Selenium

Selenium is a chemical element with the

symbol Se and atomic number 34. It is a
nonmetal (more rarely considered a
metalloid) with properties that are
intermediate between the elements above
and below in the periodic table, sulfur and
tellurium, and also has similarities to
arsenic. It rarely occurs in its elemental
state or as pure ore compounds in the
Earth's crust. Selenium – from Ancient
Greek σελήνη (selḗnē) "Moon" – was
discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob
Berzelius, who noted the similarity of the
new element to the previously discovered
tellurium (named for the Earth).
 Selenium, 34Se

Selenium

Pronunciation /sɪˈliːniəm/ (sə-LEE-

nee-əm)

Appearance black, red, and gray

(not pictured)
allotropes

Standard atomic 78.971(8)[1]

weight Ar, std(Se)
 Selenium in
S
the periodic table
H H
LB BCNOFN ↑
SM ASPSCA
PCS TVCMICNCZGGASBK Se
RSY ZNMTRRPSCI TATI X ↓
CBLCPNPSEGTDHETYLHTTROI PGMTLBPAR Te
FRATPUNPACBCEFMNLRDSBHMDRCNFMLTO
arsenic ← selenium → bromine

Atomic number (Z) 34

Group group 16
(chalcogens)

Period period 4

Block p-block

Element category Reactive nonmetal,

 
sometimes
considered a
metalloid

Electron [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4

configuration
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 6

Physical properties

Phase at STP solid

Melting point 494 K (221 °C, 430 °F)

Boiling point 958 K (685 °C,

1265 °F)

Density (near r.t.) gray: 4.81 g/cm3

alpha: 4.39 g/cm3
vitreous: 4.28 g/cm3

when liquid (at m.p.) 3.99 g/cm3

Critical point 1766 K, 27.2 MPa

Heat of fusion gray: 6.69 kJ/mol

Heat of vaporization 95.48 kJ/mol

Molar heat capacity 25.363 J/(mol·K)

Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 500 552 617 704 813 958

Atomic properties

Oxidation states −2, −1, +1,[2] +2, +3,

+4, +5, +6 (a strongly
acidic oxide)

Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.55

Ionization energies 1st: 941.0 kJ/mol

2nd: 2045 kJ/mol
 3rd: 2973.7 kJ/mol

Atomic radius empirical: 120 pm

Covalent radius 120±4 pm

Van der Waals radius 190 pm

Spectral lines of selenium

Other properties

Natural occurrence primordial

Crystal structure hexagonal

Speed of sound 3350 m/s (at 20 °C)

thin rod

Thermal expansion amorphous:

 37 µm/(m·K)
(at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity amorphous:
0.519 W/(m·K)

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[3]

Magnetic −25.0·10−6 cm3/mol
susceptibility (298 K)[4]

Young's modulus 10 GPa

Shear modulus 3.7 GPa

Bulk modulus 8.3 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.33

Mohs hardness 2.0

Brinell hardness 736 MPa
CAS Number 7782-49-2

History

Naming after Selene, Greek

goddess of the moon

Discovery and first Jöns Jakob Berzelius

isolation and Johann Gottlieb
Gahn (1817)

Main isotopes of selenium

Isotope Abundance Half-life (t1/2) Decay mode Product

72
ε As
72
Se syn 8.4 d
γ –

74Se 0.86% stable

75
ε As
75Se syn 119.8 d
γ –
 76Se 9.23% stable

77Se 7.60% stable

78
Se 23.69% stable

79
Se trace 3.27×105 y β− 79
Br

80Se 49.80% stable

82Se 8.82% 1.08×1020 y β−β− 82Kr

Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores,

where it partially replaces the sulfur.
Commercially, selenium is produced as a
byproduct in the refining of these ores,
most often during production. Minerals
that are pure selenide or selenate
compounds are known but rare. The chief
commercial uses for selenium today are
glassmaking and pigments. Selenium is a
semiconductor and is used in photocells.
Applications in electronics, once
important, have been mostly replaced with
silicon semiconductor devices. Selenium
is still used in a few types of DC power
surge protectors and one type of
fluorescent quantum dot.

Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts,

but trace amounts are necessary for
cellular function in many organisms,
including all animals. Selenium is an
ingredient in many multivitamins and other
dietary supplements, including infant
formula. It is a component of the
antioxidant enzymes glutathione
peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase
(which indirectly reduce certain oxidized
molecules in animals and some plants). It
is also found in three deiodinase enzymes,
which convert one thyroid hormone to
another. Selenium requirements in plants
differ by species, with some plants
requiring relatively large amounts and
others apparently requiring none.[5]
Characteristics

Physical properties …

Structure of hexagonal (gray) selenium

Selenium forms several allotropes that

interconvert with temperature changes,
depending somewhat on the rate of
temperature change. When prepared in
chemical reactions, selenium is usually an
amorphous, brick-red powder. When
rapidly melted, it forms the black, vitreous
form, usually sold commercially as
beads.[6] The structure of black selenium
is irregular and complex and consists of
polymeric rings with up to 1000 atoms per
ring. Black Se is a brittle, lustrous solid
that is slightly soluble in CS2. Upon
heating, it softens at 50 °C and converts to
gray selenium at 180 °C; the
transformation temperature is reduced by
presence of halogens and amines.[7]
The red α, β, and γ forms are produced
from solutions of black selenium by
varying the evaporation rate of the solvent
(usually CS2). They all have relatively low,
monoclinic crystal symmetries and
contain nearly identical puckered Se8 rings
with different arrangements, as in sulfur.
The packing is most dense in the α form.
In the Se8 rings, the Se-Se distance is
233.5 pm and Se-Se-Se angle is 105.7° .
Other selenium allotropes may contain Se6
or Se7 rings.[7]
The most stable and dense form of
selenium is gray and has a hexagonal
crystal lattice consisting of helical
polymeric chains, where the Se-Se
distance is 237.3 pm and Se-Se-Se angle
is 130.1° . The minimum distance between
chains is 343.6 pm. Gray Se is formed by
mild heating of other allotropes, by slow
cooling of molten Se, or by condensing Se
vapor just below the melting point.
Whereas other Se forms are insulators,
gray Se is a semiconductor showing
appreciable photoconductivity. Unlike the
other allotropes, it is insoluble in CS2.[7] It
resists oxidation by air and is not attacked
by nonoxidizing acids. With strong
reducing agents, it forms polyselenides.
Selenium does not exhibit the changes in
viscosity that sulfur undergoes when
gradually heated.[6][8]

Optical properties …

Owing to its use as a photoconductor in

flat-panel x-ray detectors (see below), the
optical properties of amorphous selenium
(α-Se) thin films have been the subject of
intense research.[9][10][11]

Isotopes …

Selenium has seven naturally occurring

isotopes. Five of these, 74Se, 76Se, 77Se,
78Se, 80Se, are stable, with 80Se being the
most abundant (49.6% natural
abundance). Also naturally occurring is the
long-lived primordial radionuclide 82Se,
with a half-life of 9.2×1019 years.[12] The
non-primordial radioisotope 79Se also
occurs in minute quantities in uranium
ores as a product of nuclear fission.
Selenium also has numerous unstable
synthetic isotopes ranging from 64Se to
95Se; the most stable are 75Se with a half-
life of 119.78 days and 72Se with a half-life
of 8.4 days.[12] Isotopes lighter than the
stable isotopes primarily undergo beta
plus decay to isotopes of arsenic, and
isotopes heavier than the stable isotopes
undergo beta minus decay to isotopes of
bromine, with some minor neutron
emission branches in the heaviest known
isotopes.
Selenium isotopes of greatest stability
Isotope Nature Origin Half-life
74Se Primordial Stable
76
Se Primordial Stable
77
Se Primordial Fission product Stable
78Se Primordial Fission product Stable
79
Se Trace Fission product 327 000 yr[13][14]
80
Se Primordial Fission product Stable
82
Se Primordial Fission product* ~1020 yr[12][a]

Chemical compounds
Selenium compounds commonly exist in
the oxidation states −2, +2, +4, and +6.
Chalcogen compounds …

Selenium forms two oxides: selenium

dioxide (SeO2) and selenium trioxide
(SeO3). Selenium dioxide is formed by the
reaction of elemental selenium with
oxygen:[6]

Se8 + 8 O2 → 8 SeO2

Structure of the polymer SeO2: The (pyramidal) Se

atoms are yellow.
It is a polymeric solid that forms
monomeric SeO2 molecules in the gas
phase. It dissolves in water to form
selenous acid, H2SeO3. Selenous acid can
also be made directly by oxidizing
elemental selenium with nitric acid:[15]

3 Se + 4 HNO3 + H2O → 3 H2SeO3 + 4

NO

Unlike sulfur, which forms a stable trioxide,

selenium trioxide is thermodynamically
unstable and decomposes to the dioxide
above 185 °C:[6][15]
 2 SeO3 → 2 SeO2 + O2 (ΔH =
−54 kJ/mol)

Selenium trioxide is produced in the

laboratory by the reaction of anhydrous
potassium selenate (K2SeO4) and sulfur
trioxide (SO3).[16]

Salts of selenous acid are called selenites.

These include silver selenite (Ag2SeO3)
and sodium selenite (Na2SeO3).

