1.

Application of Computer Graphics

 Computer-Aided Design for engineering and architectural systems etc.

Objects maybe displayed in a wireframe outline form. Multi-window environment is also favored for
producing various zooming scales and views. Animations are useful for testing performance.

 Presentation Graphics
To produce illustrations which summarize various kinds of data. Except 2D, 3D graphics are good
tools for reporting more complex data.

 Computer Art
Painting packages are available. With cordless, pressure-sensitive stylus, artists can produce electronic
paintings which simulate different brush strokes, brush widths, and colors. Photorealistic techniques,
morphing and animations are very useful in commercial art. For films, 24 frames per second are
required. For video monitor, 30 frames per second are required.

 Entertainment
Motion pictures, Music videos, and TV shows, Computer games

 Education and Training

Training with computer-generated models of specialized systems such as the training of ship captains
and aircraft pilots.

 Visualization
For analyzing scientific, engineering, medical and business data or behavior. Converting data to visual
form can help to understand mass volume of data very efficiently.

 Image Processing
Image processing is to apply techniques to modify or interpret existing pictures. It is widely used in
medical applications.

 Graphical User Interface

Multiple window, icons, menus allow a computer setup to be utilized more efficiently.

2. Overview of Graphics Systems

2.1 Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRT) - still the most common video display device presently

Electrostatic deflection of the electron beam in a CRT

An electron gun emits a beam of electrons, which passes through focusing and deflection systems and
hits on the phosphor-coated screen. The number of points displayed on a CRT is referred to as the

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resolution (eg. 1024x768). Different phosphors emit small light spots of different colors, which can
combine to form a range of colors. A common methodology for color CRT display is the Shadow-
mask method.

Illustration of a shadow-mask CRT

The light emitted by phosphor fades very rapidly, so it needs to redraw the picture repeatedly. There
are 2 kinds of redrawing mechanisms: Raster-Scan and Random-Scan

Raster-Scan

The electron beam is swept across the screen one row at a time from top to bottom. As it moves across
each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots. This
scanning process is called refreshing. Each complete scanning of a screen is normally called a frame.

The refreshing rate, called the frame rate, is normally 60 to 80 frames per second, or described as 60
Hz to 80 Hz.

Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the frame buffer. This frame buffer stores the
intensity values for all the screen points. Each screen point is called a pixel (picture element).

On black and white systems, the frame buffer storing the values of the pixels is called a bitmap. Each
entry in the bitmap is a 1-bit data which determine the on (1) and off (0) of the intensity of the pixel.

On color systems, the frame buffer storing the values of the pixels is called a pixmap (Though
nowadays many graphics libraries name it as bitmap too). Each entry in the pixmap occupies a
number of bits to represent the color of the pixel. For a true color display, the number of bits for each
entry is 24 (8 bits per red/green/blue channel, each channel 2 8=256 levels of intensity value, ie. 256
voltage settings for each of the red/green/blue electron guns).

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Random-Scan (Vector Display)

The CRT's electron beam is directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn. The
picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in a refresh display file or a refresh
buffer in memory.

Random-scan generally have higher resolution than raster systems and can produce smooth line
drawings, however it cannot display realistic shaded scenes.

2.2 Flat-Panel Displays - will be the most common video display device very soon.

Reduced thickness, volumn, weight, and power requirements compared to CRT.

Liquid-Crystal Displays (LCDs)

- Liquid crystal refers to compounds which are in crystalline arrangement, but can flow like liquid.
- The light source passes through a liquid-crystal material that can be aligned to either block or
transmit the light.
- 2 glass plates, each containing a light polarizer at right angles to the other, sandwich a liquid
crystal material.
- Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass page. Columns of vertical
conductors are put into the other plate. The intersection of 2 conductors defines a pixel position. -
- Passive-matrix LCD
- In the "on" state, polarized light passing through the material is twisted so that it will pass through
the opposite polarizer.
- Different materials can display different colors.
- By placing thin-film transistors at pixel locations, voltage at each pixel can be controlled. --
Active-matrix LCD.

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2.3. Graphics Systems

Block diagram of a CRT graphics system

In this context we discuss the graphics systems of raster-scan devices. A graphics processor accepts
graphics commands from the CPU and executes the graphics commands which may involve drawing
into the frame buffer. The frame buffer acts as a temporary store of the image and also as a decoupler
to allow the graphics processor and the display controller to operate at different speeds. The display
controller reads the frame buffer line by line and generates the control signals for the screen.

Graphics commands:
- Draw point
- Draw polygon
- Draw text
- Clear frame buffer
- Change drawing color

2 kinds of graphics processors:

2D graphics processors execute commands in 2D coordinates. When objects overlap, the one being
drawn will obscure objects drawn previously in the region. BitBlt operations (Bit Block Transfer) are
usually provided for moving/copying one rectangular region of frame buffer contents to another
region.

3D graphics processors execute commands in 3D coordinates. When objects overlap, it is required to

determine the visibility of the objects according to the z values.

