A Module on

Problem solving and reasoning

Contents
A. Inductive and deductive reasoning
B. Polya’s 4-steps in problem solving
C. Mathematical problems involving patterns
D. Recreational problems using mathematics

Department of Mathematics
College of Arts and Sciences
Mariano Marcos State University

2019
 Mathematics in Our World | Problem Solving and Reasoning

INTRODUCTION

Problem solving and reasoning are essential skills in our everyday life, not
only in mathematics. We often encounter critical problems and important decisions
which require ingenious strategies and logical thinking. Solving problems and
making valid arguments in mathematics is a form of mental exercise that trains our
minds to think logically and learn effective strategies in finding solutions.

Some Mental Exercise

Consider the diagram on the right. Can you connect

each small box on the top with its same-letter mate on
the bottom with paths that do not cross one another,
nor leave the boundaries of the large box?

Can you connect all nine points with an unbroken path

of four straight lines?

Draw the next symbol in the following list:

A. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE RESEASONING

In the previous chapter, mathematical statements or propositions were

presented. Basic notations, symbols and terminologies were defined and truth
values of mathematical propositions were determined.

Mathematical statements or propositions are essential components of

mathematical arguments. In order to prove that a proposition is true, one has to
make a valid argument or use valid reasoning to show that it is indeed true.

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Reasoning is defined as the process of forming conclusions or inferences

based on facts or premises. We may not realize it, but every day in our life, we use
two types of reasoning to make decisions and solve problems: inductive reasoning
and deductive reasoning.

Definition 1: Inductive reasoning is the process of forming a general

conclusion based on observing specific examples.

For example, your instructor always gives surprise quizzes and you observe
that a quiz was given on a Friday or a Monday during the first few weeks of your
math class. Hence, you would probably review before your class on those days.

When you examine a list of numbers and try to predict what number comes
next, you usually look for some pattern. Again, you are using inductive reasoning.

Example 1 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next three numbers in the
following lists.

a. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, …
b. 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6, 4, 7, 5, …

Inductive reasoning can also be used to make conjectures. A conjecture is

a statement or an idea which is unproven, but is thought to be true. Based on some
information or observation, a conjecture can be deduced but needs proof in order
to be validated.

For example, what can you deduce from the following sums?

1+3 =4

1+3+5=9

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25

What is your conjecture?

Inductive reasoning is useful in finding patterns, not only of numbers and

figures but also those of nature and of our modern world.

Many mathematical properties result from conjectures which are

established using proofs, evidences and other validation procedures. However,
some conjectures may be incorrect which is why proofs are very important.

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As an illustration, consider the following exercise.

Exercise 1 Draw a fairly large circle, and mark one point on the circumference.
Note that there is just one, undivided region enclosed by the circle.

a. Place a second point on the circle and draw the chord formed by the two
points drawn. How many regions are formed?
b. Place a third point on the circle and draw the chords connecting it to the
other points. How many regions are formed?
c. Place a fourth point on the circle and draw the chords connecting it to all the
points previously drawn on the circle. How many regions are formed? Based
on the first four numbers generated, what do you think is the first eight
numbers generated if you continue the process?
d. Place a fifth point on the circle in general position so that no chord joining it
to other points will pass through a point of intersection of other chords. Draw
all the chords and count the parts. Is this consistent with your conjecture in
part (c)? If not, make a new conjecture. Do you think your conjecture is true?
e. Place a sixth point in general position on the circle and draw all the chords.
Is this consistent with your conjecture in part (d)?

Discuss the results of this exercise in class.

A mathematical statement or proposition is true provided that it is true for all

cases. If the statement is not true for a particular case, called a counterexample,
then the statement is false.

Exercise 2 Deduce whether the following statements are true or false. If false,
provide a counterexample.

a) The sum of any two odd numbers is even.

b) All prime numbers are odd.
c) The sum of two irrational numbers is irrational.
d) For each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, |𝑥 | > 0.
e) For every real number 𝑥, 𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑥.

Definition 2: Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by

applying general assumptions, procedures or principles.

In problem solving, once a problem has been described and analyzed, the
solution to the problem may involve a common method or known property.

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For example, in solving the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0, one can use

the quadratic formula. That is, we can find the value/s of 𝑥 using the quadratic
formula where 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −3 and 𝑐 = 2 which gives

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −(−3) ± √(−3)2 − 4(1)(2) 3 ± √1 3 ± 1

𝑥= = = =
2𝑎 2(1) 2 2
Hence 𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = 1.
This may arise from the following problem:
Find a number whose square is thrice the number less 2.

Another common formula used in solving problems involve the Pythagorean

Theorem. Consider the following problem in trigonometry:

An airplane traveled 60 km. with a bearing of 𝑁30°20′𝐸. Due to a storm, it turned

𝑆59°40′𝐸. If the distance of the plane from its starting point to its current position
is 90 km., how far did it travel from where it turned?

Can you solve this problem?

Further reading
1. Intuition and proof
Link: https://flm-journal.org/Articles/3C2FDFF14268CD1E813E785AD584E4.pdf
2. Intuition/Proof/Certainty
Link: https://www.uni-siegen.de/fb6/phima/lehre/phima13/quellentexte/
seminar_-_hersh/hersh-chapter4.pdf

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B. Polya’s 4-steps in Problem Solving

In a book titled How To Solve It, George Polya outlined a four-step
procedure to mathematical problem solving. It may not work for all kinds of
mathematical problems but is useful as a guide to finding a solution.

