RSP Notes

VelTech Rangarajan Dr.
Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology

(Deemed to be University Estd. u/s 3 of UGC Act, 1956)
SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL& CONSTRUCTION

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
1151AE111/ ROCKET AND SPACE PROPULSION
veltech Rocket and Space Propulsion Page | 1

Source from Rocket Propulsion elements by George. P. Sutton
INTRODUCTION TO ROCKET PROPULSION
Principles of rocket propulsion

1.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROCKET: Hero of Alexandria is credited with
inventing the rocket principle. He was a mathematician and inventor and devised many machines
using water, air pressure. The rocket was also used as a weapon of oriental war. Hublai Hahn used it
during the Japanese invasion of 1275; by the 1300s rockets were used as bombardment weapons
as far west as Spain, brought west by the Mongol hordes, and the Arabs.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857−1935), a mathematics teacher, wrote about space travel,
including weightlessness and escape velocity, in 1883, and he wrote about artificial satellites in
1895. In a paper published in 1903 he derived the rocket equation, and dealt in detail with the use
of rocket propulsion for space travel and in 1924 he described multi-stage rockets. Tsiolkovsky
never experimented with rockets; his work was almost purely theoretical. He identified exhaust
velocity as the important performance parameter; he realised that the higher temperature and lower
molecular weight produced by liquid fuels would be important for achieving high exhaust velocity;
and he identified liquid oxygen and hydrogen as suitable propellants for space rockets. He also
invented the multi-stage rocket.
Goddard’s inventions included the use of gyroscopes for guidance, the use of vanes in the jet
stream to steer the rocket, the use of valves in the propellant lines to stop and start the engine, the
use of turbo-pumps to deliver the propellant to the combustion chamber, and the use of liquid
oxygen to cool the exhaust nozzle, all of which were crucial to the development of the modern
rocket. He launched his first liquid-fuelled rocket from Auburn, Massachusetts, on 16 March 1926.
It weighed 5 kg, was powered by liquid oxygen and petrol, and it reached a height of 12.5 metres.
At the end of his 1919 paper Goddard had mentioned the possibility of sending an unmanned rocket
to the Moon, and for this he was ridiculed by the Press. Because of his rocket experiments he was
later thrown out of Massachusetts by the fire officer, but he continued his work until 1940,
launching his rockets in New Mexico. In 1960 the US government bought his patents for two
million dollars.
The A4 embodied many concepts similar to those patented by Goddard, and it was the first
practical and reproducible liquid-fuelled rocket. It brought together the ideas of the amateurs and
dreamers, and these were developed within the discipline and urgency of a military programme.
When the war ended, there was a race to reach Peenemunde, both by the Russians (informed by
Churchill) and the Americans. In the end, as is well known, the Russians took Peenemunde and its
contents, and the US took von Braun and key members of his team.
1.1.1 THE RUSSIAN SPACE PROGRAMME the Russian space programme has been the
most active and focused in history. The first artificial satellite, the first man in space, the first
spacecraft on the Moon, the first docking of two spacecraft, and the first space station. All of these
are the achievements of Russia (or, rather, the Soviet Union). In the period from 1957 to 1959,
three satellites and two successful lunar probes had been launched by the USSR, ironically
fulfilling Goddard’s prophesy. In 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space, and at the
same time, several fly-bys of Mars and Venus were accomplished. In all there were 12 successful
Russian lunar probes launched before the first Saturn V. Apart from the drive and vision of the
Soviet engineers— particularly Sergei Korolev—the reason for this success lay in the fact that the
Russian rockets were more powerful, and were better designed. The pre-war Russian attitude to
rocketry had found a stimulus in the captured German parts, leading to the development of an
indigenous culture which was to produce the best engines. It is significant that the Saturn V was

the brainchild of Werner von Braun, a German, and the Vostok, Soyuz, and Molniya rockets
were the brainchildren of Korolev and Glushko, who were Russian.
1.1.2 OTHER NATIONAL PROGRAMMES: Before turning to the United States’