Display Controller for a raster display device reads the frame buffer and generates the control signals
for the screen, ie. the signals for horizontal scanning and vertical scanning. Most display controllers
include a colormap (or video look-up table). The major function of a colormap is to provide a
mapping between the input pixel value to the output color.

2.4. Input Devices

Common devices: keyboard, mouse, trackball and joystick

Specialized devices:
Data gloves are electronic gloves for detecting fingers' movement. In some applications, a sensor is
also attached to the glove to detect the hand movement as a whole in 3D space.

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A tablet contains a stylus and a drawing surface and it is mainly used for the input of drawings. A
tablet is usually more accurate than a mouse, and is commonly used for large drawings.
Scanners are used to convert drawings or pictures in hardcopy format into digital signal for computer
processing.
Touch panels allow displayed objects or screen positions to be selected with the touch of a finger. In
these devices a touch-sensing mechanism is fitted over the video monitor screen. Touch input can be
recorded using optical, electrical, or acoustical methods.

2.5 Hard-Copy Devices

Directing pictures to a printer or plotter to produce hard-copy output on 35-mm slides, overhead
transparencies, or plain paper. The quality of the pictures depend on dot size and number of dots per
inch (DPI).

Types of printers: line printers, laserjet, ink-jet, dot-matrix

Laserjet printers use a laser beam to create a charge distribution on a rotating drum coated with a
photoelectric material. Toner is applied to the drum and then transferred to the paper. To produce
color outputs, the 3 color pigments (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are deposited on separate passes.

Inkjet printers produce output by squirting ink in horizontal rows across a roll of paper wrapped on a
drum. To produce color outputs, the 3 color pigments are shot simultaneously on a single pass along
each print line on the paper.

Inkjet or pen plotters are used to generate drafting layouts and other drawings of normally larger
sizes. A pen plotter has one or more pens of different colors and widths mounted on a carriage which
spans a sheet of paper.

2.6 Coordinate Representations in Graphics

General graphics packages are designed to be used with Cartesian coordinate representations (x,y,z).
Usually several different Cartesian reference frames are used to construct and display a scene:

Modeling coordinates are used to construct individual object shapes.

World coordinates are computed for specifying the placement of individual objects in appropriate
positions.
Normalized coordinates are converted from world coordinates, such that x,y values are ranged from
0 to 1.
Device coordinates are the final locations on the output devices.

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3. Output Primitives

Shapes and colors of objects can be described internally with pixel arrays or sets of basic geometric
structures such as straight line segments and polygon color areas. The functions provided by graphics
programming packages to deal with these basic geometric structures are called output primitives.

For example:
Drawing a point: SetPixel(100,200,RGB(255,255,0));
Drawing a line: MoveTo(100,100); LineTo(100,200);
Drawing some text: SetText(100,200,"Hello");
Drawing an ellipse: Ellipse(100,100,200,200);
Painting a picture: BitBlt(100,100,50,50,srcImage,0,0,SRCCOPY);

3.1 Drawing a Thin Line in Raster Devices

This is to compute intermediate discrete coordinates along the line path between 2 specified endpoint
positions. The corresponding entry of these discrete coordinates in the frame buffer is then marked
with the line color wanted.

The basic concept is:

- A line can be specified in the form: y
= mx + c
- Let m be between 0 to 1, then the slope of the line is between 0 and 45 degrees.
- For the x-coordinate of the left end point of the line, compute the corresponding y value according
to the line equation. Thus we get the left end point as (x1,y1), where y1 may not be an integer.
- Calculate the distance of (x1,y1) from the center of the pixel immediately above it and call it D1
- Calculate the distance of (x1,y1) from the center of the pixel immediately below it and call it D2
- If D1 is smaller than D2, it means that the line is closer to the upper pixel than the lower pixel,
then, we set the upper pixel to on; otherwise we set the lower pixel to on.
- Then increatement x by 1 and repeat the same process until x reaches the right end point of the
line.
- This method assumes the width of the line to be zero

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Bresenham's Line Algorithm

This algorithm is very efficient since it use only incremental integer calculations. Instead of
calculating the non-integral values of D1 and D2 for decision of pixel location, it computes a value, p,
which is defined as:

p = (D2-D1)* horizontal length of the line

if p>0, it means D1 is smaller than D2, and we can determine the pixel location accordingly

However, the computation of p is very easy:

The initial value of p is 2 * vertical height of the line - horizontal length of the line.
At succeeding x locations, if p has been smaller than 0, then, we increment p by 2 * vertical height of
the line, otherwise we increment p by 2 * (vertical height of the line - horizontal length of the line)

All the computations are on integers. The incremental method is applied to

void BresenhamLine(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2)

{ int x, y, p, const1, const2;
/* initialize variables */
p=2*(y2-y1)-(x2-x1);
const1=2*(y2-y1);
const2=2*((y2-y1)-(x2-x1));
x=x1;
y=y1;
SetPixel(x,y);
while (x<xend)
{ x++;
if (p<0)
{ p=p+const1;
}
else
{ y++;
p=p+const2;
}
SetPixel(x,y);
}
}

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3.2 Drawing a Circle in Raster Devices

A circle can be specified in the form:

(x-xc)2 + (y-yc)2 = r2
where (xc,yc) is the center of the circle.