Hydrogen sulfide reacts with aqueous

selenous acid to produce selenium
disulfide:

H2SeO3 + 2 H2S → SeS2 + 3 H2O

Selenium disulfide consists of 8-

membered rings. It has an approximate
composition of SeS2, with individual rings
varying in composition, such as Se4S4 and
Se2S6. Selenium disulfide has been used in
shampoo as an antidandruff agent, an
inhibitor in polymer chemistry, a glass dye,
and a reducing agent in fireworks.[15]
Selenium trioxide may be synthesized by
dehydrating selenic acid, H2SeO4, which is
itself produced by the oxidation of
selenium dioxide with hydrogen
peroxide:[17]

SeO2 + H2O2 → H2SeO4

Hot, concentrated selenic acid can react

with gold to form gold(III) selenate.[18]

Halogen compounds …
Iodides of selenium are not well known.
The only stable chloride is selenium
monochloride (Se2Cl2), which might be
better known as selenium(I) chloride; the
corresponding bromide is also known.
These species are structurally analogous
to the corresponding disulfur dichloride.
Selenium dichloride is an important
reagent in the preparation of selenium
compounds (e.g. the preparation of Se7). It
is prepared by treating selenium with
sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2).[19] Selenium
reacts with fluorine to form selenium
hexafluoride:

Se8 + 24 F2 → 8 SeF6

In comparison with its sulfur counterpart

(sulfur hexafluoride), selenium
hexafluoride (SeF6) is more reactive and is
a toxic pulmonary irritant.[20] Some of the
selenium oxyhalides, such as selenium
oxyfluoride (SeOF2) and selenium
oxychloride (SeOCl2) have been used as
specialty solvents.[6]
Selenides …

Analogous to the behavior of other

chalcogens, selenium forms hydrogen
selenide, H2Se. It is a strongly odiferous,
toxic, and colorless gas. It is more acidic
than H2S. In solution it ionizes to HSe−.
The selenide dianion Se2− forms a variety
of compounds, including the minerals
from which selenium is obtained
commercially. Illustrative selenides include
mercury selenide (HgSe), lead selenide
(PbSe), zinc selenide (ZnSe), and copper
indium gallium diselenide (Cu(Ga,In)Se2).
These materials are semiconductors. With
highly electropositive metals, such as
aluminium, these selenides are prone to
hydrolysis:[6]

Al2Se3 + 3 H2O → Al2O3 + 3 H2Se

Alkali metal selenides react with selenium

to form polyselenides, Se2−
n , which exist as
chains.

Other compounds …
Tetraselenium tetranitride, Se4N4, is an
explosive orange compound analogous to
tetrasulfur tetranitride (S4N4).[6][21][22] It
can be synthesized by the reaction of
selenium tetrachloride (SeCl4) with
[((CH3)3Si)2N]2Se.[23]

Selenium reacts with cyanides to yield

selenocyanates:[6]

8 KCN + Se8 → 8 KSeCN

Organoselenium compounds …
Selenium, especially in the II oxidation
state, forms stable bonds to carbon, which
are structurally analogous to the
corresponding organosulfur compounds.
Especially common are selenides (R2Se,
analogues of thioethers), diselenides
(R2Se2, analogues of disulfides), and
selenols (RSeH, analogues of thiols).
Representatives of selenides, diselenides,
and selenols include respectively
selenomethionine, diphenyldiselenide, and
benzeneselenol. The sulfoxide in sulfur
chemistry is represented in selenium
chemistry by the selenoxides (formula
RSe(O)R), which are intermediates in
organic synthesis, as illustrated by the
selenoxide elimination reaction.
Consistent with trends indicated by the
double bond rule, selenoketones,
R(C=Se)R, and selenaldehydes, R(C=Se)H,
are rarely observed.[24]

