Lecturer Notes on Digital Logic Department of Computer Engineering & BCA

UNIT 1

NUMBER SYSTEM

1.1 Introduction to Number System:

In every step of life, we definitely find the use of numbers. If you need to buy something,
you will have to pay a certain amount of money for which you will have to count the money.
Likewise, the shopkeeper will also count the goods to give you and same for your changes.
Therefore, number system can simply be defined as a way to represent numbers.

For example, a number system can be used to represent the number of players in a certain game
like 11 players in a football team or for the number of audience for a concert like 25000 concert-
goers, etc. So number system can also be viewed as a set of values that is used to represent different
quantities.

➢ TYPESOF NUMBER SYSTEM:

1) Decimal Number System:

The decimal number system is the most commonly used number system in our daily life. This
generally used number system is also known as the base 10 number system because it uses just the
10 symbols i.e. 0 to 9. It is also known as the denary number system because any numeric value
there is, these system’s digits can easily represent them. The decimal system is specially used in
the computer interface. The weight and position of the digit dictate the value represented by it.

In this system, each number consists of the digits that are located at different positions. The
positions of the 1st and the 2nd digits towards the right side of the decimal point are -1 and -2.
Similarly, the positions of the 1st and 2nd digits towards the left side of the decimal point are 0 and
1 respectively.

The value of the number is determined by adding the results out of the multiplication of the digits
with the weight of their position. This method is called the expansion method. Under this method,
the rightmost digit of the number is called the Least Significant Digit (LSD), as it has the lowest
weight. Likewise, the leftmost digit of the number is called the Most Significant Digit (MSD), as
it has the highest weight.

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2) Binary Number System:

Binary Number System refers to the number system that uses only two symbols i.e. 0 and 1, that's
0why it is called a base 2 number system. It is also known as Binary Digit (BIT). This number
system is especially used in the internal processing of computer system. When we count up from
0 in binary, symbols are much more frequently run out as this system only uses 0 and 1 and 2 do
not exist. Therefore, we use 10 in this system because 10 is equal to 2 in decimal. The combination
of binary numbers can be used to represent different quantities like 1001. In Binary, each digit’s
positional value is twice the face value or place value of the digit of its right side. Each position’s
weight is a power of 2.

3) Octal Number System:

Octal Number System is the base 8 system. Like the decimal number system, this system is also
used in the internal processing of computer system. It is the system that consists of eight digits i.e.
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7} which is used for the representation of long binary numbers short-
handedly. In this system, each digit position represents a power of 8. The number 708 will not be
valid in this system as 8 is not a valid digit.

4) Hexadecimal Number System:

Hexadecimal Number System is the number system that represents long binary numbers in shortcut
method. It is a base 16 system as it consists of 16 digits i.e. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D,
E, F } where the alphabets represent the decimal numbers 10 to 15. This system is also used in the
computer system, mainly in the memory management. As the name suggests, each digit's position
represents a power of 16 in this system.

❖ Conversion of the Number System:

➢ CONVERSION OF BINARY

It consists of:

• conversion from binary to decimal number system

• conversion from binary to octal number system
• conversion from binary to hexadecimal number system

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Conversion of binary to decimal (base 2 to base 10):

The rules for conversion from binary to decimal are given below:

1. Multiply each bit by corresponding power of 2 (base).

2. Sum each product term to get a decimal equivalent number.

Note: A power of 2 is 0 for a left bit of binary point (or for a right most bit for the number that
does not contain fractional part) and increase the power by one for each bit towards left and
decrease power by one towards the right of binary point.

Example 1: convert (110011)2 to decimal.

Solution:

(110011)2 = 1×25 + 1×24 + 0×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 1×20

= 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 +1

= (51)10

Example 2: convert (1011.101)2 into decimal.

(1011.101)2 = 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 1×20 + 1×2-1 + 0×2-2 + 1×2-3

= 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 +0.5+ 0 +0.125

= 11 + 0.5 + 0.125

= (11.625)10

Conversion of binary to octal (base 2 to base 8):

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The rules for conversion from binary to decimal are given below:

1. Divide the given binary number into a group of three bits from binary point to left (or from
right to left if no fractional part) and from binary point to the right. Append 0’s at leading
or trailing or trailing position if necessary to make each group of 3 bits.
2. Substitute each group of three bits by octal equivalent from a table.
3. Collect octal digits to get an octal equivalent number.

Example: convert (10110101)2 into octal.