To save time in drawing a circle, we can make use of the symmetrical property of a circle which is to
draw the segment of the circle between 0 and 45 degrees and repeat the segment 8 times as shown in
the diagram to produce a circle. Ths algorithm also employs the incremental method which further
improves the efficiency.

void PlotCirclePoints(int centerx, int centery, int x, int y)

{ SetPixel(centerx+x,centery+y);
SetPixel(centerx-x,centery+y);
SetPixel(centerx+x,centery-y);
SetPixel(centerx-x,centery-y);
SetPixel(centerx+y,centery+x);
SetPixel(centerx-y,centery+x);
SetPixel(centerx+y,centery-x);
SetPixel(centerx-y,centery-x);
}

void BresenhamCircle(int centerx, int centery, int radius)

{ int x=0;
int y=radius; int
p=3-2*radius;
while (x<y)
{ PlotCirclePoints(centerx,centery,x,y);
if (p<0)
{ p=p+4*x+6;
}
else
{ p=p+4*(x-y)+10;
y=y-1;
}
x=x+1;
}
PlotCirclePoints(centerx,centery,x,y);
}

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3.3 Scan-Line Polygon Fill Algorithm

- Basic idea: For each scan line crossing a polygon, this algorithm locates the intersection points of
the scan line with the polygon edges. These intersection points are shorted from left to right.
Then, we fill the pixels between each intersection pair.

- Some scan-line intersection at polygon vertices require special handling. A scan line passing
through a vertex as intersecting the polygon twice. In this case we may or may not add 2 points to
the list of intersections, instead of adding 1 points. This decision depends on whether the 2 edges
at both sides of the vertex are both above, both below, or one is above and one is below the scan
line. Only for the case if both are above or both are below the scan line, then we will add 2 points.

- Inside-Outside Tests: The above algorithm only works for standard polygon shapes. However, for
the cases which the edges of the polygon intersects, we need to identify whether a point is an
interior or exterior point. Students may find interesting descriptions of 2 methods to solve this
problem in many text books: odd-even rule and nonzero winding number rule.

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3.4 Boundary-Fill Algorithm

- This algorithm starts at a point inside a region and paint the interior outward towards the boundary.

- This is a simple method but not efficient: 1. It is recursive method which may occupy a large stack
size in the main memory.
void BoundaryFill(int x, int y, COLOR fill, COLOR boundary)
{ COLOR current;
current=GetPixel(x,y);
if (current<>boundary) and (current<>fill) then
{ SetPixel(x,y,fill);
BoundaryFill(x+1,y,fill,boundary);
BoundaryFill(x-1,y,fill,boundary);
BoundaryFill(x,y+1,fill,boundary);
BoundaryFill(x,y-1,fill,boundary);
}
}

- More efficient methods fill horizontal pixel spands across scan lines, instead of proceeding to
neighboring points.

3.5 Flood-Fill Algorithm

- Flood-Fill is similar to Boundary-Fill. The difference is that Flood-Fill is to fill an area which I
not defined by a single boundary color.

void BoundaryFill(int x, int y, COLOR fill, COLOR old_color)

{ if (GetPixel(x,y)== old_color)
{ SetPixel(x,y,fill);
BoundaryFill(x+1,y,fill,boundary);
BoundaryFill(x-1,y,fill,boundary);
BoundaryFill(x,y+1,fill,boundary);
BoundaryFill(x,y-1,fill,boundary);
}
}

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3.6 Drawing Text

- A character is defined by its outline which is usually comoposed of lines and curves.

- We can use a method similar the one for rendering polygon to render a character
- However, because text is used very oftenly, we usually convert them into bitmaps in advance to
improve the drawing efficiency.
- To draw a character on the screen, all we need to do is to copy the corresponding bitmap to
the specified coordinate.
- The problem with this method is that scaling a character with a bitmap to produce different
character sizes would result in a block-like structures (stair-case, aliasing). Hence we normally
render a few bitmaps for a single character to represent different sizes of the same character.

3.7 Bitmap

- A graphics pattern suh as an icon or a character may be needed frequently, or may need to be
re-used.
- Generating the pattern every time when needed may waste a lot of processing time.
- A bitmap can be used to store a pattern and duplicate it to many places on the image or on
the screen with simple copying operations.

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3.8 Properties

- In graphical output primitives, objects are normally associated with properties

Eg.
Point: color
Line: width, style, color
Polygon: edge color, filling color
Text: font size, color, bold or not bold, italic or not, underlined or not, etc.

In graphical packages, we can specify such properties, eg. In Powerpoint, we can modify
the properties of objects by a format command.