History
Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning
"Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns
Jacob Berzelius and Johan Gottlieb
Gahn.[25] Both chemists owned a
chemistry plant near Gripsholm, Sweden,
producing sulfuric acid by the lead
chamber process. The pyrite from the
Falun Mine created a red precipitate in the
lead chambers which was presumed to be
an arsenic compound, so the pyrite's use
to make acid was discontinued. Berzelius
and Gahn wanted to use the pyrite and
they also observed that the red precipitate
gave off a smell like horseradish when
burned. This smell was not typical of
arsenic, but a similar odor was known
from tellurium compounds. Hence,
Berzelius's first letter to Alexander Marcet
stated that this was a tellurium compound.
However, the lack of tellurium compounds
in the Falun Mine minerals eventually led
Berzelius to reanalyze the red precipitate,
and in 1818 he wrote a second letter to
Marcet describing a newly found element
similar to sulfur and tellurium. Because of
its similarity to tellurium, named for the
Earth, Berzelius named the new element
after the Moon.[26][27]
In 1873, Willoughby Smith found that the
electrical resistance of grey selenium was
dependent on the ambient light.[28][29] This
led to its use as a cell for sensing light.
The first commercial products using
selenium were developed by Werner
Siemens in the mid-1870s. The selenium
cell was used in the photophone
developed by Alexander Graham Bell in
1879. Selenium transmits an electric
current proportional to the amount of light
falling on its surface. This phenomenon
was used in the design of light meters and
similar devices. Selenium's semiconductor
properties found numerous other
applications in electronics.[30][31][32] The
development of selenium rectifiers began
during the early 1930s, and these replaced
copper oxide rectifiers because they were
more efficient.[33][34][35] These lasted in
commercial applications until the 1970s,
following which they were replaced with
less expensive and even more efficient
silicon rectifiers.
Selenium came to medical notice later
because of its toxicity to industrial
workers. Selenium was also recognized as
an important veterinary toxin, which is
seen in animals that have eaten high-
selenium plants. In 1954, the first hints of
specific biological functions of selenium
were discovered in microorganisms by
biochemist, Jane Pinsent.[36][37] It was
discovered to be essential for mammalian
life in 1957.[38][39] In the 1970s, it was
shown to be present in two independent
sets of enzymes. This was followed by the
discovery of selenocysteine in proteins.
During the 1980s, selenocysteine was
shown to be encoded by the codon UGA.
The recoding mechanism was worked out
first in bacteria and then in mammals (see
SECIS element).[40]

Occurrence

Native selenium in sandstone, from a uranium mine

near Grants, New Mexico

Native (i.e., elemental) selenium is a rare

mineral, which does not usually form good
crystals, but, when it does, they are steep
rhombohedra or tiny acicular (hair-like)
crystals.[41] Isolation of selenium is often
complicated by the presence of other
compounds and elements.

Selenium occurs naturally in a number of

inorganic forms, including selenide,
selenate, and selenite, but these minerals
are rare. The common mineral selenite is
not a selenium mineral, and contains no
selenite ion, but is rather a type of gypsum
(calcium sulfate hydrate) named like
selenium for the moon well before the
discovery of selenium. Selenium is most
commonly found as an impurity, replacing
a small part of the sulfur in sulfide ores of
many metals.[42][43]

In living systems, selenium is found in the

amino acids selenomethionine,
selenocysteine, and methylselenocysteine.
In these compounds, selenium plays a role
analogous to that of sulfur. Another
naturally occurring organoselenium
compound is dimethyl selenide.[44][45]

Certain soils are selenium-rich, and

selenium can be bioconcentrated by some
plants. In soils, selenium most often
occurs in soluble forms such as selenate
(analogous to sulfate), which are leached
into rivers very easily by runoff.[42][43]
Ocean water contains significant amounts
of selenium.[46][47]
Anthropogenic sources of selenium
include coal burning, and the mining and
smelting of sulfide ores.[48]

Production
Selenium is most commonly produced
from selenide in many sulfide ores, such
as those of copper, nickel, or lead.
Electrolytic metal refining is particularly
productive of selenium as a byproduct,
obtained from the anode mud of copper
refineries. Another source was the mud
from the lead chambers of sulfuric acid
plants, a process that is no longer used.
Selenium can be refined from these muds
by a number of methods. However, most
elemental selenium comes as a byproduct
of refining copper or producing sulfuric
acid.[49][50] Since its invention, solvent
extraction and electrowinning (SX/EW)
production of copper produces an
increasing share of the worldwide copper
supply.[51] This changes the availability of
selenium because only a comparably
small part of the selenium in the ore is
leached with the copper.[52]

Industrial production of selenium usually

involves the extraction of selenium dioxide
from residues obtained during the
purification of copper. Common
production from the residue then begins
by oxidation with sodium carbonate to
produce selenium dioxide, which is mixed
with water and acidified to form selenous
acid (oxidation step). Selenous acid is
bubbled with sulfur dioxide (reduction
step) to give elemental selenium.[53][54]

About 2,000 tonnes of selenium were

produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in
Germany (650 t), Japan (630 t), Belgium
(200 t), and Russia (140 t), and the total
reserves were estimated at 93,000 tonnes.
These data exclude two major producers:
the United States and China. A previous
sharp increase was observed in 2004 from
$4–$5 to $27/lb. The price was relatively
stable during 2004–2010 at about
US$30 per pound (in 100 pound lots) but
increased to $65/lb in 2011. The
consumption in 2010 was divided as
follows: metallurgy – 30%, glass
manufacturing – 30%, agriculture – 10%,
chemicals and pigments – 10%, and
electronics – 10%. China is the dominant
consumer of selenium at 1,500–
2,000 tonnes/year.[55]

