Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 28: 115–127, 2014

Copyright © Association for Childhood Education International

ISSN: 0256-8543 print / 2150-2641 online
DOI: 10.1080/02568543.2013.851751

Recognizing the Child as Knowledgeable

Other: Intergenerational Learning Research
to Consider Child-to-Adult Influence on Parent
and Family Eco-Knowledge
Laura Istead
Discover Green, Inc., Calgary, Canada

Bonnie Shapiro
University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada

This article presents a review of current research used to shape and guide an investigation into the
nature of the influence of children as agents of intergenerational learning in environmental studies.
Five children and their mothers were interviewed regarding their views about children’s influences on
parent and family eco-knowledge and behavior. Four of the five children and four of the five parents
interviewed referred to positive child-to-adult influence. Use of effective communication strategies
and examples of new knowledge and action were cited as evidence of influence. Approaches to
support intergenerational learning are discussed and areas for future research are identified.
Keywords: intergenerational learning research, child-to-adult influence, family eco-knowledge

Intergenerational learning refers to learning that exists or occurs between two or more gen-
erations. It involves the “sharing of information, thoughts, feelings and experiences between
two generations that can enrich both” (European Map of Intergenerational Learning, n.d.).
As an important feature of lifelong learning, intergenerational learning is a way that people
of all ages can learn together and from one another to gain new information, skills, and val-
ues. The many potential benefits of intergenerational learning include enhancing the transfer of
knowledge, building new ways of learning between generations, and helping nurture family rela-
tionships and develop social cohesion. Much intergenerational learning takes place informally,
but it can be found in significant forms in formal schooling or activities specifically planned for
intergenerational learning (Oracle Education Foundation, n.d.).
There is a burgeoning interest in the nature of intergenerational learning and the ways this
form of learning might enhance and further the goals of environmental education and educa-
tion for sustainability. The majority of intergenerational learning studies have attempted to build

Submitted June 13, 2012; accepted January 22, 2013.

Address correspondence to Bonnie Shapiro, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Ed Tower, Room
1038D, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada. E-mail: bshapiro@ucalgary.ca
116 ISTEAD AND SHAPIRO

understanding of knowledge transfer from adult to child, with the assumption that the adult is
the primary knowledge holder or knowledge teacher. A major theme in adult-to-child inter-
generational influence research has been the influence connection between children and their
grandparents. Elders are represented as models of stability, decision makers, advisors, and surro-
gate parents (Newman, 1980, p. 1). Grandparent figures have influence on children’s development
of self-esteem and feelings of competency, helping them to establish a sense of place in the world
and to generate links between the past and the future (Newman, 1980, p. 3). Several themes
emerge in literature about the benefits of grandparent-to-child influence. These include the emo-
tional benefits that children gain from developing relationships with seniors (Strom & Strom,
1995) and the learning advantages that occur when seniors and children work together on projects
or activities of common interest (Kaplan, 1994; Liu & Kaplan, 2006; Mayer-Smith, Bartosh, &
Peterat, 2007; Newman, 1980; Whitehouse, Bendezu, FallCreek, & Whitehouse, 2000). Research
also supports the ways that grandparent-to-child intergenerational relationships contribute to
family harmony (Strom & Strom, 2000). There is also a strong emphasis in the intergenera-
tional literature on mother-to-child influence relationships, particularly how mothers influence
children’s literacy level, attachment security, and written competencies (Bus & van IJzendoorn,
1988). Very few studies discuss the effects of fathers on their children, however, and even fewer
consider the relationship between fathers and their daughters (Gadsden & Hall, 1996, p. 3).

