupron), goserelin (Zoladex)
‐Pulsatile GnRH ÆLH from anterior pituitary Æ testosterone from Leydig cells
‐Bind GnRH receptors constantly and thus reduce LH and testosterone levels
‐Side effects of GnRH analogues:
‐Anemia
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‐Atrophy of reproductive organs
‐Diminished muscle mass
‐Loss of libido
‐Cognitive dysfunction
‐Osteoporosis
‐Vasomotor instability
‐Antiandrogen therapy, which competitively inhibits androgen uptake by binding
androgen receptors in the target organs (ie, prostate and metastatic sites)
‐Nonsteroidal antiandrogens: Flutamide (Drogenil), Bicalutamide (Casodex)
‐Competitive antagonist of testosterone and DHT on AR in prostate cells
‐Induces apoptosis of hormone sensitive prostate cells
‐Side effects:
‐GI disturbances (diarrhea)
‐Gynecomastia
‐Vasomotor instability
‐Also estrogen therapy reduces LH production by its inhibitory effect on the HPA axis
‐Also LHRH antagonists
‐Efficacy of all the methods of ADT are approximately similar
‐Systemic review of 24 randomized trials, over 6600 pts (Ann Intern Med)
‐Recommendation for Initial HT:
‐LHRH agonist or orchiectomy is the standard of care
‐Antiandrogen alone should not be routinely used:
‐Increased mortality but improved potency
‐Outcome: 2 years to progression
3 years to death
‐Treatment of Progressing PSA Despite HT:
‐LHRH agonist can be either continued or removed
‐Rationale for continuing or restarting it when testosterone levels increase
‐Subpopulation is still sensitive to testosterone
‐Antiandrogen can be added
‐Antiandrogen can be removed if CAB was instituted
‐Mutations in AR might cause paradoxical stimulation by antiandrogens
‐Different drugs can be used
‐Ketoconazole
‐Prednisone
‐Chemo
‐Chemo in Hormone‐Refractory Metastatic Prostate Cancer:
‐Response to chemo is assessed by:
‐Objective response, if soft tissue lesions are visible
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‐Survival
‐PSA decrease by at least 50%, confirmed by a second PSA
‐Mitoxantrone + steroids better than steroids alone
‐As per several randomized controlled trials
‐OS of 12 mo, but symptomatic control is better
‐Docetaxel + prednisone better than mitoxantrone + steroids
‐Docetaxel q3 wks
‐OS increased to 18 mo
‐Chemo for prostate ca with low PSA:
‐2 types of cancer:
‐Neuroendocrine features (small cell)
‐Poorly differentiated prostate adenocarcinoma
‐Response of 50% to small cell type chemo (Cisp‐Etop)
RT Planning:
‐Intent:
‐Low risk: Curative RT alone
‐Intermediate risk: Curative RT with N&CHT (6mo total)
‐High risk: Curative RT with N&CHT + AHT (3y total)
‐Curative post‐operative treatment: Adjuvant RT
‐Relapse post‐RP: Salvage RT
‐Simulation:
‐Position: Supine with knee support and box between the knees
‐An inflated mold device can be used if no U/S guidance is used
‐Urethrogram with radio‐opaque die
‐Very helpful in the post‐op setting
‐CT scan with 5 mm cuts and IV contrast, GI contrast
‐Prostate larger posteriorly and inferiorly on CT compared to TRUS or MRI
‐Fiducial markers and laser placement
‐Ultrasound for localization of the prostate
‐Full bladder and empty rectum
‐Volumes:
‐GTV: Any gross tumor seen on CT or exam
‐CTV1: Low risk = Prostate
Intermediate risk = Prostate + first 1cm of SV in radial and superior plane
High risk = External and internal iliac nodes + prostate + SV