Applications

Manganese electrolysis …
During the electrowinning of manganese,
the addition of selenium dioxide
decreases the power necessary to operate
the electrolysis cells. China is the largest
consumer of selenium dioxide for this
purpose. For every tonne of manganese,
an average 2 kg selenium oxide is
used.[55][56]

Glass production …

The largest commercial use of Se,

accounting for about 50% of consumption,
is for the production of glass. Se
compounds confer a red color to glass.
This color cancels out the green or yellow
tints that arise from iron impurities typical
for most glass. For this purpose, various
selenite and selenate salts are added. For
other applications, a red color may be
desired, produced by mixtures of CdSe and
CdS.[57]

Alloys …
Selenium is used with bismuth in brasses
to replace more toxic lead. The regulation
of lead in drinking water applications such
as in the US with the Safe Drinking Water
Act of 1974, made a reduction of lead in
brass necessary. The new brass is
marketed under the name EnviroBrass.[58]
Like lead and sulfur, selenium improves
the machinability of steel at
concentrations around 0.15%.[59][60]
Selenium produces the same
machinability improvement in copper
alloys.[61]
Lithium–selenium batteries …

The lithium–selenium (Li–Se) battery is

one of the most promising systems for
energy storage in the family of lithium
batteries.[62] The Li–Se battery is an
alternative to the lithium–sulfur battery,
with an advantage of high electrical
conductivity.

Solar cells …
Copper indium gallium selenide is a
material used in solar cells.[63]

Photoconductors …

Amorphous selenium (α-Se) thin films

have found application as
photoconductors in flat panel x-ray
detectors.[64] These detectors use
amorphous selenium to capture and
convert incident x-ray photons directly into
electric charge.[65]
Rectifiers …

Selenium rectifiers were first used in 1933.

Their use continued into the 1990s.

Other uses …

Small amounts of organoselenium

compounds have been used to modify the
catalysts used for the vulcanization for the
production of rubber.[52]

The demand for selenium by the

electronics industry is declining.[55] Its
photovoltaic and photoconductive
properties are still useful in
photocopying,[66][67][68][69] photocells, light
meters and solar cells. Its use as a
photoconductor in plain-paper copiers
once was a leading application, but in the
1980s, the photoconductor application
declined (although it was still a large end-
use) as more and more copiers switched
to organic photoconductors. Though once
widely used, selenium rectifiers have
mostly been replaced (or are being
replaced) by silicon-based devices. The
most notable exception is in power DC
surge protection, where the superior
energy capabilities of selenium
suppressors make them more desirable
than metal oxide varistors.

Zinc selenide was the first material for

blue LEDs, but gallium nitride dominates
that market.[70] Cadmium selenide was an
important component in quantum dots.
Sheets of amorphous selenium convert X-
ray images to patterns of charge in
xeroradiography and in solid-state, flat-
panel X-ray cameras.[71] Ionized selenium
(Se+24) is one of the active mediums used
in X-ray lasers.[72]

Selenium is a catalyst in some chemical

reactions, but it is not widely used
because of issues with toxicity. In X-ray
crystallography, incorporation of one or
more selenium atoms in place of sulfur
helps with multiple-wavelength anomalous
dispersion and single wavelength
anomalous dispersion phasing.[73]
Selenium is used in the toning of
photographic prints, and it is sold as a
toner by numerous photographic
manufacturers. Selenium intensifies and
extends the tonal range of black-and-white
photographic images and improves the
permanence of prints.[74][75][76]

75Se is used as a gamma source in

industrial radiography.[77]

Pollution
In high concentrations, selenium acts as
an environmental contaminant. Sources of
pollution include waste materials from
certain mining, agricultural, petrochemical,
and industrial manufacturing operations.
In Belews Lake North Carolina, 19 species
of fish were eliminated from the lake due
to 150-200 μg Se/L wastewater
discharged from 1974 to 1986 from a
Duke Energy coal-fired power plant. At the
Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in
California, thousands of fish and
waterbirds were poisoned by selenium in
agricultural irrigation drainage.

Substantial physiological changes may

occur in fish with high tissue
concentrations of selenium. Fish affected
by selenium may experience swelling of
the gill lamellae, which impedes oxygen
diffusion across the gills and blood flow
within the gills. Respiratory capacity is
further reduced due to selenium binding to
hemoglobin. Other problems include
degeneration of liver tissue, swelling
around the heart, damaged egg follicles in
ovaries, cataracts, and accumulation of
fluid in the body cavity and head. Selenium
often causes a malformed fish fetus which
may have problems feeding or respiring,
distortion of the fins or spine is also
common. Adult fish may appear healthy
despite their inability to produce viable
offspring.