achievements in rocketry, we should remember that a number of other nations have contributed to
the development of the present- day portfolio of launchers and space vehicles. There are active
space and launcher programmes in the Far East, where China, Japan, India, and Pakistan all have
space programmes. China and Japan both have major launcher portfolios.
1.1.3 THE UNITED STATES SPACE PROGRAMME: The achievement of the United States
in realizing humanity’s dream of walking on the Moon cannot be overrated. Its origin in the works
of Tsiolkovsky and Oberth, its national expression in the dream of Robert Goddard, and its final
achievement through the will of an American president and people, is unique in human history.
From what has gone before it is clear that the ambition to walk on the Moon was universal amongst
those who could see the way, and did not belong to any nation or hemisphere. Nor was the
technology exclusive. In fact, the Soviet Union came within an ace of achieving it. But it rested
with one nation to achieve that unity of purpose without which no great endeavour can be achieved.
That nation was the United States of America.
1.2 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: The rocket had been a practical device for more than 1,000
years before Tsiolkovsky determined the dynamics that explained its motion. In doing so, he
opened the way to the use of the rocket as something other than an artillery weapon of dubious
accuracy. In fact, he identified the rocket as the means by which humanity could explore space.
This was revolutionary earlier, fictious journeys to the Moon had made use of birds or guns as the
motive force, and rockets had been discounted. By solving the equation of motion of the rocket,
Tsiolkovsky was able to show that space travel waspossible, and that it could be achieved using a
device which was readily to hand, and only needed to be scaled up. He even identified the
limitations and design issues which would have to be faced in realising a practical space vehicle.
The dynamics are so simple that it is surprising that it had not been solved before—but this was
probably due to a lack of interest perusal of dynamics books of the period reveals consistent interest
in the flight of unpowered projectiles, immediately applicable to gunnery.
In its basic form, a rocket is a device which propels itself by emitting a jet of matter. The
momentum carried away by the jet results in a force, acting so as to accelerate the rocket in the
direction opposite to that of the jet. This is familiar to us all—from games with deflating toy
balloons, if nothing else. The essential facts are that the rocket accelerates, and its mass decreases;
the latter is not so obvious with a toy balloon, but is nevertheless true.
1.3 ORBITS AND SPACE FLIGHT: This involves gravity, and the motion of vehicles in the
Earth’s gravitational field. Common experience, with a cricket ball for example, tells us that the
faster a body is projected upwards, the further it goes. The science of ballistics tells us that a shell,
with a certain velocity, will travel furthest in a horizontal direction, if projected at an initial angle
of 45O. The equations of motion of a cricket ball, or a shell, can be solved using a constant and
uniform gravitational field, with very little error. This is a matter for school physics. When we
consider space travel, the true shape of the gravitational field becomes important; it is a radial field,
with its origin in the center of the Earth. Note that the gravitational field of a spherical object is
accurately represented by assuming that it acts from the Centre, with the full mass of the
object. The flat Earth approximation is good enough for distances travelled which are small
compared with the curvature of the Earth, but cannot be applied to space travel, where the distances
are much greater.
1.3.1 TYPES OF ORBITS: For a spacecraft to achieve Earth orbit, it must be launched to an
elevation above the Earth's atmosphere and accelerated to orbital velocity. The most energy
efficient orbit, that is one that requires the least amount of propellant, is a direct low inclination
orbit. To achieve such an orbit, a spacecraft is launched in an eastward direction from a site near
the Earth's equator. The advantage being that the rotational speed of the Earth contributes to the
spacecraft's final orbital speed. At the United States' launch site in Cape Canaveral (28.5 degrees
north latitude) due easts launch results in a "free ride" of 1,471 km/h (914 mph). Launching a
spacecraft in a direction other than east, or from a site far from the equator, results in an orbit of
higher inclination. High inclination orbits are less able to take advantage of the initial speed
provided by the Earth's rotation, thus the launch vehicle must provide a greater part, or all, of the
energy required to attain orbital velocity. Although high inclination orbits are less energy efficient,
they do have advantages over equatorial orbits for certain applications.
Below we describe several types of orbits and the advantages of each:
Geosynchronous orbits (GEO): are circular orbits around the Earth having a period of 24 hours. A
geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero degrees is called a geostationary orbit. A
spacecraft in a geostationary orbit appears to hang motionless above one position on the Earth's
equator. For this reason, they are ideal for some types of communication and meteorological
satellites. A spacecraft in an inclined geosynchronous orbit will appear to follow a regular figure-
8 pattern in the sky once every orbit. To attain geosynchronous orbit, a spacecraft is first launched
into an elliptical orbit with an apogee of 35,786 km (22,236 miles) called a
geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The orbit is then circularized by firing the spacecraft's
engine at apogee.
Polar orbits (PO): are orbits with an inclination of 90 degrees. Polar orbits are useful for satellites
that carry out mapping and/or surveillance operations because as the planet rotates the spacecraft
has access to virtually every point on the planet's surface.
Walking orbits: An orbiting satellite is subjected to a great many gravitational influences. First,
planets are not perfectly spherical and they have slightly uneven mass distribution. These
fluctuations have an effect on a spacecraft's trajectory. Also, the sun, moon, and planets contribute
a gravitational influence on an orbiting satellite. With proper planning it is possible to design an
orbit which takes advantage of these influences to induce a precession in the satellite's orbital
plane. The resulting orbit is called a walking orbit, or precessing orbit.
Sun synchronous orbits (SSO) :are walking orbits whose orbital plane precesses with the same period as
the planet's solar orbit period. In such an orbit, a satellite crosses periapsis at about the same local time
every orbit. This is useful if a satellite is carrying instruments which depend on a certain angle of solar
illumination on the planet's surface. In order to maintain an exact synchronous timing, it may be necessary
to conduct occasional propulsive maneuvers to adjust the orbit.
Molniya orbits: are highly eccentric Earth orbits with periods of approximately 12 hours (2 revolutions per
day). The orbital inclination is chosen so the rate of change of perigee is zero, thus both apogee and
perigee can be maintained over fixed latitudes. This condition occurs at inclinations of 63.4 degrees and
116.6 degrees. For these orbits the argument of perigee is typically placed in the southern hemisphere, so
the satellite remains above the northern hemisphere near apogee for approximately 11 hours per orbit. This
orientation can provide good ground coverage at high northern latitudes.
Hohmann transfer orbits: are interplanetary trajectories whose advantage is that they consume the least
possible amount of propellant. A Hohmann transfer orbit to an outer planet, such as Mars, is achieved by
launching a spacecraft and accelerating it in the direction of Earth's revolution around the sun until it breaks
free of the Earth's gravity and reaches a velocity which places it in a sun orbit with an aphelion equal to the
orbit of the outer planet. Upon reaching its destination, the spacecraft must decelerate so that the planet's
gravity can capture it into a planetary orbit.
To reach a planet requires that the spacecraft be inserted into an interplanetary trajectory at the correct time
so that the spacecraft arrives at the planet's orbit when the planet will be at the point where the spacecraft
will intercept it. This task is comparable to a quarterback "leading" his receiver so that the football and
receiver arrive at the same point at the same time. The interval of time in which a spacecraft must be
launched in order to complete its mission is called a launch window.
1.3.2 MOTION OF PLANETS AND SATELLITES: Through a lifelong study of the motions
of bodies in the solar system, Johanne s Kepler (1571-1630) was able to derive three basic laws
known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Using the data compiled by his mentor Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601), Kepler found the following regularities after years of laborious calculations:
1. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.
2. A line joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the period of any planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the planet's
mean distance from the sun.
These laws can be deduced from Newton's laws of motion and law of universal gravitation. Indeed,
Newton used Kepler's work as basic information in the formulation of his gravitational theory.
As Kepler pointed out, all planets move in elliptical orbits, however, we can learn much about
planetary motion by considering the special case of circular orbits. We shall neglect the forces
between planets, considering only a planet's interaction with the sun. These considerations apply
equally well to the motion of a satellite about a planet.
Let's examine the case of two bodies of masses M and m moving in circular orbits under the
influence of each other's gravitational attraction. The center of mass of this system of two bodies
lies along the line joining them at a point C such that mr = MR. The large body of mass
M moves in an orbit of constant radius R and the small body of mass m in an orbit of constant
radius r, both having the same angular velocity .