RESEARCH THAT FOCUSES ON THE CHILD AS PRIMARY LEARNING CATALYST

Although the research on adult-to-child influence makes an important contribution to the study
of intergenerational learning, we now recognize that high status should be given to the significant
ideas and knowledge held by children in the design of instruction (Shapiro, 1994), that commu-
nication is not unidirectional soley from adult to child (Uzzell, 1999), and that adults are not the
sole focus of knowledge and influence in families (Cowan & Avants, 1988). Recent studies rec-
ognizing the child-to-adult learning relationship give new status to the child as a source of new
knowledge (Ballantyne, Connell, & Fien, 1998a, 1998b; Ballantyne, Fien, & Packer, 2000, 2001a,
2001b; Sutherland & Ham, 1992; Uzzell, 1994, 1999; Vaughn, Gack, Solorazano, & Ray, 2003).
Most of the studies conducted to date are quantitative examinations, typically using surveys and
test instruments to study the transfer of knowledge from child to parent.
Sutherland and Ham (1992) examined the communication of environmental information and
ideology between children and parents. A series of pre- and posttest interviews were conducted
with parents to measure the change in their environmental awareness following a homework
assignment that focused on watershed education. The study has been critized for its small num-
ber of participants and researchers have suggested that a stronger child-to-parent relationship
might have been found if the sample size had been larger. Despite these shortcomings, the study
is generally regarded as the foundational work for child-to-parent influence research in environ-
mental education. Uzzell (1994) published a report based on the theory that children not only
can act as catalysts to increase knowledge of environmental issues but may also influence the
environmental behavior of adults. This report includes case studies from four European nations
(Denmark, France, Portugal, and the United Kingdom) that evaluates the effect of environmen-
tal education on improving action competence and strengthening child-to-adult intergenerational
influence.
 RECOGNIZING THE CHILD AS KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER 117

In the Danish case study, teachers and students in community schools worked with local
experts, community groups, and technicians to solve local environmental problems. The chil-
dren were involved in organizing and leading these projects, and researchers concluded that the
students clearly showed the ability to act as catalysts for environmental change in the commu-
nity (Uzzell, 1994). In the French case study, students visited an exhibit on climate change, then
created projects displayed for the community as part of an educational program. Research to
determine whether parent attitudes changed as a result found attitude change overall was mixed.
Change was most significant when displays were based on local issues, such as recycling, and
when parents showed strong support of children’s efforts. In the Portuguese study, teachers
received training in principles of intergenerational influence, the concept of action competence,
and the types of environmental education that might facilitate this competence. Results indicated
child-to-parent influence was not strong and teachers expressed the view that their responsibility
was to work with the children, not to influence parents. A study in the United Kingdom found
that children rarely speak to parents about environmental issues without support and intervention
through learning experiences. In a second U.K. study, children and parents were asked if parent
views were changed about water pollution following a field-based experience, producing mixed
results. The case studies give evidence that it is possible for children to serve as catalysts for
environmental change, but that environmental education studies must make stronger connections
with families in program planning.
Ballantyne et al. (1998a) summarized research on intergenerational influence in the social
sciences and education, identifying several child-adult influence areas in need of further inves-
tigation. These include: (1) increasing knowledge about the child-parent interaction process as
well as community-child relationships, (2) describing more comprehensively the nature of the
influences between parents and children and how both perceive the mechanisms behind the
influence, (3) identifying factors that strengthen or weaken the influence, (4) evaluating envi-
ronmental education programs in terms of their potential for promotion of opportunities for
intergenerational influence, (5) defining “pedagogical considerations in environmental educa-
tion design and teaching approaches related to intergenerational influence” (Ballantyne et al.,
1998a, p. 293), and (6) developing methods for measuring intergenerational influence within
environmental education.
Ballantyne et al. (1998a) used two environmental education programs to study students’
general environmental attitudes and knowledge, parents’ specific and general environmental
knowledge, the role of student enjoyment of the programs, and family communication rela-
tionships as factors influencing whether students brought home information and shared it with
their parents. They found that children who indicated a higher level of enjoyment of the educa-
tional programs were more likely to converse with adults at home about their learning activities.
Overall, children were more likely to discuss a program at home if they enjoyed the program, had
a desire to act on behalf of the environment, and reported a positive relationship with their parents
regarding frequency and quality of communication with parents (Ballantyne et al., 1998a, p. 9).
Building on previous research, Uzzell (1999) noted that support for child-to-parent influence
was required for communication between child and parent to meet its fullest potential. He noted
several shortcomings to facilitating support in existing programs. Environmental education as
a subject area is often rooted in an adminstratively driven teaching model that conflicts with a
model that takes into account and gives high status to children’s ideas. In addition, environmental
education as it is currently practiced does not necessarily equate to environmental action. The
118 ISTEAD AND SHAPIRO