Selenium is bioaccumulated in aquatic

habitats, this results in higher
concentrations in organisms than the
surrounding water. Organoselenium
compounds can be concentrated over
200,000 times by zooplankton when water
concentrations are in the 0.5 to 0.8 μg
Se/L range. Inorganic selenium
bioaccumulates more readily in
phytoplankton than zooplankton.
Phytoplankton can concentrate inorganic
selenium by a factor of 3000. Further
concentration through bioaccumulation
occurs along the food chain, as predators
consume selenium rich prey. It is
recommended that a water concentration
of 2 μg Se/L be considered highly
hazardous to sensitive fish and aquatic
birds. Selenium poisoning can be passed
from parents to offspring through the egg,
and selenium poisoning may persist for
many generations. Reproduction of
mallard ducks is impaired at dietary
concentrations of 7 ug Se/L. Many benthic
invertebrates can tolerate selenium
concentrations up to 300 μg/L of Se in
their diet.[78]

Biological role
 Elemental selenium
Hazards

NFPA 704 0
2 0
(fire diamond)

Although it is toxic in large doses,

selenium is an essential micronutrient for
animals. In plants, it occurs as a bystander
mineral, sometimes in toxic proportions in
forage (some plants may accumulate
selenium as a defense against being eaten
by animals, but other plants, such as
locoweed, require selenium, and their
growth indicates the presence of selenium
in soil).[5] See more on plant nutrition
below.

Selenium is a component of the unusual

amino acids selenocysteine and
selenomethionine. In humans, selenium is
a trace element nutrient that functions as
cofactor for reduction of antioxidant
enzymes, such as glutathione
peroxidases[79] and certain forms of
thioredoxin reductase found in animals
and some plants (this enzyme occurs in all
living organisms, but not all forms of it in
plants require selenium).

The glutathione peroxidase family of

enzymes (GSH-Px) catalyze certain
reactions that remove reactive oxygen
species such as hydrogen peroxide and
organic hydroperoxides:

2 GSH + H2O2----GSH-Px → GSSG + 2

H2O

The thyroid gland and every cell that uses

thyroid hormone use selenium, which is a
cofactor for the three of the four known
types of thyroid hormone deiodinases,
which activate and then deactivate various
thyroid hormones and their metabolites;
the iodothyronine deiodinases are the
subfamily of deiodinase enzymes that use
selenium as the otherwise rare amino acid
selenocysteine. (Only the deiodinase
iodotyrosine deiodinase, which works on
the last breakdown products of thyroid
hormone, does not use selenium.)[80]
Selenium may inhibit Hashimoto's disease,
in which the body's own thyroid cells are
attacked as foreign. A reduction of 21% on
TPO antibodies is reported with the dietary
intake of 0.2 mg of selenium.[81]

Increased dietary selenium reduces the

effects of mercury toxicity,[82][83][84]
although it is effective only at low to
modest doses of mercury.[85] Evidence
suggests that the molecular mechanisms
of mercury toxicity includes the irreversible
inhibition of selenoenzymes that are
required to prevent and reverse oxidative
damage in brain and endocrine
tissues.[86][87] An antioxidant, selenoneine,
which is derived from selenium and has
been found to be present in the blood of
bluefin tuna, is the subject of scientific
research regarding its possible roles in
inflammatory and chronic diseases,
methylmercury detoxification, and
oxidative damages.[88][89]

Evolution in biology …
From about three billion years ago,
prokaryotic selenoprotein families drive
the evolution of selenocysteine, an amino
acid. Selenium is incorporated into several
prokaryotic selenoprotein families in
bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as
selenocysteine,[90] where selenoprotein
peroxiredoxins protect bacterial and
eukaryotic cells against oxidative damage.
Selenoprotein families of GSH-Px and the
deiodinases of eukaryotic cells seem to
have a bacterial phylogenetic origin. The
selenocysteine-containing form occurs in
species as diverse as green algae,
diatoms, sea urchins, fish, and chickens.
Selenium enzymes are involved in the
small reducing molecules glutathione and
thioredoxin. One family of selenium-
bearing molecules (the glutathione
peroxidases) destroys peroxide and
repairs damaged peroxidized cell
membranes, using glutathione. Another
selenium-bearing enzyme in some plants
and in animals (thioredoxin reductase)
generates reduced thioredoxin, a dithiol
that serves as an electron source for
peroxidases and also the important
reducing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase
that makes DNA precursors from RNA
precursors.[91]