In programming tools, we may pass the properties as arguments when we call the functions of these
primitives, or we may pre-select the properties before calling the functions.

Two Dimensional Transformations

In many applications, changes in orientations, size, and shape are accomplished with geometric transformations
that alter the coordinate descriptions of objects.

Basic geometric transformations are:

Translation
Rotation
Scaling

Other transformations:
Reflection
Shear
Basic Transformations

Translation

We translate a 2D point by adding translation distances, tx and ty, to the original coordinate position
(x,y):
x' = x + tx, y' = y + ty

Alternatively, translation can also be specified by the following transformation matrix:

1 0tx
0

1 t  y


0 0 1 
Then we can rewrite the formula as:
x'1 0 t x x
    
y' = 0 1 t y
   y  

0 0 1  1
1 
For example, to translate a triangle with vertices at original coordinates (10,20), (10,10), (20,10) by
tx=5, ty=10, we compute as followings:

Translation of vertex (10,20):

x'1 0 5 10 1*10  0 * 20  5 *1 15
         
y'  = 0 1 10  20  = 0 *10  1* 20  10 *1  = 30 
1  0 0 1   1   0 *10  0 * 20 1*1   1 
Translation of vertex (10,10):

x'1 0 5 10 1*10  0 *10  5 *1 15

         
y'  = 0 1 10  10  = 0 *10 1*10  10 *1  = 20 
1  0 0 1   1   0 *10  0 *10 1*1   1 

Translation of vertex (20,10):

x'1 0 5 20 1* 20  0 *10  5 *1 25

         
y'  = 0 1 10  10  = 0 * 20 1*10  10 *1  = 20 
1  0 0 1   1   0 * 20  0 *10 1*1   1 

The resultant coordinates of the triangle vertices are (15,30), (15,20), and (25,20) respectively.

Exercise: translate a triangle with vertices at original coordinates (10,25), (5,10), (20,10) by t x=15,
ty=5. Roughly plot the original and resultant triangles.

Rotation About the Origin

To rotate an object about the origin (0,0), we specify the rotation angle ?. Positive and negative values
for the rotation angle define counterclockwise and clockwise rotations respectively. The followings is
the computation of this rotation for a point:

x' = x cos ? - y sin ?

y' = x sin ? + y cos ?

Alternatively, this rotation can also be specified by the following transformation matrix:

cos   sin  0
 
sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1
Then we can rewrite the formula as:

x' cos   sin  0x

     
y'  = sin  cos  0  y 

1   0
0 1 1
For example, to rotate a triange about the origin with vertices at original coordinates (10,20), (10,10),
(20,10) by 30 degrees, we compute as followings:

cos   sin  0 cos 30  sin 30 0 0.866  0.5 0

     
sin  cos  0  = sin 30 cos 30 0  =  0.5 0.866 0 

 0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1

Rotation of vertex (10,20):

x' 0.866  0.5 0 10 0.866 *10  (0.5) * 20  0 *1 1.34

         
y'  =  0.5 0.866 0  20  =  0.5 *10  0.866 * 20  0 *1  = 22.32 
1   0 0 1  1   0 *10  0 * 20 1*1   1 
         

Rotation of vertex (10,10):

x' 0.866  0.5 010 0.866 *10  (0.5) *10  0 *1  3.66 
        
y'  =  0.5 0.866 0  10  = 0.5 *10  0.866 *10  0 *1  = 13.66 
1   0 0 1 1   0 *10  0 *10 1*1   1 
        
Rotation of vertex (20,10):

x' 0.866  0.5 020 0.866 * 20  (0.5) *10  0 *1 12.32

         
y'  =  0.5 0.866 0  10  =  0.5 * 20  0.866 *10  0 *1  = 18.66 
1   0 0 1 1   0 * 20  0 *10 1*1   1 
        
The resultant coordinates of the triangle vertices are (-1.34,22.32), (3.6,13.66), and (12.32,18.66)
respectively.

Exercise: Rotate a triange with vertices at original coordinates (10,20), (5,10), (20,10) by 45
degrees. Roughly plot the original and resultant triangles.

Scaling With Respect to the Origin

We scale a 2D object with respect to the origin by setting the scaling factors s x and sy, which
are multiplied to the original vertex coordinate positions (x,y):

x' = x * sx, y' = y * sy

Alternatively, this scaling can also be specified by the following transformation matrix:

sx 0 0
 
 0 sy 0 
 0 0 1
Then we can rewrite the formula as:

x' sx 0 0x

   
y' =  0 sy 0
y

1   0 0 1 1

For example, to scale a triange with respect to the origin, with vertices at original coordinates
(10,20), (10,10), (20,10) by sx=2, sy=1.5, we compute as followings:

Scaling of vertex (10,20):

x'2 0 010 2 *10  0 * 20  0 *1 20

         
y'  = 0 1.5 0  20  = 0 *10  1.5 * 20  0 *1  = 30 

1  0 0 1  1   0 *10  0 * 20 1*1   1 

Scaling of vertex (10,10):

x'2 0 010 2 *10  0 *10  0 *1 20

         
y'  = 0 1.5 0  10  = 0 *10 1.5 *10  0 *1  = 15 

1  0 0 1  1   0 *10  0 *10  1*1   1 

Scaling of vertex (20,10):

x'2 0 020 2 * 20  0 *10  0 *1 40

         
y'  = 0 1.5 0  10  = 0 * 20  1.5 *10  0 *1  = 15 
1  0 0 1  1   0 * 20  0 *10 1*1   1 
The resultant coordinates of the triangle vertices are (20,30), (20,15), and (40,15) respectively.