Figure1.1
For this to happen, the gravitational force acting on each body must provide the necessary
centripetal acceleration. Since these gravitational forces are a simple action-reaction pair, the
centripetal forces must be equal but opposite in direction. That is, m 2r must equal M 2R. The
specific requirement, then, is that the gravitational force acting on either body must equal the
centripetal force needed to keep it moving in its circular orbit, that is
If one body has a much greater mass than the other, as is the case of the sun and a planet or the
Earth and a satellite, its distance from the centre of mass is much smaller than that of the other
body. If we assume that m is negligible compared to M, then R is negligible compared to r. Thus,
equation then becomes
If we express the angular velocity in terms of the period of revolution, = 2 /P, we obtain
where P is the period of revolution. This is a basic equation of planetary and satellite motion. It
also holds for elliptical orbits if we define r to be the semi-major axis (a) of the orbit.
A significant consequence of this equation is that it predicts Kepler's third law of planetary motion,
that is P2~r3.
Kepler's second law of planetary motion must, of course, hold true for circular orbits. In such orbits
both and r are constant so that equal areas are swept out in equal times by the line joining a
planet and the sun. For elliptical orbits, however, both and r will vary with time. Let's now
consider this case.
Figure 1.2 shows a particle revolving around C along some arbitrary path. The area swept out by
the radius vector in a short time interval t is shown shaded. This area, neglecting the small
triangular region at the end, is one-half the base times the height or approximately r(r t)/2.

Figure 1.2
This expression becomes more exact as t approaches zero, i.e. the small triangle goes to zero more
rapidly than the large one. The rate at which area is being swept out instantaneously is therefore
For any given body moving under the influence of a central force, the value r2 is constant.
Let's now consider two points P1 and P2 in an orbit with radii r1 and r2, and velocities
v1 and v2. Since the velocity is always tangent to the path, it can be seen that if is the angle
between r and v, then
----- -1
where vsin is the transverse component of v. Multiplying through by r, we have
------2
or, for two points P1 and P2 on the orbital path
--------3
Note that at periapsis and apoapsis, = 90 degrees. Thus, letting P1 and P2 be these two points we
get
--------4
Let's now look at the energy of the above particle at points P1 and P2. Conservation of energy
states that the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a particle remain constant. The
kinetic energy T of a particle is given by mv2/2 while the potential energy of gravity V is calculated
by the equation -GMm/r. Applying conservation of energy we have

-----------5
From equations (4) and (5) we obtain
------------------6
Rearranging terms we get
---------7
The eccentricity e of an orbit is given by
--------------8
If the semi-major axis a and the eccentricity e of an orbit are known, then the periapsis and apoapsis
distances can be calculated by
-------------9
1.3.3 ELLIPTICAL TRANSFER ORBITS: This horizontal acceleration is also used to move from
one orbit to another, using an elliptical transfer orbit. When the Space Shuttle has to rendezvous
from a low orbit, with, for instance, the Space Station, it accelerates along its orbit. Instead of
travelling faster around the orbit, the orbit rises; it has in fact become a slightly elliptical orbit, the
perigee being where the thrust was turned on. This elliptical orbit intersects with the Space Station
orbit at the point where the Station is located when the Shuttle arrives there—if the burn was
actuated at the correct time. Once at the Station, the Shuttle has to accelerate, again horizontally,
in order to match its speed to that of the Station. This acceleration effectively puts the Shuttle into
a circular orbit at the new altitude.