Trace elements involved in GSH-Px and

superoxide dismutase enzymes activities,
i.e. selenium, vanadium, magnesium,
copper, and zinc, may have been lacking in
some terrestrial mineral-deficient areas.[90]
Marine organisms retained and
sometimes expanded their
selenoproteomes, whereas the
selenoproteomes of some terrestrial
organisms were reduced or completely
lost. These findings suggest that, with the
exception of vertebrates, aquatic life
supports selenium use, whereas terrestrial
habitats lead to reduced use of this trace
element.[92] Marine fishes and vertebrate
thyroid glands have the highest
concentration of selenium and iodine.
From about 500 million years ago,
freshwater and terrestrial plants slowly
optimized the production of "new"
endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic
acid (vitamin C), polyphenols (including
flavonoids), tocopherols, etc. A few of
these appeared more recently, in the last
50–200 million years, in fruits and flowers
of angiosperm plants. In fact, the
angiosperms (the dominant type of plant
today) and most of their antioxidant
pigments evolved during the late Jurassic
period.

The deiodinase isoenzymes constitute

another family of eukaryotic
selenoproteins with identified enzyme
function. Deiodinases are able to extract
electrons from iodides, and iodides from
iodothyronines. They are, thus, involved in
thyroid-hormone regulation, participating
in the protection of thyrocytes from
damage by H2O2 produced for thyroid-
hormone biosynthesis.[93] About 200
million years ago, new selenoproteins
were developed as mammalian GSH-Px
enzymes.[94][95][96][97]

Nutritional sources of selenium …

Dietary selenium comes from meat, nuts,
cereals and mushrooms. Brazil nuts are
the richest dietary source (though this is
soil-dependent, since the Brazil nut does
not require high levels of the element for
its own needs).[98][99]

The U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance

(RDA) for teenagers and adults is
55 µg/day. Selenium as a dietary
supplement is available in many forms,
including multi-vitamins/mineral
supplements, which typically contain 55 or
70 µg/serving. Selenium-specific
supplements typically contain either 100
or 200 µg/serving.

In June 2015 the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) published its final
rule establishing the requirement of
minimum and maximum levels of
selenium in infant formula.[100]

The selenium content in the human body

is believed to be in the 13–20 milligram
range.[101]
Indicator plant species …

Certain species of plants are considered

indicators of high selenium content of the
soil because they require high levels of
selenium to thrive. The main selenium
indicator plants are Astragalus species
(including some locoweeds), prince's
plume (Stanleya sp.), woody asters
(Xylorhiza sp.), and false goldenweed
(Oonopsis sp.)[102]

Detection in biological fluids …

Selenium may be measured in blood,
plasma, serum, or urine to monitor
excessive environmental or occupational
exposure, to confirm a diagnosis of
poisoning in hospitalized victims, or
investigate a suspected case of fatal
overdose. Some analytical techniques are
capable of distinguishing organic from
inorganic forms of the element. Both
organic and inorganic forms of selenium
are largely converted to monosaccharide
conjugates (selenosugars) in the body
prior to elimination in the urine. Cancer
patients receiving daily oral doses of
selenothionine may achieve very high
plasma and urine selenium
concentrations.[103]

Toxicity …

Although selenium is an essential trace

element, it is toxic if taken in excess.
Exceeding the Tolerable Upper Intake Level
of 400 micrograms per day can lead to
selenosis.[104] This 400 µg Tolerable Upper
Intake Level is based primarily on a 1986
study of five Chinese patients who
exhibited overt signs of selenosis and a
follow up study on the same five people in
1992.[105] The 1992 study actually found
the maximum safe dietary Se intake to be
approximately 800 micrograms per day
(15 micrograms per kilogram body
weight), but suggested 400 micrograms
per day to avoid creating an imbalance of
nutrients in the diet and to accord with
data from other countries.[106] In China,
people who ingested corn grown in
extremely selenium-rich stony coal
(carbonaceous shale) have suffered from
selenium toxicity. This coal was shown to
have selenium content as high as 9.1%,
the highest concentration in coal ever
recorded.[107]

Signs and symptoms of selenosis include

a garlic odor on the breath,
gastrointestinal disorders, hair loss,
sloughing of nails, fatigue, irritability, and
neurological damage. Extreme cases of
selenosis can exhibit cirrhosis of the liver,
pulmonary edema, or death.[108] Elemental
selenium and most metallic selenides
have relatively low toxicities because of
low bioavailability. By contrast, selenates
and selenites have an oxidant mode of
action similar to that of arsenic trioxide
and are very toxic. The chronic toxic dose
of selenite for humans is about 2400 to
3000 micrograms of selenium per day.[109]
Hydrogen selenide is an extremely toxic,
corrosive gas.[110] Selenium also occurs in
organic compounds, such as dimethyl
selenide, selenomethionine,
selenocysteine and methylselenocysteine,
all of which have high bioavailability and
are toxic in large doses.