real-life examples and local experiences that empower people to action are not always present
in curriculum materials. Research on whether environmental education can actually bring about
changes in the attitudes and behaviors of children is uncertain; that is, the cause-and-effect rela-
tionships between an environmental education experience and changes in the actions of learners
are not always clear. And finally, if changes are to be sustainable, political, social, and cultural
contexts must support and facilitate that change (Uzzell, 1999).

NEW APPROACHES TO INTERGENERATIONAL RESEARCH

Addressing what they considered to be limitations in research by Sutherland and Ham (1992) and
Leeming, Porter, Dwyer, Cobern, and Oliver (1996), Legault and Pelletier (2000) conducted pre-
and post-questionnaires to measure change in the knowledge, attitudes, motivation, and behav-
iors of students and their parents following participation in a year-long environmental education
program. They found that at the end of the school year, children who were a part of the program
had more intrinsic motivation for engaging in proenvironmental behaviors than those children
who did not participate in the program. Parents of the children in the program also reported
feeling more dissatisfied with environmental conditions in their community than those parents
whose children did not participate in the program. In a review of research by Ballantyne et al.
(2001a), parents were invited to suggest how environmental education programs might have a
better effect on child learning and, in turn, adult knowledge. Parents suggested the inclusion of
certain program features and themes, such as mixing activities with research, classroom discus-
sion, and outdoor experiences. They also suggested that if local issue examples are used in the
curriculum, and if parents and local community members are involved in environmental activities
and projects, participants may better relate to them. An important perspective that emerged was
the suggestion that curriculum experiences be organized to demonstrate to children that they can
have a positive impact on their environment. A significant limitation of this research is that only
parents were interviewed.
In a review of their own previous work, Ballantyne et al. (2001b) conducted a quantitative
analysis of the factors that influenced the frequency and nature of intergenerational discussions.
The results of their analysis show that “student enjoyment of programs, student learning, the
quality of family communication and the inclusion of environmental testing/monitoring activi-
ties were features positively related to the frequency of intergenerational discussion” (p. 294).
Projects, presentations, and environmental testing and monitoring activities were regarded as the
most effective activities overall.
The history and development of research on intergenerational learning, largely quantitative to
this point, suggests child-to-parent influence exists as an educational phenomenon. The type of
activity selected as part of an environmental education program is one important factor influenc-
ing sharing between child and adult. Hands-on, locally focused activities, such as monitoring
or testing the environment, combined with other methods, such as discussions and presenta-
tions, are conducive to positive intergenerational learning (Ballantyne et al., 2000, 2001a). The
frequency of intergenerational communication and influence is enhanced by the student’s enjoy-
ment of the program, the knowledge the student has gained as a result of attending the program,
and the quality of overall communication between child and parent (Ballantyne et al., 2001b).
Although an area in need of further research, children appear to influence not only their parents
 RECOGNIZING THE CHILD AS KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER 119

but also community members over a period of time (Vaughn et al., 2003). A useful set of research
resources to understand the ways environmental messages are taught through social and cultural
structures are described by Shapiro (2010). These include forms of communication through a
culture’s language structures, its communication interaction habits, and the cultural signs and
sign systems that guide the design of learning settings and curriculum. These social and cultural
resources often convey messages that may be more powerful forms of instruction than text.
Most recently, Maddox, Doran, Williams, and Kus (2011) confirmed child-to-adult intergen-
erational learning transfer in a school-based waste reduction program. In this program, school
children were encouraged to share information with their family members. Research results indi-
cated that this program not only led to children bringing new knowledge into the home, but also
precipitated a change in behavior leading to a substantial reduction in household waste.