1.3.4 LAUNCH TRAJECTORIES: For launch from Earth, the atmosphere is a significant and
drag is proportional to the square of the velocity. Below 200 km there is sufficient drag to make an orbit
unstable.
In fact, to have a lifetime measured in years, an orbit needs to be above 500 km. This means that a
significant proportion of the stored chemical energy in a rocket has to be used to raise the spacecraft
above the atmosphere.
During a launch, the velocity is never high enough to attain a circular orbit at an intermediate
altitude; this occurs only after the final injection has taken place. Intermediate orbits would require
a still larger horizontal velocity, because of the inverse dependence of velocity on radius. Thus the
motion of the rocket before final injection is along a trajectory which is always steeper than the free
space ellipse, and it intersects the Earth’s surface. When a launch fails, this becomes obvious. The
non- optimum nature of the launch trajectory, compared with a transfer ellipse, means that a good
deal of the energy of the rocket is lost to the earth’s gravitational field.
1.4 THE VELOCITY INCREMENT NEEDED FOR LAUNCH: It is possible to calculate the
total velocity increment required, without gravity loss, as follows, using the earlier formulae.
Assume that the launch from the Earth’s surface is the equivalent of a transfer from a circular orbit
with a radius which is that of the Earth, via a transfer ellipse, to a 500 km circular orbit. The
imaginary Earth- radius circular orbit would have a horizontal velocity of 7,909 m s—1 . The
transfer ellipse, with perigee at the Earth’s surface and apogee at 500 km altitude, has a perigee
velocity of 8,057 m s—1. The apogee velocity is 7,471 km s—1, and the necessary circular velocity is
7,61‡6 m s—1 —1
—. Thus= the total velocity increment is (8057 7616 7471) 8,203 m s . So the velocity
cost of the launch, over and above that needed for a circular orbit injection at 500 km altitude, is
587 m s—1. This would be true if all the velocity could be given to the rocket all at once, and there
were no atmosphere, but because of the gravity loss we need to include an extra allowance of
velocity. This depends on the trajectory; an approximate value is 500 ms—1, and the total velocity
increment required is approximately 8,700 ms—1 .
There is a distinction between velocity increment and the actual velocity of the vehicle. The
velocity increment is the velocity calculated from the rocket equation, and is a measure of the
energy expended by the rocket. The vehicle velocity is less than this, because of gravity loss, and
the energy needed to reach orbital altitude. So the actual velocity of the vehicle in its 500-km
circular orbit is 7.6 km s—1, while the velocity increment is 8.7 km s—1. The difference represents
the energyexpended against gravity loss and potential energy.
The mass ratio for such a velocity increment—especially with primitive rocket fuels, giving low
exhaust velocity—is too high to achieve, even with modern construction methods. Tsiolkovsky
realised this, and in 1924 he published a paper called Cosmic Rocket trains, in which he proposed
to solve the difficulty by using multistage rockets. This was the essential breakthrough which has
enabled humanity, 1,000 years after the invention of the rocket, to travel in space.

1.5 THE THERMAL ROCKET ENGINE: The rocket principle is the basis of all propulsion in
space, and all launch vehicles. The twin properties of needing no external medium for the
propulsion system to act upon, and no external oxidant for the fuel, enable rockets to work in any
ambient conditions, including the vacuum of space. The thermal rocket is the basis of all launchers,
and almost all space propulsion (although some electric propulsion uses a different principle).
From these physical principles the strengths and limitations of rocket motors can be understood
and appreciated. The thermal rocket motor is a heat engine„ it converts the heat, generated by
burning the propellants—fuel and oxidiser, in the combustion chamber—into kinetic energy of the
emerging exhaust gas. The momentum carried away by the exhaust gas provides the thrust, which
accelerates the rocket. As a heat engine, the rocket is no different in principle from other heat
engines, such as the steam engine or the internal combustion engine.
The conversion of heat into work is the same, whether the work is done on a piston, or on a stream
of exhaust gas.
1.6 GRAVITATIONAL ASSIST: In planning certain types of trajectories of spacecraft within

the solar system, engineers rely on a technique called gravitational assist (also gravity assist,
slingshot, or swing-by). This technique underlies the feasibility of effecting a net change in both
the speed and direction of motion of a spacecraft by passage through the gravitational field of a
planet or a planetary satellite, typically in order to save propellant, time, and expense.
A gravitational assist around a planet changes a spacecraft's velocity relative to the Sun by entering
and leaving the gravitational field of a planet. The spacecraft accelerates as it approaches the planet
and decelerates while escaping its gravitational pull. Because the planet orbits the Sun, this motion
affects the spacecraft during the maneuver. To accelerate, the spacecraft flies across the trailing
side of the planet, taking a small amount of the planet's orbital energy (as pictured in Figure 1.3).
To decelerate, the spacecraft flies across the leading side of the planet. The sum of the kinetic
energies of both bodies remains constant. A gravitational assist can therefore be used to change
the spaceship's trajectory and speed relative to the Sun.
The resulting increase, or decrease, in the kinetic energy of the spacecraft appears to contradict the
casual expectation that in such an encounter the kinetic energy of the spacecraft after the encounter
would be the same as that before the encounter. However, the energy gained by the spaceship is
equal in magnitude to that lost by the planet, though the planet's enormous mass compared to the
spacecraft makes the resulting change in its speed negligibly small. These effects on the planet are
so slight that they can be ignored in the calculation.