Solution:

Dividing the given binary number (10110101)2 into groups of 3 bits from right to left, and
appending 0’s at leading position, we have,

Conversion of binary to hexadecimal (base 2 to base 16):

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The rules for conversion from binary to hexadecimal are as given below:

1. Divide the given binary number into a group of four bits from binary point to left (or from
right to left if no fractional part) and from binary point to the right. Append 0’s at leading
or trailing position if necessary to make each group of 4 bits.
2. Substitute each group of four bits by hexadecimal equivalent symbol (letter or digit) from
the table.
3. Collect Hexadecimal symbols to get Hexadecimal equivalent number

Example: convert (10101011101)2 into hexadecimal

Solution:

Dividing the given binary number (10101011101)2 into groups of 4 bits from binary point to left
and binary point right and appending 0’s at leading or at trailing position to make each group of
four bits, we have,

➢ Conversion of Decimal

It consists of conversion from decimal to binary, octal and hexadecimal number system which are
described below:

• Conversion of decimal to binary (base 10 to base 2):

The rules for conversion from decimal to binary are as given below:

1. Divide the given number by 2 and note the remainder.

2. Repeatedly divide the quotient by two and note the remainder until quotient reduced to 0.
3. Collect the remainders, last obtained first and first obtained last to binary equivalent.

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Example: convert (51)10 into binary

Solution:

51÷2=25 remainder =1

25÷ 2=12 remainder =1

12÷ 2=6 remainder =0

6÷ 2=3 remainder =0

3÷ 2=1 remainder =1

1÷ 2=0 remainder =1

Therefore, (51)10 = (110011)2

• Conversion of decimal to octal (base 10 to base 8):

The rules for conversion from decimal to binary are as given below:

1. Divide the given number by 8 and note the remainder.

2. Repeatedly divide the quotient by 8 and note the remainder until quotient reduced to 0.
3. Collect the remainders, last obtained first and first obtained last to get the octal equivalent.

Example: convert (177)10 into octal

Solution:

177÷ 8 =22 remainder =1

22÷ 8 = 2 remainder =6

2÷ 8 = 0 remainder =2

Therefore, (177)10 = (261)8

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• Conversion of decimal to hexadecimal (base 10 to base 16):

Example: convert (77)10 into hexadecimal

Solution:

77÷ 16=4 remainder = 13 which means D

4÷ 16 =0 remainder =4

Therefore, (77)10 = (4D)16

➢ Conversion of octal:

It consists of conversion from octal to decimal, binary and hexadecimal number system which are
described below:

• Conversion of octal to decimal (base 8 to base 10):

Multiply the each octal digit by corresponding power of 8 and sum each product term to get
decimal equivalent.

Example: convert (632)8 to decimal.

Solution:

(632)8 = 6×82 + 3×81 + 2×80

= 384 + 24 + 2

= 410

Therefore, (632)8 = (410)10

• Conversion from octal to binary (base 8 to base 2):

Substitute each octal digit by equivalent 3 bit binary from table and collect bits for each digit to
get binary equivalent numbers.

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Example: convert (741)8 into binary.

• Conversion from octal to hexadecimal (base 8 to base 16):

Actually, there is no direct method for converting from octal to hexadecimal so first, convert octal
into binary or decimal and then convert binary or decimal to hexadecimal.

➢ Conversion of hexadecimal

It consists of conversion from hexadecimal to decimal, binary and octal number system which are
described below:

• Conversion of hexadecimal to decimal (base 16 to base 10):

The rules for conversion from hexadecimal to decimal are as given below:

1. Multiply each digit by corresponding power of 16(base) as in decimal to binary.

2. Sum each product term to get decimal equivalent.

Example: convert (F4C) 16 into decimal.

Solution:

(F4C) 16 = F×162 + 4×161 + C×160

= 15×256 + 4×16 + 12×1

= 3840 + 64 + 12

= 3916

Therefore, (F4C)16 = (3916)10

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• Conversion of hexadecimal to binary (base 16 to base 2):

Substitute each hexadecimal symbol by equivalent 4 bit binary from table and collect bits for each
digit to get binary equivalent numbers.

• Conversion of hexadecimal to octal (base 16 to base 8):

There is no direct method for converting from hexadecimal to

octal, so first convert hexadecimal into binary or decimal and then convert binary or decimal to
octal.

3.2 (9’s and 10’s) Complement Decimal Subtraction:

The 9`s complement of decimal number can be obtained by subtracting each

digit of the number from 9.

For example, the 9`s complement of 3 is 6 (9-3=6), and 234 is 765 (999-234 =765).

The 10`s complement of decimal number can be obtained by adding 1 to the least significant digit
of 9`s complement of that number. For example, 10`s complement of 3 is 7 (9-3=6+1=7), and 123
is 877.