‐CTV2: Intermediate risk: Prostate
High risk: Prostate + first 1cm of SV
‐PTV: CTV + 7mm with BAT, CTV + 10‐15mm without BAT
CTV + 7mm for iliac lymph nodes
* Lower border of the prostate is 1‐1.5 cm above the retrograde urethrogram beak *
* Note: Patients who have had a negative LN dissection do not need pelvic RT *
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PATONE’S RAD‐ONC REVIEW NOTES 2008
‐Field Borders: ‐L5‐S1 superiorly
‐2 cm below the prostate (0.5‐1 cm below the urethrogram beak)
‐2 cm lateral to pelvic brim, laterally
‐Anterior to the pubic symphysis anteriorly
‐S2‐S3 posteriorly
‐Dose Prescription and Beams:
‐Low risk:
‐72Gy/36# to ICRU reference point
‐5 fields of 18MV (AP, RT + LT LAT, RPO, LPO)
‐Intermediate risk:
‐76Gy/38# to ICRU reference point in 2 plans
‐Plan 1: 44Gy/22# (prostate + 1cm SV)
‐Plan 2: 32Gy/16# (prostate alone)
‐5 fields of 18MV (AP, RT + LT LAT, RPO, LPO)
‐High risk:
‐76Gy/38# to ICRU reference point in 2 plans
‐Plan 1: 44Gy/22# (pelvic LNs)
‐4 field box of 18MV
‐Plan 2: 32Gy/16# (prostate + 1cm SV)
‐5 fields of 18MV (AP, RT + LT LAT, RPO, LPO)
‐Post‐op RT:
‐CTV: Any remaining prostate or seminal vesicles + tumor bed
‐Tumor bed: ‐1.5 cm below the urethrogram beak
‐Top of pubic symphysis (5.5cm above urethrogram beak)
‐Include all the bladder neck anteriorly (3cm posterior to ant tip
of pubic symphysis
‐Rectal wall posteriorly
‐PTV: CTV + 1‐1.5 cm
Dose: 60Gy/30# (adjuvant RT)
Dose: 66Gy/33# (salvage RT)
‐5 field treatment with 18MV energy
‐OAR:
‐Rectum: V70 <25%, V60 <40%
‐Small bowel: <40Gy
‐Femoral heads: <52Gy
‐Bladder: <65Gy
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PATONE’S RAD‐ONC REVIEW NOTES 2008
Sample RT Planning Images:
Prostate Volumes (Post‐RP):
Prostate Brachy (Post‐Implant): Prostate EBRT (AP view):
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PATONE’S RAD‐ONC REVIEW NOTES 2008
Summary: Prostate Cancer
Stage Treatment
Low Risk Life Expectancy <10y:
5y bPFS = 90% 1. Watchful Waiting
10y bPFS = 80% 2. EBRT (72Gy)
5yOS = >95% 3. Brachy (145Gy)
Life Expectancy >10y:
1. Watchful Waiting (usually discouraged in men <65yo)
2. EBRT (72Gy)
3. Brachy (145Gy)
4. Radical Prostatectomy + LND Æ if margins+, T3a, or T3b Æ Post‐op Adjuvant
RT (60Gy) vs Watchful Waiting
Intermediate Life Expectancy <10y:
Risk 1. Watchful Waiting (not recommended Æ HT alone?)
5y bPFS = 65% 1. EBRT (76Gy) + N&CHT (6mo total)
10y bPFS = 50% 2. EBRT (50Gy) + Brachy boost (110Gy)
5yOS = 80‐90% Life Expectancy >10y:
2. EBRT (76Gy) + N&CHT (6mo total)
3. EBRT (50Gy) + Brachy boost (110Gy)
4. Radical Prostatectomy + LND Æ if margins+, T3a, or T3b Æ Post‐op Adjuvant
RT (60Gy) vs Watchful Waiting
High Risk 1. EBRT (76Gy) + N&CHT + AHT (3y total)
5y bPFS = 40% 2. Radical Prostatectomy + LND (only if small volume, not fixed, no ECE)
10y bPFS = 35% Æ if margins+, T3a, or T3b Æ Post‐op adjuvant RT (60Gy) vs WW
5yOS = 60‐80%
Node +ve 1. EBRT (76Gy) + HT (3y total)
2. HT alone
Metastatic 1. HT
2. Palliative RT
3. Bisphosphonates
4. For Hormone‐Refractory:
Î Docetaxel + Pred
PSA‐recurrence 1. Watchful Waiting
post‐RP 2. Salvage EBRT (66Gy) to prostate bed
3. HT (early vs delayed vs intermittent)
PSA‐recurrence 1. Watchful Waiting
post‐EBRT 2. HT (early vs delayed vs intermittent)
3. Salvage RP
4. Cryotherapy
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