Figure 1.3 shows the motion of a spacecraft relative to a planet during a gravity assist maneuver.
Encounters in space require the consideration of three dimensions; however, an approximate
solution to the gravitational assist problem can be found using a simplified two-dimensional model.
The following conditions are assumed:
 Orbits of planet and spacecraft are coplanar.

 Y-axis is parallel to the planet's position vector, positive outward from Sun.
 X-axis is in the orbital plane normal to the Y-axis, positive in the prograde direction.
 Planet's velocity (Vp) and flight path angle ( p) are given.
 Spacecraft's initial velocity (Vsi), flight path angle ( si), and miss distance (d) are given.

UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL ROCKET PROPULSION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Rocket engine: A vehicle or device propelled by one or more rocket engines, especially such a
vehicle designed to travel through space.
A projectile weapon carrying a warhead that is powered and propelled by rockets.
A projectile firework having a cylindrical shape and a fuse that is lit from the rear.
Missile: An object or weapon that is fired, thrown, dropped, or otherwise projected at a target; a
projectile.
1.2PROPELLANT: Propellant is the chemical mixture burned to produce thrust in rockets and
consists of a fuel and an oxidizer. A fuel is a substance that burns when combined with oxygen
producing gas for propulsion. An oxidizer is an agent that releases oxygen for combination with a
fuel. The ratio of oxidizer to fuel is called the mixture ratio. Propellants are classified according to
their state - liquid, solid, or hybrid.
The gauge for rating the efficiency of rocket propellants is specific impulse, stated in seconds.
Specific impulse indicates how many pounds (or kilograms) of thrust are obtained by the
consumption of one pound (or kilogram) of propellant in one second. Specific impulse is
characteristic of the type of propellant, however, its exact value will vary to some extent with the
operating conditions and design of the rocket engine.
1.2.1Liquid Propellants: In a liquid propellant rocket, the fuel and oxidizer are stored in separate
tanks, and are fed through a system of pipes, valves, and turbo pumps to a combustion chamber
where they are combined and burned to produce thrust. Liquid propellant engines are more
complex than their solid propellant counter parts; however, they offer several advantages. By
controlling the flow of propellant to the combustion chamber, the engine can be throttled, stopped,
or restarted.
A good liquid propellant is one with a high specific impulse or, stated another way, one with a
high speed of exhaust gas ejection. This implies a high combustion temperature and exhaust gases
with small molecular weights. However, there is another important factor that must be taken into
consideration: the density of the propellant. Using low-density propellants means that larger
storage tanks will be required, thus increasing the mass of the launch vehicle. Storage temperature
is also important.
A propellant with a low storage temperature, i.e. a cryogenic, will require thermal insulation, thus
further increasing the mass of the launcher. The toxicity of the propellant is likewise important.
Safety hazards exist when handling, transporting, and storing highly toxic compounds. Also, some
propellants are very corrosive; however, materials that are resistant to certain propellants have
been identified for use in rocket construction.
1.1.3Solid Propellants: Solid propellant motors are the simplest of all rocket designs. They
consist of a casing, usually steel, filled with a mixture of solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) that
burn at a rapid rate, expelling hot gases from a nozzle to produce thrust. When ignited, a solid
propellant burns from the center out towards the sides of the casing. The shape of the center
channel determines the rate and pattern of the burn, thus providing a means to control thrust.
Veltech Rocket and Space Propulsion Page | 13

Unlike liquid propellant engines, solid propellant motors cannot be shut down. Once ignited,
they will burn until all the propellant is exhausted.
There are two families of solids propellants: homogeneous and composite. Both types are dense,
stable at ordinary temperatures, and easily storable.
1.1.4 Hybrid Propellants: Hybrid propellant engines represent an intermediate group between
solid and liquid propellant engines. One of the substances is solid, usually the fuel, while the
other, usually the oxidizer, is liquid. The liquid is injected into the solid, whose fuel reservoir also
serves as the combustion chamber. The main advantage of such engines is that they have high
performance, similar to that of solid propellants, but the combustion can be moderated, stopped,
or even restarted. It is difficult to make use of this concept for vary large thrusts, and thus, hybrid
propellant engines are rarely built.
1.4 IGNITION SYSTEM IN ROCKETS: This section is concerned with the mechanism or the
process for initiating the combustion of a solid propellant grain. Solid propellant ignition consists
of a series of complex rapid events, which start on receipt of a signal (usually electric) and include
heat generation, transfer of the heat from the igniter to the motor grain surface, spreading the flame
over the entire burning surface area, filling the chamber free volume (cavity) with gas, and
elevating the chamber pressure without serious abnormalities such as overpressures, combustion
oscillations, damaging shock waves, hangfires (delayed ignition), extinguishment, and chuffing.
The igniter in a solid rocket motor generates the heat and gas required for motor ignition.
Motor ignition must usually be complete in a fraction of a second for all but the very large motors.
The motor pressure rises to an equilibrium state in a very short time, as shown in Fig.
2.1. Conventionally, the ignition process is divided into three phases for analytical purposes:
Phase I, Ignition time lag: the period from the moment the igniter receives a signal until the first
bit of grain surface burns.
Phase II, Flame-spreading interval: the time from first ignition of the grain surface until the
complete grain burning area has been ignited.
Phase III, Chamber-filling interval: the time for completing the chamber filling process and for
reaching equilibrium chamber pressure and flow
Figure2.1 Typical ignition pressure transient portion of motor chamber pressure time trace with