Subtraction of decimal number using 9`s complement

Here are the steps are given below:

1. Make the both numbers having the same number of digits.

2. Determine the 9`s complement of the number from which we subtracted (subtrahend).
3. Add the 9`s complement to the given number from which we subtract (minuend).
4. If there exists` any additional digit (carry) in the result after addition, remove it and add it
to the complement of the result and prefix by a negative sign to get the final result.

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E.g. Subtract (123)10 from (345)10

9`s complement of 123= (999 -123) =876

Adding the 9`s complement with 345, i.e. 345 + 876 = 1221

In the result, most significant digit 1 is the carryover. So add this carry over to remaining digits
221

i.e., 221 + 1 = 222

Hence, (222)10 is the required result after subtracting (123)10 from (345)10.

Subtraction using 10`s complement:

Here are the steps are given below:

1. Make the both numbers having same numbers of digits.

2. Determine the 10`s complement of the number to be subtracted (subtrahend).
3. Add the 10`s complement to the given number from which we subtract (minuend).
4. If there exits’ any additional digit (carry) in the result after addition, remove it from the
result and the remaining digits form the final result.
5. If there exists` no any carry then determine the 10`s complement of the result and prefix
by the negative sign to get the final result.

Example: Subtract (123)10 from (345)10

10`s Complement of 123 = (999 - 123) = 876 + 1 = 877

Adding the 10`s complement with 345, i.e. 345 + 877 = 1222

In this result, most significant digit 1 is the carry over. So remove it to find the result.

Therefore, (222)10 is the required result.

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Binary Mathematics

1. Binary Addition

Rule for binary Example: Binary

addition0+0=01+0=10+1=11+1=10 addition101101+101111000100
(0 with carry over 1) sum

2. Binary Subtraction

Rule for binary subtraction 1- Example: Binary

1=01-0=10-1=1 (with addition101101 minuend-10111
borrowing 1)0-0=0 subtrahend10110 difference

3. Binary Multiplication

Example: Binary
multiplication1011
Rule for binary
multiplicand *1011
multiplication1*1=11*0=00*1=00*0=0
multiplier10111011*0000**
+1011***1111001 product

4. Binary Division

Example: Binary DivisionDivide

Rule for binary
101011 by 110110) 101011 (111
division1/1=11/0=not
quotient -1101001 -110111 -
defined0/1=00/0=not defined
1101 remainder

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Some Basic Terms Related with Number System

• MSB (Most Significant Bit)

The left most bit of a number is called MSB.

Example:

1010 = MBS

• LSB (Leas Significant Bit)

The right most bit of a number is called LSB.

Example:

1010 = LSB

BIT: Single binary number either 0 or 1

Nibble: Combination of 4 binary bits e.g. 1001

Byte: Combination of 8 binary bits e.g. 1001 0111

3.3 Calculation in Binary – Addition, Subtraction, One’s and Two’s

complement Methods of Binary Subtraction:
COMPLEMENT

In a computer system, subtraction is not performed directly as arithmetic subtraction. It is

performed by the technique called complement. It is the process of repeated addition.

• There are two types of complement: r`s complement and (r-1)`s complement.

Where 'r' is the base of a number system.

In binary number system, there are two types of complement: 1`s complement and 2`s
complement.

Similarly, decimal number system has 9`s and 10`s complement.

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• 1`s Complement

1`s complement of a binary number is obtained by subtracting each bit by 1. We can get 1`s
complement by simply replacing 1 by 0 and 0 by 1.

Example: 1`s complement of 1011 = 0100

Subtraction of binary numbers using 1`s complement

Steps are here as below:

1. Make the both numbers having the same number of bits.

2. Determine the 1`s complement of the number to be subtracted (subtrahend).
3. Add the 1`s complement to the given number from which we subtract (minuend).
4. If there exists` any additional bit (carry) in the result after addition, remove and add it to
the result else (i.e. if there exists` no any carry)
5. Determine the 1`s complement of the result and prefix by a negative sign to get the final
result. Example: Subtract 1110000 from 1100000

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• 2`s complement:

The 2`s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding binary 1 to the 1`s

Complement to the number.

Subtraction using 2`s complement:

Steps are here as below:

1. Make the both numbers having the same number of bits.

2. Determine the 2`s complement of the number to be subtracted (subtrahend).
3. Add the 2`s complement to the given number from which we subtract (minuend).
4. If there exists no carry determine the 2`s complement of the result and prefix by a negative
sign to get a final result.