FRAMING THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STUDY

Most of the recent research in the field has been conducted using mixed-methods approaches or
quantitative methods. The research literature to date affirms the need for more research work into
the nature of the communication processes involved in the child-to-adult influence interaction.
This literature inspired a qualitative study of children and parent views on the nature of the child-
to-adult influence interaction. Research and representations of the data were framed around the
following two question themes: (1) From the perspectives of children and parents, to what extent
does the child-to-adult learning influence phenomena exist? and (2) What are children’s and
parents’ views on the nature of the child-to-parent influence?

Approach to the Research

Five children, age 10 to 12, and their mothers participated in the research following the chil-
dren’s engagement in a week-long multidisciplinary environmental studies program in a large
midwestern Canadian city. The research has undergone a full and rigorous institutional ethical
review and has addressed all issues relating to age of participants, privacy, and confidentiality.
Permission has been received from teachers and parents to report the results of the research and
the children involved were also invited to give their permission to participate. Teacher gender
and names have been changed in some cases to ensure confidentiality. The names of all programs
have been changed to pseudonyms. The programs referred to have a long history of success in
supporting cross-disciplinary topics in school curriculum and contain many environmental edu-
cation components. Two environmental study sites were involved in the research. The purpose of
the research was not to evaluate the programs attended but rather to use them as a starting point for
research discussions on children’s communication of environmental knowledge and action in the
home. All programs used a journal and activity approach with students. The journal work served
as a valuable tool to initiate conversations with the children; several months following the pro-
grams, 1- to 2-hour interviews were conducted with children and their parents separately over a
2-month period. The children were selected for participation based on their interest in the project,
willingness and ability to reflect upon and communicate their experiences, and their parents’ will-
ingness to also participate in the research project. Interviews and conversations were designed to
help participants reflect on children’s communication processes, thinking, and actions as learning
120 ISTEAD AND SHAPIRO

influences. Recorded interview conversations were transcribed and analyzed using the grounded
theory coding methods described by Charmaz (2006). A constant comparative approach was used
to compare children’s responses with those of parents. More detailed discussions on the coding
and analysis process used is described in Istead (2009).
Using journal entries as a discussion starting point, the children were asked about the expe-
riences at their study site and the kinds of environmental learning they gained as a result. They
were asked if they believed they had an impact on their parents’ and family behaviors. If they
responded yes, they were invited to give examples. They were also asked about the communi-
cation strategies they believed they used to influence parents and family members. Parents were
asked whether they believed family knowledge and behavior changed as a result of information
their child received at school. If the response was yes, they were invited to provide examples of
how their children influenced them and to describe the kinds of communication strategies they
believed the children employed.

Key Research Findings

Key research findings are presented based on the primary question themes of the research. The
first research question is, “From the perspectives of children and parents, to what extent does the
child-to-adult learning influence phenomena exist?” As summarized in Figure 1, four of the five
children interviewed stated that they believe they influenced parents and family members.
Interestingly, in one child-parent pair, Sarah/Susan, Sarah reported that she does have an
influence, whereas her parent, Susan, reported that she does not. In the fifth child-parent pair,
Dawson/Denise, Dawson reported that he does not have an influence, whereas his parent reported
that he has a very high level of influence. An investigation into these differences reveals interest-
ing issues that may affect the child’s view of self as influencer and the parent’s acceptance of the
child as influencer.
The second question area that we investigated is “What are children and parents’ views on the
nature of the child-to-parent influence?”