igniter pressure trace and ignition process phases shown.
The ignition will be successful once enough grain surfaces is ignited and burning, so that the motor
will continue to raise its own pressure to the operating chamber pressure. The critical process
seems to be a gas-phase reaction above the burning surface, when propellant vapors or
decomposition products interact with each other and with the igniter gas products. If the igniter is
not powerful enough, some grain surfaces may burn for a short time, but the flame will be
extinguished.
Satisfactory attainment of equilibrium chamber pressure with full gas flow is dependent on
(1) Characteristics of the igniter and the gas temperature, composition and flow issuing from the
igniter,
(2) Motor propellant composition and grain surface ignitability,
(3) heat transfer characteristics by radiation and convection between the igniter gas and grain
surface,
(4) Grain flame spreading rate, and
(5) The dynamics of filling the motor free volume with hot gas.
The quantity and type of caloric energy needed to ignite a particular motor grain in the prevailing
environment has a direct bearing on most of the igniters' design parameters-- particularly those
affecting the required heat output. The ignitability of a propellant at a given pressure and
temperature is normally shown as a plot of ignition time versus heat flux received by the
propellant surface, as shown in Fig. 2.2;
These data are obtained from laboratory tests. Ignitability of a propellant is affected by many
factors, including
(1) The propellant formulation,
(2) The initial temperature of the propellant grain surface,
(3) The surrounding pressure,
(4) The mode of heat transfer,
(5) Grain surface roughness,
(6) Age of the propellant,
(7) The composition and hot solid particle content of the igniter gases,
(8) The igniter propellant and its initial temperature,
(9) The velocity of the hot igniter gases relative to the grain surface, and
(10) The cavity volume and configuration.
The ignition time becomes shorter with increases in both heat flux and chamber pressure. If a
short ignition delay is required, then a more powerful igniter will be needed. The radiation effects
can be significant in the ignition transient case. In Section 1.4 we describe an analysis and design
for igniters.

Figure 2.2 Propellant ignitability curves
1.5 TYPES OF IGNITERS: Since the igniter propellant mass is small (often less than 1% of
the motor propellant) and burns mostly at low chamber pressure (low Is), it contributes very little
to the motor overall total impulse. It is the designer's aim to reduce the igniter propellant mass
and the igniter inert hardware mass to a minimum, just big enough to assure ignition under all
operating conditions.
Fig. 2.3 shows several alternative locations for igniter installations. When mounted on the forward
end, the gas flow over the propellant surface helps to achieve ignition. With aft mounting there is
little gas motion, particularly near the forward end; here ignition must rely on the temperature,
pressure, and heat transfer from the igniter gas. If mounted on the nozzle, the igniter hardware and
its support is discarded shortly after the igniter has used all its propellants and there is no inert
mass penalty for the igniter case.

There are two basic types: pyrotechnic igniters and pyrogen igniters; both are discussed below.
Figure 2.3 Simple Diagrams Of Mounting Options For Igniters.
1.5.1 Pyrotechnic Igniters: In industrial practice, pyrotechnic igniters are defined as igniters
(other than pyrogen-type igniters as defined further on) using solid explosives or energetic
propellant-like chemical formulations (usually small pellets of propellant which give a large
burning surface and a short burning time) as the heat-producing material. This definition fits a
wide variety of designs, known as bag and carbon igniters, powder can, plastic case, pellet
basket, perforated tube, combustible case, jellyroll, string, or sheet igniters. The common pellet-
basket design in Fig. 4 is typical of the pyrotechnic igniters. Ignition of the main charge, in this
case pellets consisting of 24% boron-71% potassium perchlorate-5% binder, is accomplished by
stages; first, on receipt of an electrical signal the initiator releases the energy of a small amount
of sensitive powdered pyrotechnic housed within the initiator, commonly called the squib or the
primer charge; next, the booster charge is ignited by heat released from the squib; and finally, the
main ignition charge propellants are ignited.
1.5.2 surface-bonded or grain-mounted igniter: A special form of pyrotechnic igniter is the

surface-bonded or grain-mounted igniter. Such an igniter has its initiator included within a
sandwich of flat sheets; the layer touching the grain is the main charge of pyrotechnic. This form
of igniter is used with multipulse motors with two or more end-burning grains. The ignition of
the second and successive pulses of these motors presents unusual requirements for available
space, compatibility with the grain materials, life, and the pressure and temperature.
1.5.3 Pyrogen Igniters: A pyrogen igniter is basically a small rocket motor that is used to ignite a
larger rocket motor. The pyrogen is not designed to produce thrust. All use one or more nozzle
orifices, both sonic and supersonic types, and most use conventional rocket motor grain
formulations and design technology. Heat transfer from the pyrogen to the motor grain is largely
convective, with the hot gases contacting the grain surface as contrasted to a highly radiative
energy emitted by pyrotechnic igniters.