Exercise: Scale a triange with vertices at original coordinates (10,25), (5,10), (20,10) by s x=1.5,
sy=2, with respect to the origin. Roughly plot the original and resultant triangles.

Concatenation Properties of Composite Matrix

I. Matrix multiplication is associative:

A·B·C = (A·B) ·C = A·(B·C)

Therefore, we can evaluate matrix products using these associative grouping.

For example, we have a triangle, we want to rotate it with the matrix B, then we translate it with
matrix A.
Then, for a vertex of that triangle represented as C, we compute its transformation as:

C'=A·(B·C)

But we can also change the computation method as:

C' = (A·B)·C

The advantage of computing it using C' = (A·B)·C instead of C'=A·(B·C) is that, for computing
the 3 vertices of the triangle, C1, C2, C 3, the computation time is shortened:

Using C'=A·(B·C):
- compute B · C1 and put the result into I1
- compute A · I1 and put the result into C1'
- compute B · C2 and put the result into I2
- compute A · I2 and put the result into C2'
- compute B · C3 and put the result into I3
- compute A · I3 and put the result into C3'

Using C' = (A·B)·C:

- compute A · B and put the result into M
- compute M · C1 and put the result into C1'
- compute M · C2 and put the result into C2'
- compute M · C3 and put the result into C3'

4
 CS3162 Introduction to Computer Graphics
Helena Wong, 2000

Example: Rotate a triangle with vertices (10,20), (10,10), (20,10) about the origin by 30 degrees
and then translate it by tx=5, ty=10,

We compute the rotation matrix:

cos 30  sin 30 0 0.866  0.5 0

   
B = sin 30 cos 30 0  =  0.5 0.866 0



0 0 1  0 0 1
And we compute the translation matrix:

1 0 5
 
A= 0 1 10 

0 0 1 

Then, we compute M=A·B

1 0 5 0.866  0.5 0
   
M= 0 1 10  ·  0.5 0.866 0 

0 0 1   0 0 1

 1* 0.866  0 * 0.5  5 * 0 1* 0.5  0 * 0.866  5 * 0 1* 0  0 * 0  5 *1 

 
M= 0 * 0.866 1* 0.5 10 * 0 0 * 0.5  1* 0.866 10 * 0 0 * 0  1* 0 10 *1 

 0 * 0.866  0 * 0.5  1* 0 0 * 0.5  0 * 0.866 1* 0 0 * 0  0 * 0 1*1 

0.866  0.5 5
 
M=  0.5 0.866 10 

0 0 1 

Then, we compute the transformations of the 3 vertices:

Transformation of vertex (10,20):

x' 0.866  0.5 5 10 0.866 *10  (0.5) * 20  5 *1  3.66 

         
y'  =  0.5 0.866 10  20  =  0.5 *10  0.866 * 20  10 *1  = 32.32 
1   0 0 1  1   0 *10  0 * 20 1*1  1 
        
Transformation of vertex (10,10):

x' 0.866  0.5 5 10 0.866 *10  (0.5) *10  5 *1  8.66 
         
y'  =  0.5 0.866 10  10  =  0.5 *10  0.866 *10 10 *1  = 23.66 
1   0 0 1  1   0 *10  0 *10 1*1  1 
        
Transformation of vertex (20,10):

x' 0.866  0.5 5 20 0.866 * 20  (0.5) *10  5 *1 17.32

         
y'  =  0.5 0.866 10  10  =  0.5 * 20  0.866 *10  10 *1  = 28.66 
1   0 0 1  1   0 * 20  0 *10 1*1   1 
        
The resultant coordinates of the triangle vertices are (3.66,32.32), (8.66,23.66), and (17.32,28.66)
respectively.

II. Matrix multiplication may not be commutative:

A·B may not equal to B·A

This means that if we want to translate and rotate an object, we must be careful about the order in which
the composite matrix is evaluated. Using the previous example, if you compute C' = (A·B)·C, you are
rotating the triangle with B first, then translate it with A, but if you compute C' = (B·A)·C, you are
translating it with A first, then rotate it with B. The result is different.

Exercise: Translate a triangle with vertices (10,20), (10,10), (20,10) by t x=5, ty=10 and then rotate it about
the origin by 30 degrees. Compare the result with the one obtained previously: (3.66,32.32),
(8.66,23.66), and (17.32,28.66) by plotting the original triangle together with these 2 results.