FIGURE 1 Comparison of child and parent views on the influence of the

child on parent and family knowledge and behavior.
 RECOGNIZING THE CHILD AS KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER 121

Sarah/Susan. Sarah reported that she did have an influence on parents and family regarding
environmental information and action, remarking, “It’s good that I can finally teach them
something because they really usually teach me . . . so kind of special . . . proud.”
However, Susan, Sarah’s mother, reported that being a parent with children influences one’s
life generally, but she does not feel influenced by her children and does not believe they provide
her with new knowledge or skills. Susan pointed out that she is a school teacher and asserted
her position as a stronger and more reliable source of information and knowledge than her child,
“Because that’s my job kind of thing I am not as easily influenced on that. . . . I’m the hammer
there. . . . I think probably in some ways I am mostly the hammer so I don’t know if they [both
her children] influence me that much.” As we engaged in further conversation, Susan continued to
refer to the ways she views the nature of her children’s influence on her as a form of negotiation.
She also reported that her daughter, Sarah, is not a “good sharer of information”:
She is not a good sharer, she isn’t. Usually it’s in the night . . . at bedtime . . . that’s when she’ll have
things she might talk about unless it’s something she is really interested in . . . like usually about
Social Studies, but mostly what I find out about school. . . . I always try to keep a close relationship
with her teacher because I know she doesn’t share much. So she really doesn’t . . . good or bad . . .
except for this new Social Studies thing recently . . . that’s the only thing she would share.

When asked if she felt the family had ever changed their behavior in response to something the
child had learned at school, Susan stated strongly that this does not happen in her family: “No.
I can easily say no to that. . . . I am sure in other families it might.” This case report indicates
that a parent’s view of herself as the source of knowledge and willingness and interest in making
space to consider children’s ideas as useful may be a significant factor in the nature and quality
of the child-to-parent learning dialogue, and the extent to which the parent believes the child has
something of value to share. This perspective may impact both parent and child views on the
status of the child and the value of the child’s contribution of ideas to the family.
Dawson/Denise. In contrast, Dawson reported that he felt he had no influence over his
family’s environmental understandings or behavior, yet his mother, Denise, reported that he has
significant influence. A general lack of self-confidence in communication appeared to be a sig-
nificant factor in Dawson’s view of his own influence efficacy. His mother revealed difficulties
in his relationship with his current teacher and her own difficulty with the teacher as contribut-
ing factors. Denise suggested that this tension restricted Dawson’s interest in sharing knowledge
gained in school at home, but that he had been a regular contributor of information gained through
schooling in previous years.
We had a difficult year with a teacher—Mr. S was very controlling and very cold, so the exact opposite
of our other (environmental education program) teacher. He (Dawson) just keeps everything close and
he just doesn’t talk about it. So if there is something exciting, he would bring it up. But I guess he
didn’t feel the freedom to express himself and just be relaxed with stuff . . . whereas before, even
after they came back from [the environmental education program], he was always bringing stuff . . .
always showing . . . was talking. . . . I could just tell he didn’t like school this year and that totally
influenced how he reacted and his home environment. We did our best to keep the whole respect thing
for the teacher, but it was just a difficult year.
122 ISTEAD AND SHAPIRO

Denise talked with great interest about the opportunity to observe Dawson’s learning process:

Now the interesting part was just the relationship of being able to see them [the students] do the
physical book learning and to see it acted out in front of you. . . . I found it interesting when they
could actually see it. . . . And it’s almost like lights going on. They were like . . . “Oh yeah, that’s
cool . . . look at that!” . . . And it’s all the learning in action because they could actually see what
they had actually been taught.