UNDERSTAND

PLAN

EXECUTE

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CHECK

Example 2
A Mathematical Prodigy. Karl Friedrich Gauss was a famous mathematician who
worked on several mathematical disciplines including number theory and analysis.
A story goes that when Gauss entered elementary school, his teacher assigned
the problem of finding the sum of the first 100 natural numbers. Surprisingly, he
was able to determine the sum in just a few seconds.

Let us reconstruct his solution following Polya’s method:

Step 1: Understand | The sum of the first 100 natural numbers is represented by
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 98 + 99 + 100

Step 2: Plan | Adding all natural numbers from 1 to 100 is time consuming, so
Gauss considered another method. He noticed that adding pairs of numbers on
opposite ends of the expanded sum results to the same number, which is 101.
Thus, there are 50 pairs of numbers that sums up to 101.

Step 3: Execute | To find the total sum, Gauss computed the sum of 50 pairs, each
with a sum of 101. That is, 50 ⋅ 101 = 5050.

Step 4: Check | This can be easily checked using a computing device. Intuitively,
one can use the fact that the addends can be placed in any order without changing
the sum.

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Example 3
The Age of Diophantus. Nothing is known about the personal life of the ancient
Greek mathematician Diophantus except for the information in the following
epigram. “Diophantus passed 1/6 of his life in childhood, 1/12 in youth, and 1/7
more as a bachelor. Five years after his marriage was born a son who died four
years before his father, at ½ his father’s final age.” How old was Diophantus when
he died?

Solution:

Step 1: Understand | We need to find the age of Diophantus when he died. We

can represent this age in years as 𝑥.

Step 2: Plan | Based on the information provided in the epigram, we have the
following diagram.

Using algebraic expressions, we have the following working equation:

1 1 1 1
𝑥 = 𝑥+ 𝑥+ 𝑥+5+ 𝑥+4
6 12 7 2

Step 3: Execute | Simplifying the above equation, we have

1 1 1 1
𝑥 = 𝑥+ 𝑥+ 𝑥+5+ 𝑥+4
6 12 7 2
14 7 12 42 75
𝑥= 𝑥+ 𝑥+ 𝑥+ 𝑥+9= 𝑥+9
84 84 84 84 84
75
𝑥− 𝑥=9
84
9
𝑥=9
84
𝑥 = 84

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 Mathematics in Our World | Problem Solving and Reasoning

Step 4: Check |

1 1 1 1
(84) + (84) + (84) + 5 + (84) + 4 = 14 + 7 + 12 + 5 + 42 + 4 = 84
6 12 7 2

Alternatively, we can solve the problem by deducing that Diophantus’ age is

divisible by 6, 12, 7 and 2 based on the information given. Can you solve the
problem using this analogy following Polya’s method?

Exercise 3 Form a group of three students and discuss a solution to the following
problem. Can you think of a solution without using a formula in physics?

Man vs. Train. A man is crossing a train trestle on foot. When he is 4/7 of the way
across he sees a train coming toward him head-on. He realizes that he has just
enough time to run toward the train and get off the trestle or to run away from the
train and get off the trestle. If the man can run 20 kilometers per hour, how fast is
the train going?

Illustration:

Example 5
The Three Prisoners. Three prisoners know that the jailer has three white hats
and two red hats. The jailer puts a hat on the head of each prisoner and says, “If
you can deduce the color of your own hat, you will be freed.” A prisoner can see
the hats of the other two prisoners but not his own. The first prisoner says, “I
cannot tell the color of my hat.” Then the second prisoner says, “I cannot tell the
color of my hat.” The third prisoner, who is blind, is able to determine the color of
his hat and is freed. What is the color of the third prisoner’s hat, and how did he
know?

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 Mathematics in Our World | Problem Solving and Reasoning

Solution:

Step 1: Understand | Visualize the situation clearly. Imagine three prisoners, one
of whom is blind, each with a hat on his head which is either white or red.

Step 2: Plan | For each of the three prisoners, there are two choices of hats, red
or white. This gives 23 = 8 possible ways for the prisoners to wear the red or
white hats. Make a table or a list of all possible combinations. Thinking as the
blind prisoner, eliminate cases based on the statements of the first and second
prisoner.

Step 3: Execute | The following table shows the eight possible cases, together
with a possible analogy by the blind prisoner.

1st prisoner 2nd prisoner Blind prisoner Analogy

1 red red red Impossible since there
are only 2 red hats
2 red red white
3 red white red Eliminated by the 2nd
prisoners’ statement
4 white red white
5 white red red Eliminated by the 1st
prisoners’ statement
6 red white white
7 white white red Eliminated by the 2nd
prisoners’ statement
8 white white white

The remaining cases require that the blind prisoner is wearing a white hat.

Step 4: Check | Review the arguments leading to the elimination of cases 3, 5

and 7.

Group Activity: Play the act presented in the “Three Prisoners” problem and
validate the analogies given.

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