4.3 Composite Transformation Matrix

Translations

By common sense, if we translate a shape with 2 successive translation vectors: (t x1, ty1) and (tx2, ty2), it is
equal to a single translation of (tx1+ tx2, ty1+ t y2).
This additive property can be demonstrated by composite transformation matrix:

1 0 t x1  1 0 t x 2  1*1  0 * 0  t x1 * 0 1* 0  0 *1  t x1 * 0 1* t x 2  0 * t y 2  t x1 *1
    
0 1 t · 0 1 t = 0 *1  1* 0  t * 0 0 * 0 1*1  t * 0 0*t 1* t  t *1
 y1   y2   y1 y1 x2 y2 y1 

0 0 1  0 0 1   0 *1  0 * 0 1* 0 0 * 0  0 *1  1* 0 0 * t x 2  0 * tu 2  1*1 

1 0 t x1  t x 2 

= 0 1 t t 
 y1 y2 

0 0 1 
 
This demonstrates that 2 successive translations are additive.

Rotations

By common sense, if we rotate a shape with 2 successive rotation angles: ? and a, about the origin, it
is equal to rotating the shape once by an angle ? + a about the origin.
Similarly, this additive property can be demonstrated by composite transformation matrix:

cos   sin  0cos   sin  0

   
sin  cos  0  · sin  cos  0 

0 0 1  0 0 1
cos cos  ( sin ) * sin  0 * 0 cos  * ( sin )  ( sin ) * cos  0 * 0 cos  * 0  ( sin ) * 0  0 *1
 
=  sin  cos  cos  * sin  0 * 0 sin  * ( sin )  cos  * cos  0 * 0 sin  * 0  cos  * 0  0 *1 
 0 * cos  0 * sin  1* 0 0 * ( sin )  0 * cos  1* 0 0 * 0  0 * 0  1 *1 
 


cos cos = sin 
cos



 sin sin   (cos sin  sin  cos ) 0

 cos sin   sin sin  cos cos  0

0 0 1
 cos()  sin() 0
 
= sin() cos() 0 
 0 0 1
 
This demonstrates that 2 successive rotations are additive.

Scalings With Respect to the Origin

By common sense, if we scale a shape with 2 successive scaling factor: (s x1, sy1) and (sx2, sy2), with
respect to the origin, it is equal to a single scaling of (s x1* sx2, sy1* sy2) with respect to the origin. This
multiplicative property can be demonstrated by composite transformation matrix:

s x1 0 0s x 2 0 0
 s   
0 y1 0 · 0 s y2 0 

 0 0 1  0 0 1
s x1 * s x 2  0 * 0  0 * 0 s x1 * 0  0 * s y 2  0 * 0 s x1 * 0  0 * 0  0 *1
 
= 0 * s x 2  s y1 * 0  0 * 0 0 * 0  s y1 * s y 2  0 * 0 0 * 0  s y1 * 0  0 *1
 
 0 * s x 2  0 * 0  1* 0 0 * 0  0 * s y 2  1* 0 0 * 0  0 * 0  1*1 
s x1 * s x 2 0 0
s *s 
=  
0 y1 y2 0


 0 0 1
 
This demonstrates that 2 successive scalings with respect to the origin are multiplicative.

General Pivot-Point Rotation

Rotation about an arbitrary pivot point is not as simple as rotation about the origin. The procedure of
rotation about an arbitrary pivot point is:

- Translate the object so that the pivot-point position is moved to the origin.
- Rotate the object about the origin.
- Translate the object so that the pivot point is returned to its original position.

The corresponding composite transformation matrix is:

1 0 x r cos   sin  01 0 xr 

   
0 1 y sin  cos  0 0 1 y
 r
  r 

0 0 1   0 0 1 0 0 1 

cos   sin  x r 1 0  x r 

= sin  cos  y 0 1  y 
 r
 r

 
 0 0 1   0 0 1


cos   sin   x r cos  y r sin  x r 

= sin  cos   x sin  y cos  y 
 r r r 

 0 0 1 
 
General Fixed-Point Scaling

Scaling with respect to an arbitrary fixed point is not as simple as scaling with respect to the origin.
The procedure of scaling with respect to an arbitrary fixed point is:

1. Translate the object so that the fixed point coincides with the origin.
2. Scale the object with respect to the origin.
3. Use the inverse translation of step 1 to return the object to its original position.

The corresponding composite transformation matrix is:

1 0 x f  sx 0 0 1 0xf  s x 0 x f (1  s x )

0

1 y 0 s
f  y
0 0

1 y 
f
=

0 s
yf
y (1 s )
y 
 

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1  0 0 1 
     

General Scaling Direction

Scaling along an arbitrary direction is not as simple as scaling along the x-y axis. The procedure of
scaling along and normal to an arbitrary direction (s 1 and s2), with respect to the origin, is:

1. Rotate the object so that the directions for s1 and s2 coincide with the x and y axes respectively.
2. Scale the object with respect to the origin using (s 1, s2).
3. Use an opposite rotation to return points to their original orientation.