Dawson was not able to name any methods that he used to share with his parents, although his
mother did report that both her children used strategies such as discussions featuring facts and
presenting information in the form of an argument or a “sales pitch.”
Denise reported that Dawson did have influence, particularly on such areas as where the family
spends their charity donations and in the area of consumer purchasing. Denise also participates
extensively in Dawson’s school activities. She explains, “I was actually one of the room reps that
went [on the environmental education program experience].” Denise also described two other
experiences, similar to the environmental education program experience, which she had attended
with Dawson. The parental attention and the time committed to his education suggest that Dawson
has a high level of social status in his family and the respect of his parents, from the viewpoint
of his mother. He is recognized as an influence in his family, although it appears that he may not
be aware of it. Denise indicated that Dawson has been less interested in sharing school learning
experiences with his parents this year.
Denise continued the theme of valuing the positive environmental influence of children. She
spoke about the influence of both her children, rather than just Dawson’s influence. It appeared
that Dawson’s older sibling, a sister who was 2 years older, who had not attended the program,
was viewed as a greater influence on the family than Dawson. Denise made reference to the older
sister’s impact:

“Mom you shouldn’t throw that out, you should recycle it.”. . . . And you are like okay . . . well you
know . . . and you have to decide whether or not you are going to go with her or not. . . . This is
like the WWF [World Wildlife Fund] thing they are doing. . . . “We need to send them money for the
tigers.” So different things like that, when they come across something . . . they think is valuable . . .
oh yeah . . . they are on us all the time for stuff like that.

Denise’s comments suggest that she regards her children’s views with respect and that she is
willing to listen to them.

Matt/Marcia. Matt described influencing his siblings by encouraging them to turn off lights
when not in the room. He referred to the Grade 4 program, Waste in Our World, as his primary
source of information and eco-action strategies:

I make them recycle and throw things in the recycling bin instead of the garbage and instead of using
too much paper towels, or something, to use less. . . . I tell them to use less. And I am trying to
convince them to buy a composter. . . . We’ve taken shorter times in the shower. . . . We also recycle
our pop cans, not throw them in the garbage.

Matt said that it was during his Grade 4 experience that recycling became a big issue in their
household. Prior to this, Matt stated that recycling their pop cans was “pretty much it.”
 RECOGNIZING THE CHILD AS KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER 123

Matt enthusiastically described using formal teaching methods to share information with his
parents and described using technology: “[I] would show them on the internet or on the computer.
Show them one of my school projects on PowerPoint.”
He shared how he built logical arguments to convince family members to live more
sustainably:

I tell them like what would happen if you didn’t [recycle]. Just like do it that way. That’s another sheet
you could use, you would be saving more trees. . . . The less you recycle, a lot more trees would be
dying; a lot more trees would be cut down. We now just recycle regularly. It’s not such a big deal for
us anymore.

Marcia, Matt’s mother, noted many areas where she thought Matt was influencing the family’s
knowledge and behavior, particularly relating to eco-knowledge:

With their persistence, with them constantly telling you . . . “You know we learned this at school,
we were told you shouldn’t do things this way, we were told you have to recycle, these are the
advantages you get from . . . composting. You are not throwing all your food down the drain, things
like that . . . you know like the peelings and all that . . . you could save costs and all that . . . and do
your composting when it’s the planting season and you could use that manure . . . to fertilize your
plants” . . . he really tried hard, very hard campaigning for that compost. . . . I think now we’ll go get
one.

Marcia said Matt taught her lessons learned at school through informal discussions about
grassland ecosystems and outdoor education experiences. She shared how her attitude changed
and how passionately Matt shared his knowledge: “I didn’t care that much but he is always on
my neck about it, about the garbage. Sometimes he will go through the garbage and take things
out and put it in [the] recycling.” She described how Matt even influenced the young children of
relatives who live in another country to recycle.

Rebecca/Rita. Rebecca remarked on her enjoyment in sharing new ideas with parents. “It
makes me feel happy and proud to know that my parents are listening to me and that I am learn-
ing stuff at school and it’s not just going to school and coming back without an education.”
When asked how she most effectively teaches her parents, Rebecca noted that she was first con-
cerned with obtaining their focus. “Well I want them to be directly paying attention so they aren’t
like half-listening or something.” Rebecca also reported that being a positive example and role
modeling proper behaviors was an effective way to teach others:

I would say, if I caught one of my family members throwing out a piece of paper that was full or
blank or had a picture on it or something, I would say, “How about you recycle that because you are
wasting paper?” and I would guide them to recycling more paper.