1.6 TOTAL IMPULSE: It is the thrust force F (which can vary with time) integrated over the
burning time t.
𝑡
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐹𝑑𝑡
0
For constant thrust and negligible start and stop transients this reduces to
It is proportional to the total energy released by all the propellant in a propulsion system.
1.6.1 SPECIFIC IMPULSE: The specific impulse is the total impulse per unit weight of
propellant. It is an important figure of merit of the performance of a rocket propulsion system,
similar in concept to the miles per gallon parameter used with automobiles. A higher number
means better performance.
If the total mass flow rate of propellant is m(dot) and the standard acceleration of gravity at sea
level go is 9.8066 m/sec 2 or 32.174 ft/sec2, then
This equation will give a time-averaged specific impulse value for any rocket propulsion system,
particularly where the thrust varies with time. During transient conditions (during start or the thrust
buildup period, the shutdown period, or during a change of flow or thrust levels) values of Is can
be obtained by integration or by determining average values for F and m(dot) for short time
intervals.
For constant thrust and propellant flow this equation can be simplified; below, mp is the total
effective propellant mass.
In a rocket nozzle the actual exhaust velocity is not uniform over the entire exit cross-section and
does not represent the entire thrust magnitude. The velocity profile is difficult to measure
accurately. For convenience a uniform axial velocity c is assumed which allows a one- dimensional
description of the problem. This effective exhaust velocity c is the average equivalent velocity at
which propellant is ejected from the vehicle.
It is defined as
1.7 ROCKET NOZZLE CLASSIFICATION:

Under-and Over-Expanded Nozzles:
An under-expanded nozzle discharges the fluid at an exit pressure greater than the external
pressure because the exit area is too small for an optimum area ratio. The expansion of the fluid
is therefore incomplete within the nozzle, and must take place outside. The nozzle exit pressure
is higher than the local atmospheric pressure.
In an over-expanded nozzle, the fluid attains a lower exit pressure than the
atmosphere as it has an exit area too large for optimum. The phenomenon of
over-expansion for a supersonic nozzle is shown in Fig. 3-9, with typical
pressure measurements of superheated steam along the nozzle axis and different back pressures
or pressure ratios. Curve AB shows the variation of pressure with the optimum back pressure
corresponding to the area ratio.
1.7.1 NOZZLE CONFIGURATIONS
Figure2.4 Simplified diagrams of several different nozzle configurations and their flow effects.
1.8 TSIOLKOVSKY’S ROCKET EQUATION:
A large fraction (typically ~90%) of the mass of a chemical rocket is propellant, thus it is
important to consider the change in mass of the vehicle as it accelerates. The goal is to arrive at an
expression which relates the change in velocity of a rocket to the change in its mass as well as any
external forces that are acting on it. The analysis is performed using Newton’s 2nd Law, Equation
1, which states that the time rate of change of momentum is equal to the sum of the forces acting
on the system.

 
m 
d
 F

V
------1
dt
The resulting expression is called the Rocket Equation and it may be used to relate specific impulse
to the performance of a rocket. There are several ways to do this by applying conservation of
momentum.
The first step is to apply the momentum theorem differentially to a rocket in accelerating flight.
In the figures below the coordinate system is aligned to the axis of the rocket and parallel to both
the direction of flight and the direction of the exhaust velocity. The positive direction is aligned
with the direction of flight and gravity acts perpendicular to the Earth’s center and at an angle q
relative to the body attached coordinate system.
V
V+dV
Mv dm Mv-dm
Ve M vg (Mv-dm)g
Ve
System at t System (Rocket + Expelled Mass) at t + dt
Figure 2.5 Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion
The basic idea is that at time t the rocket has a mass Mv and is traveling at a velocity (as measured
by an inertial observer) of V. Note that both Mv and V are functions of time. During a small time
increment, dt, the rocket has expelled a small mass, dm, such that at time t+dt, the mass of the
rocket is Mv-dm. The small mass, dm, is expelled from the rocket at a velocity, Ve, relative to the
rocket. The expulsion of this mass during the time dt leads to an increase in the velocity of the
rocket such that V(t+dt)=V(t)+dV. The table below summarizes each of these terms:
Time Mass Velocity Momentum
Rocket t Mv V MvV
Rocket Only t + dt Mv - dm V + dV (Mv - dm)(V