The corresponding composite transformation matrix is:

cos()  sin() 0s1 0 0cos   sin  0

     
sin() cos() 0   0 s 2 0  sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1
     

4.4 Other Transformations

Reflection

Reflection about the x axis:

x'1 0 0x
     
y'  = 0 1 0  y 
 1    0
0 1 1
ie. x'=x; y'=-y

Reflection about the y axis:

x'1 0 0x
     
y'  =  0 1 0  y 
1  
0 0 1 1
ie. x'=-x; y'=y
Flipping both x and y coordinates of a point relative to the origin:
x' 1 0 0x
     
y'  =  0 1 0  y 
1  
0 0 1 1
ie. x'=-x; y'=-y

Reflection about the diagonal line y=x:

 
x'0 1 0x y'  =
   
1 0 0  y  1 
0 0 1 1
ie. x'=y; y'=x

Reflection about the diagonal line y=-x:

x' 0 1 0x
     
y'  =  1 0 0  y 
1   0 0 1 1
ie. x'=-y; y'=-x

Shear
X-direction shear, with a shearing parameter sh x, relative
to the x-axis:

x' 1 sh x 0x
     
y'  = 0 1 0  y 
1  001 1
ie. x'=x+y*shx; y'=-x
Exercise: Think of a y-direction shear, with a shearing parameter sh y, relative to the y-axis.
Transformation Between 2 Cartesian Systems

For modelling and design applications, individual objects may be defined in their own
local Cartesian References. The local coordinates must then be transformed to position
the objects within the overall scene coordinate system.

Suppose we want to transform object descriptions from the xy system to the x'y' system:
 The composite transformation is:

cos()  sin() x r 1 0 x0


sin() cos() y 0 1 y
 r


 0 0 10 0 1
 

Clipping
Line Clipping
This section treats clipping of lines against rectangles. Although there are specialized algorithms
for rectangle and polygon clipping, it is important to note that other graphic primitives can be
clipped by repeated application of the line clipper.

1. Clipping Individual Points

Before we discuss clipping lines, let's look at the simpler problem of clipping individual
points.

If the x coordinate boundaries of the clipping rectangle are Xmin and Xmax, and the y
coordinate boundaries are Ymin and Ymax, then the following inequalities must be
satisfied for a point at (X,Y) to be inside the clipping rectangle:

Xmin < X < Xmax

and Ymin < Y < Ymax

If any of the four inequalities does not hold, the point is outside the clipping rectangle.

The Cohen-Sutherland Line-Clipping Algorithm

The more efficient Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm performs initial tests on a line to

determine whether intersection calculations can be avoided.

Steps for Cohen-Sutherland algorithm

1. End-points pairs are check for trivial acceptance or trivial rejected using the outcode.
2. If not trivial-accepance or trivial-rejected, divided into two segments at a clip edge.
3. Iteratively clipped by testing trivial-acceptance or trivial-rejected, and divided into two
segments until completely inside or trivial-rejected.

1. Trivial acceptance/reject test

To perform trivial accept and reject tests, we extend the edges of the clip rectangle to
divide the plane of the clip rectangle into nine regions. Each region is assigned a 4-bit
code deteermined by where the region lies with respect to the outside halfplanes of the
clip-rectangle edges. Each bit in the outcode is set to either 1 (true) or 0 (false); the 4 bits
in the code correspond to the following conditions:

o Bit 1 : outside halfplane of top edge, above top edge

Y > Ymax
o Bit 2 : outside halfplane of bottom edge, below bottom edge
Y < Ymin
 o Bit 3 : outside halfplane of right edge, to the right of right edge
X > Xmax
o Bit 4 : outside halfplane of left edge, to the left of left edge
X < Xmin
2. Clipping Polygons
3. An algorithm that clips a polygon must deal with many different cases. The case is
particularly note worthy in that the concave polygon is clipped into two separate
polygons. All in all, the task of clipping seems rather complex. Each edge of the polygon
must be tested against each edge of the clip rectangle; new edges must be added, and
existing edges must be discarded, retained, or divided. Multiple polygons may result from
clipping a single polygon. We need an organized way to deal with all these cases.
4. The following example illustrate a simple case of polygon clipping.

5.

Sutherland and Hodgman's polygon-clipping algorithm uses a divide-and-conquer strategy: It

solves a series of simple and identical problems that, when combined, solve the overall problem.
The simple problem is to clip a polygon against a single infinite clip edge. Four clip edges, each
defining one boundary of the clip rectangle, successively clip a polygon against a clip rectangle.

Note the difference between this strategy for a polygon and the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm for
clipping a line: The polygon clipper clips against four edges in succession, whereas the line
clipper tests the outcode to see which edge is crossed, and clips only when necessary.