She described some fairly sophisticated teaching strategies that she has used that take into
account parent learning styles. She gave an example from flight science:

so I drew out an airplane and I kind of drew labels for each of the parts and stuff and we were learning
about yaw, pitch and roll. So I had my mom pretend she was an airplane and like for yaw, I made her
lean to the side and stuff just so she would get it better.
124 ISTEAD AND SHAPIRO

Rebecca commented on ways that she taught through indirect, informal conversation and set-
tings: “Sometimes I just sit at the table here and read it from my book while my mom is making
dinner. Or I just tell her random facts at different times.”
Rita described what she called the tremendous influence Rebecca has on the family’s
environmental knowledge and behavior:
Well the light usage for sure and turning off the lights and how we should be using alternate forms of
energy and you need to use more efficient light bulbs and saying what we do . . . like she [Rebecca]
gets dad in trouble for washing his car in the lane. We got to go paint fishes by the water drains so she
is all up on what goes down the drain and all that. She is very aware how much water we use to water
the grass, “You have to put a Frisbee down and mom and dad only fill the Frisbee.” And putting only
perennials that can grow without much water . . . she is certainly aware of all that.

Rita described Rebecca’s influence on family consumer habits and noted how all of her chil-
dren also influenced the parents economically and even had an impact on other adult family
friends.
Kim/Karen. Kim shared her efforts to influence her parents’ and family’s eco-actions: “In
Grade 4, we learned about recycling and stuff and we hadn’t really recycled [at home] earlier so
then I convinced my parents to get a recycling bin and a composter.”
Like Rebecca, Kim showed a sophisticated understanding of teaching strategies. By using
learning style approaches that her teacher employed in the classroom, she found that she could
increase her mother’s understanding, explaining: “Cause she learns visually, like if somebody just
tells her something she doesn’t usually remember it sometimes, she learns better if she actually
sees something.”
Kim’s mother Karen agreed that one of the areas in which her child was influential relates to
the family’s environmental behavior:
Ummm . . . a really specific example is that we started doing curb side recycling when she [Kim]
started doing Waste in Our World in Grade 4. They went to the recycling plant so we started recycling
and composting when she was in Grade 4. . . . It was a direct influence from her, for sure.

Karen discussed the importance she attributes to child-to-adult influence as a major factor in
her family’s development of eco-behaviors:
It’s [recycling] such a big deal. We [the family] are just so much more conscious of recycling and
reusing and those kinds of things because we have kids and because we have an impact on the
environment. . . . I think it’s because . . . you know . . . it’s so relevant for them.
I think if we didn’t have kids, I don’t think we would be as good, I really don’t. I think because
we do have kids and they remind us. And we know that we want to leave this place better than when
we came . . . so I think we are much more careful of how we treat the environment . . . I think having
kids . . . we definitely recycle more . . . they definitely have an impact on us and they come home
with lots of things.

Karen also made reference to consumer issues as a major area of child influence on family
action, not only from Kim, but also her siblings:
They certainly do influence what we buy . . . especially for groceries I find . . . now they are that
the age where she [Kim] is looking at the nutritional value of everything and so she definitely helps
influence . . . you know . . . makes us think about what we buy . . . they are definitely more health
conscious than we ever were as kids so that definitely influences us.
 RECOGNIZING THE CHILD AS KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER 125