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Example: Subtract 1110000 from 1100000

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❖ Binary Coded Decimal (BCD):

The binary number system is the most natural system for a computer, but people are accustomed
to the decimal system. So, to resolve this difference, computer uses decimals in coded form
which the hardware understands. A binary code that distinguishes among 10 elements of decimal
digits must contain at least four bits. Numerous different binary codes can be obtained by
arranging four bits into 10 distinct combinations. The code most commonly used for the decimal
digits is the straightforward binary assignment listed in the table below. This is called binary-
coded decimal and is commonly referred to as BCD.

Example: A number with n decimal digits will require 4n bits in BCD. E.g. decimal 396 is
represented in BCD with 12 bits as 0011 1001 011

❖ Error-Detection codes:
Binary information can be transmitted from one location to another by electric wires or other
communication medium. Any external noise introduced into the physical communication
medium may change some of the bits from 0 to 1 or vice versa.

The purpose of an error-detection code is to detect such bit-reversal errors. One of the most
common ways to achieve error detection is by means of a parity bit. A parity bit is the extra bit
included to make the total number of 1's in the resulting code word either even or odd. A
message of 4-bits and a parity bit P are shown in the table below:

Error Checking Mechanism:

➢ During the transmission of information from one location to another, an even parity
bit is generated in the sending end for each message transmission.

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➢ The message, together with the parity bit, is transmitted to its destination. The parity
of the received data is checked in the receiving end. If the parity of the received
information is not even, it means that at least one bit has changed value during the
transmission.
➢ This method detects one, three, or any odd combination of errors in each message
that is transmitted. An even combination of errors is undetected. Additional error
detection schemes may be needed to take care of an even combination of errors.

❖ Gray code (Reflected code):

It is a binary coding scheme used to represent digits generated from a mechanical sensor that
may be prone to error. Used in telegraphy in the late 1800s, and also known as "reflected binary
code”. Gray code was patented by Bell Labs researcher Frank Gray in 1947. In Gray code, there
is only one-bit location different between two successive values, which makes mechanical
transitions from one digit to the next less error prone. The following chart shows normal binary
representations from 0 to 15 and the corresponding Gray code.

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Decimal digit Binary code Gray code

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000

The Gray code is used in applications where the normal sequence of binary numbers may
produce an error or ambiguity during the transition from one number to the next. If binary
numbers are used, a change from 0111 to 1000 may produce an intermediate erroneous number
1001 if the rightmost bit takes more time to change than the other three bits. The Gray code
eliminates this problem since only one-bit changes in value during any transition between two
numbers.

❖ Alphanumeric codes:
Alphanumeric character set is a set of elements that includes the 10 decimal digits, 26 letters of
the alphabet and special characters such as $, %, + etc. It is necessary to formulate a binary code
for this set to handle different data types. If only capital letters are included, we need a binary
code of at least six bits, and if both uppercase letters and lowercase letters are included, we need
a binary code of at least seven bits.

➢ ASCII character code

The standard binary code for the alphanumeric characters is called ASCII (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange). It uses seven bits to code 128 characters as shown in the
table below. The seven bits of the code are designated by B1 through B7 with B7 being the most
significant bit.

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NOTE :
Decimal digits
in ASCII can be
converted to
BCD by
removing the
three higher
order bits,
011.

Various control character symbolic notation stands for:

Example: ASCII for each symbol is (B7B6B5B4B3B2B1)

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➢ EBCDIC character code:

EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is another alphanumeric code
used in IBM equipment. It uses eight bits for each character. EBCDIC has the same character
symbols as ASCII, but the bit assignment for characters is different. As the name implies, the
binary code for the letters and numerals is an extension of the binary-coded decimal (BCD) code.
This means that the last four bits of the code range from 0000 through 1001 as in BCD.

❖ Excess-3 Code:

The excess 3 code is defined as the binary code formed after adding the 3 i.e. 0011 to the decimal
number converted to the BCD number.
Excess-3, also called XS3, is a non-weighted code used to express decimal number-s. It is another
important binary code. It is particularly significant for arithmetic operations as it overcomes the
shortcomings encountered while using the 8421 BCD code to add two decimal digits whose sum
exceeds 9. This code is used in some old computers.
The Excess-3 code for a given decimal number is determined by adding '3' to each decimal digit
in the given number and then replacing each digit of the newly found decimal number by its four-
bit binary equivalent. The table gives is the Excess-3 code.
The key feature of the Excess-3 code is. that it is self-complementing. In other words, the l's
complement of an Excess- 3 number is the Excess- 3 code for the 9's complement of the
corresponding decimal number. For example, the Excess- 3 code for decimal 6 is 1001. The l's
complement of 1001 is 0110, which is the Excess-3 code for decimal 3, and 3 is the 9's complement
of 6.

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