Steps of Sutherland-Hodgman's polygon-clipping algorithm

 Polygons can be clipped against each edge of the window one at a time. Windows/edge
intersections, if any, are easy to find since the X or Y coordinates are already known.
 Vertices which are kept after clipping against one window edge are saved for clipping
against the remaining edges.
 Note that the number of vertices usually changes and will often increases.
 We are using the Divide and Conquer approach.

The clip boundary determines a visible and invisible region. The edges from vertex i to vertex
i+1 can be one of four types:

 Case 1 : Wholly inside visible region - save endpoint

 Case 2 : Exit visible region - save the intersection
 Case 3 : Wholly outside visible region - save nothing
 Case 4 : Enter visible region - save intersection and endpoint

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES

 It is common now for software packages to provide a graphical interface. A
major component of a graphical interface is a window manager that allows a user
. to display multiple-window areas. Each window can contain a different process
that can contain graphical or nongraphical displays. To make a particular window
active, we simply click in that window using an interactive pointing dcvicc.
Interfaces also display menus and icons for fast selection of processing options
or parameter values. An icon is a graphical symbol that is designed to look
like the processing option it represents. The advantages of icons are that they
take up less screen space than corresponding textual descriptions and they can be
understood more quickly if well designed. Menbs contain lists of textual descriptions
and icons.
Figure 1-73 illustrates a typical graphical mterface, containing a window
manager, menu displays, and icons. In this example, the menus allow selection of
processing options, color values, and graphics parameters. The icons represent
options for painting, drawing, zooming, typing text strings, and other operations
connected with picture construction.
A graphical user interface, showing multiple window areas, menus, and icons.

THE USER DlALOGlJE

For a particular application, the rrser's rrroiid serves as the basis for the deslgn ot
the dialogue. The user's model describes what the svstem is designed to acconiplish
and what graphics operations are available. It state; the type of objects that
can be displayed and how the objects can be manipulated. For example, if the
graphics system is to bc used as a tool for architectural design, the model describes
how the package can be used to construct and dispIay views of buildings
by positioning walls, doors, windows, and other buildin!; components. Similarly,
for a facilitv-layout system, objects could be defined as a set of furniture items
(tables, cham, etc.), and the available operations would include those for positioning
and removing different pieces of tcrniture within the fticility layout. And
a circuit-design progranl might use electrical or logli t~l~me nftosr objects, with
positic~ningoperations.I ,.adable for adding or drlctirg c~lc~nienwtsi thin the o\.?rall
circuit design

All information in the user dialogue is then presented in the language of the Mion 6-1
application. In an architectural design package, this means that all interactions The User Dialogue
are described only in architectural terms, without reference to particular data
structures or other concepts that may be unfamiliar to an architect. In the following
sections, we discuss some of the general considerations in structuring a user
dialogue.
Windows and Icons
Figure 8-1 shows examples of common window and icon graphical interfaces. Visual
representations are used both for obpds to be manipulated in an application
and for the actions to be performed on the application objects.
A window system provides a window-manager interface for the user and
functions for handling the display and manipulation of the windows. Common
functions for the window system are opening and closing windows, repositioning
windows, resizing windows, and display routines that provide interior and
exterior clipping and other graphics functions. Typically, windows are displayed
with sliders, buttons, and menu icons for selecting various window options.
Some general systems, such as X Widows and NeWS, are capable of supporting
multiple window managers so that different window styles can be accommodated,
each with its own window manager. The window managers can then be
designed for particular applications. In other cases, a window system is designed
for one specific application and window style.
Icons representing objects such as furniture items and circuit elements are
often referred to as application icons. The icons representing actions, such as 1-0-
tate, magnlfy, scale, clip, and paste, are called control icons, or command icons.

Accommodating ~ u l h l Sek ill Levels

Usually, interactive graphical interfaces provide several methods for selecting actions.
For example, options could be selected by pointing at an icon and clicking
different mouse buttons, or by accessing pull-down or pop-up menus, or by typing
keyboard commands. This allows a package to accommodate users that have
different skill levels.
For a less experienced user, an interface with a few easily understood operations
and detailed prompting is more effective than one with a large, compre-

Minimising Memory Requirements

Operations ill an interl.~ce shot~lcl illso br structured .;o -tiat thev are easy to understand
and to renicmxr. Ohx-urc, compl~catedi,n cor5istent. and abbreviated
command forrn'its Ir,ld . o conlu*~ona nd reduct~onIn tho' c~tlcvt~\,ent o~t stsh e u w
ol the package. One ke! or button used lor all delete operat~onsf,o r example, is
easier to remember than a nulnher of ditlerent kevs for different types of delete
operations.
Icons and windo\\ systems also aid in minimizing memor~zationD. iiferent
kinds of information can he separated into d~fferenwt ~ndows s,o that we d o not
have to rely on meniorization when different information displays overlap. We
can simply retain the multiple information on the scretbn in different windows,
and switch bark and forth between windoh areas. Icons .Ire used to reduce memorizing
by displaying easily recognizable shapes for various objects and actions.
To select a particular action, we simply select the icon thal rrsemhles that action.