THEMES IN THE RESEARCH FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH

The majority of children and parents in the study report that children do operate as learning cat-
alysts and they influence parent and family knowledge. However, the child and the parent do not
always report the extent of influence in the same way. The reasons for these differences present
new and complex insights. The parent’s view of child status in the family may be a significant fac-
tor in whether children are viewed as a significant source of knowledge or as behavior catalysts.
This was not found to be a generalized view of children as valuable sources of insight. Parents
sometimes reported that some of their other children had more valuable knowledge than the child
in the study group. Some parents revealed that they were not interested in listening to or accept-
ing the child as a source of new knowledge or in relinquishing their role as primary source of
knowledge in the family. This research offers new insights into the impact children have and the
extent of parents’ willingness to accept knowledge that children are offering to parents and fam-
ilies based on their school and informal learning activities. The research suggests that whether
the child will share information depends on factors relating to the child’s self-confidence and
decisions about whether their knowledge will be accepted and appreciated by family members.
When asked about intergenerational influence, four out of five parents responded that they
moderately or strongly believed that their knowledge and behaviors were influenced by their
children. As one parent stated,
Absolutely. All the time. They have the most current information about everything, whether it’s com-
puters or what’s going on in new environmental science discoveries. Every time they come home and
say, “This is what we learned at school today,” it influences us in some way or another. They are
bringing home the most current information.

When asked to each provide examples of ways parents believed their children influenced their
behavior, four out of the five parents cited environmental examples first. When asked about the
kinds of techniques children used to create influence and which strategies were most effective,
most parents noted that informal discussion was a common approach used by children, and that
the most effective strategies involved well thought-out conversations that presented facts and
arguments.
Children and parents report recognizing a variety of approaches to providing new informa-
tion and modeling environmental behavior for parents and family members. Some examples
are formal teaching of information, providing excellent arguments or “sales pitches,” model-
ing behaviors, exhorting family members to adopt new sustainable practices, and sharing through
informal conversation. Parents and children remark on the significant influence children have on
consumer choices in the family. Positive experiences and relationships with teachers and engage-
ment in activities that children are interested in and truly enjoy are factors that children and
parents mention as important influences on the child’s motivation to share new information.
Some children mention employment of fairly sophisticated teaching strategies to more effec-
tively engage parents. Many parents report that they believe children are a significant source of
the most current information and insights into successful ecological practices due to their school
experiences, and note that some of their children are more reliable sources of knowledge than
others. Children and parents mention the use of technology as a valuable influencing tool and
refer to use of the Internet and PowerPoint presentations.
126 ISTEAD AND SHAPIRO

This research has been based on interview data with children and parents. We recommend that
future research studies explore family and learning environments to collect and analyze obser-
vational data. Because the processes involved in child-to-adult learning take place over long
periods of time, future investigations should involve researchers making more intensive visita-
tions to homes and spending more time with families. Gathering this kind of data over time also
would provide more evidence about the ways that parents participate in the educational experi-
ences of children. Another area of study might include investigations into the ways gender and
birth order are valued and interpreted by parents and children. These factors, and cultural and
social differences in families, also may influence appreciation and views of the child’s role as a
significant holder of knowledge. To support the child-to-adult learning phenomena, more infor-
mation is needed about the kinds of educational activities that help children to develop the skills
needed to share knowledge with adults and family members. Based on our research, it is evident
that teachers also play an important role in the development of the child’s ability and willingness
to share knowledge in the home. It is therefore important to include in the research agenda inves-
tigations into teacher ideas about the design and use of learning experiences that encourage the
child to develop the confidence to share knowledge with family members.
Our research findings affirm the existence of child-to-adult learning influence and show the
range of perspectives on this influence that exist for parents and children. There are excellent rea-
sons for supporting and enhancing children’s positive influence on parents and families. Teachers
and parents will benefit from developing greater awareness of the learning potential for children
and families through gaining insight into the goals and benefits of intergenerational influence and
research. We suggest that there is value in sharing this research with teachers and parents. The
findings can be used in the development of curriculum approaches and new teaching strategies
designed to explicitly empower children to positively influence the ideas and actions of adults
and other family members, as a form of education and influence. The research has potential to
serve as the foundation of excellent case studies to affect teacher education and to give new status
to children as valued sources of information and knowledge in environmental and sustainability
education learning practices.

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