On 19 April 2009, 21 polo ponies died

shortly before a match in the United States
Polo Open. Three days later, a pharmacy
released a statement explaining that the
horses had received an incorrect dose of
one of the ingredients used in a
vitamin/mineral supplement compound
that had been incorrectly prepared by a
compounding pharmacy. Analysis of blood
levels of inorganic compounds in the
supplement indicated the selenium
concentrations were 10 to 15 times higher
than normal in the blood samples, and 15
to 20 times higher than normal in the liver
samples. Selenium was later confirmed to
be the toxic factor.[111]

Selenium poisoning of water systems may

result whenever new agricultural runoff
courses through normally dry,
undeveloped lands. This process leaches
natural soluble selenium compounds
(such as selenates) into the water, which
may then be concentrated in new
"wetlands" as the water evaporates.
Selenium pollution of waterways also
occurs when selenium is leached from
coal flue ash, mining and metal smelting,
crude oil processing, and landfill.[112] The
resultant high selenium levels in
waterways were found to cause congenital
disorders in oviparous species, including
wetland birds[113] and fish.[114] Elevated
dietary methylmercury levels can amplify
the harm of selenium toxicity in oviparous
species.[115][116]
Relationship between survival of juvenile salmon and
concentration of selenium in their tissues after 90
days (Chinook salmon[117]) or 45 days (Atlantic
salmon[118]) exposure to dietary selenium. The 10%
lethality level (LC10=1.84 µg/g) was derived by
applying the biphasic model of Brain and Cousens[119]
to only the Chinook salmon data. The Chinook salmon
data comprise two series of dietary treatments,
combined here because the effects on survival are
indistinguishable.
In fish and other wildlife, selenium is
necessary for life, but toxic in high doses.
For salmon, the optimal concentration of
selenium is about 1 microgram selenium
per gram of whole body weight. Much
below that level, young salmon die from
deficiency;[118] much above, they die from
toxic excess.[117]

The Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) has set the legal
limit (permissible exposure limit) for
selenium in the workplace at 0.2 mg/m3
over an 8-hour workday. The National
Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended
exposure limit (REL) of 0.2 mg/m3 over an
8-hour workday. At levels of 1 mg/m3,
selenium is immediately dangerous to life
and health.[120]

Deficiency …

Selenium deficiency can occur in patients

with severely compromised intestinal
function, those undergoing total parenteral
nutrition, and[121] in those of advanced age
(over 90). Also, people dependent on food
grown from selenium-deficient soil are at
risk. Although New Zealand soil has low
levels of selenium, adverse health effects
have not been detected in the
residents.[122]

Selenium deficiency, defined by low (<60%

of normal) selenoenzyme activity levels in
brain and endocrine tissues, occurs only
when a low selenium level is linked with an
additional stress, such as high exposures
to mercury[123] or increased oxidant stress
from vitamin E deficiency.[124]

Selenium interacts with other nutrients,

such as iodine and vitamin E. The effect of
selenium deficiency on health remains
uncertain, particularly in relation to Kashin-
Beck disease.[125] Also, selenium interacts
with other minerals, such as zinc and
copper. High doses of Se supplements in
pregnant animals might disturb the Zn:Cu
ratio and lead to Zn reduction; in such
treatment cases, Zn levels should be
monitored. Further studies are needed to
confirm these interactions.[126]

In the regions (e.g. various regions within

North America) where low selenium soil
levels lead to low concentrations in the
plants, some animal species may be
deficient unless selenium is supplemented
with diet or injection.[127] Ruminants are
particularly susceptible. In general,
absorption of dietary selenium is lower in
ruminants than other animals, and is lower
from forages than from grain.[128]
Ruminants grazing certain forages, e.g.,
some white clover varieties containing
cyanogenic glycosides, may have higher
selenium requirements,[128] presumably
because cyanide is released from the
aglycone by glucosidase activity in the
rumen[129] and glutathione peroxidases is
deactivated by the cyanide acting on the
glutathione moiety.[130] Neonate ruminants
at risk of white muscle disease may be
administered both selenium and vitamin E
by injection; some of the WMD myopathies
respond only to selenium, some only to
vitamin E, and some to either.[131]

Health effects …

It has been suggested that selenium

supplementation may help prevent cancer
incidence in people, but research has
established there is no evidence to
support such claims.[132]

See also
ACES (nutritional supplement)
 Abundance of elements in Earth's crust
Selenium yeast

Notes
a. For all practical purposes, 82Se is
stable.

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