+ dV)
Expelled Mass t + dt dm V + dV - Ve dm(V + dV -

Only Ve)
Table 1: Summary of Initial and Final System Momentum in Inertial Frame

Pay careful attention to the final velocity and momentum of the expelled mass. The point to
notice is that this velocity must be expressed in an inertial system. An observer stationed on the
rocket would measure the velocity and momentum of the expelled mass as Ve and dmVe,
respectively. However, recall that Equation 1 must be applied in an inertial reference frame, such
as an observer located on the ground. An observer stationed on the ground would measure the
velocity of the expelled mass as the vector sum of the velocity of the rocket (traveling in the
positive direction) and the velocity of the expelled mass (traveling in the negative direction)
relative to the rocket at time t+dt as V+dV-Ve..
Now write these terms as the change in momentum of the system from the final state (t+dt)
and the initial state (t), where the system is the rocket plus incremental mass.
momentum M  dm V  dV   dm V  dV  V e 

final V
… ……2
momentum  M VV
initial
...….3
momentum  momentum  M dV  V dm
final initial
V e
…… ……4
Equation 1 can now be rewritten as:


 F dt  M dV  V dm
v e
……5
Compare Equation 5 to the result of a control volume analysis and you will find that the result is,
of course, identical. We can now look at two important cases involving the expressions for the
change in momentum of the rocket system.
Case 1: No external surface or body forces acting on the rocket vehicle
In this case Equation 5 is equal to zero, and we can solve this expression for dV:
V e dm
dV 
MV
----6
Also note that the incremental mass that was ejected from the vehicle may be written as:
dM
dm  m dt  
V
dt
dt …7
In this expression m is the propellant mass flow rate, and this expression simply says that the
change in mass of the vehicle during dt (which is decreasing, hence the negative sign) is equal to
the mass of the expelled mass dm. This makes sense from the conservation of mass standpoint.
Putting Equation 7 into Equation 6 gives:

e
d
V V
 dM V  dM V
 dt   
Ve
M V  dt  M V
….8
Here we again make the assumption that the exit velocity of the ejected mass is a constant. This
expression is now ready for integration. The limits of integration on the left integral are from the
initial velocity to the final velocity and the limits of integration for the expression on the right hand
side of the equal sign are from the initial mass to the final mass. This is shown below:
V f M f
 M
dM
 dV   Ve V
V0 M 0
V
…..9
 M final   M 
V V   V   V ln  V ln initial 
final inital e  M  e
 M 
 initial   final  ----10
The final mass, M final, is sometimes referred to as the burnout mass, and as its name implies
this is the mass of the rocket when all the fuel as been expended. We can define a ratio, R, that
relates the initial mass to the final, burnout mass of the rocket as:
M ----11
R initial
M burnout
Putting this expression into equation 8, gives:
 V  V lne R ----12
Again, recall the assumptions on Equation 12. No forces (pressure, drag, gravity, etc.) are acting
on the vehicle.
Case 2: External surface and body forces acting on the rocket vehicle
In this case we will consider pressure forces of the non-deal expansion, as well as gravity and
drag acting on the rocket. The sum of these forces is expressed below:
 F   Pe  Pa A e  D  M V g cos  ----13
I have represented the drag force simply by D. The last term on the right hand side is the gravity
term, and a valid question to ask is: What is the correct mass to use in this term? As we shall
discuss below, the final result must be solved by integration over time and the mass of the vehicle
should be updated at each time step, dt. One could use the mass at the beginning of the
time step (which is done above), the end of the time step (Mv-dm) or an average of these two,
which would be expressed as (Mv-dm/2). If the time step is sufficiently small, accurate results will
be obtained in all cases.
Equation 5 holds exactly for the case with external forces, but the difference in momentum
between the initial and final state of the system is not zero. The difference between the final
momentum and the initial momentum of the system is equal to the impulse 
Fdt
. We can
express this as:
M V dV  V e dm   Pe  Pa  Ae  D  M V g cos  dt ----14

Again apply Equation 7 and rearrange some terms to yield:
M V dV   Pe  Pa  A e  m V e  D  M V g cos  dt ----15
Next we can combine the pressure and momentum flux terms to an equivalent velocity, c:
 Pe  Pa  ----16
c  Ve   A e
 m 
For the case where the exhaust pressure, pe, is equal to the ambient pressure, pa, we have:
dM D ----17
 V e  dt  g cos  dt
V
dV
M V
M V
For the case where pe ≠ pa, replace Ve with c from Equation 16. Equation 17 is called the
Rocket Equation. Neglecting drag and assuming vertical flight:
dM -----18
 V e  gdt
V
dV
MV
Integrating we arrive at:

 M final  -----19
V  V ln    gt
e M 
 initial 
This is exactly the set of expressions derived in the text book in Section 10.3.
One other interesting aspect is to relate Equation 19 to the specific impulse, which is defined
as the thrust divided by the fuel weight flow:
T m V e Ve -----20
I sp   
m g m g g
Substituting Equation 20 into Equation 19, we arrive at another useful form of the Rocket
Equation:
 Minitial   -----21
V  g I ln    t 
sp
 
  M final  
We can view equation 19 as being similar to the Breguet Range Equation for aircraft. It presents
the overall dependence of the principal performance parameters for a rocket (velocity, V), on the
efficiency of the propulsion system (Isp), and the structural design (ratio of the total mass to
structural mass – since the initial mass is the fuel mass plus the structural mass and the final mass
is only the structural mass).
Figure 2.3 Tsiolkovsky’s rocket equation

1.9 ROCKET ENGINE PERFORMANCE:
Tsiolkovsky was faced with the dynamics of a vehicle, the mass of which is decreasing as a jet of
matter is projected rearwards. As we shall see later, the force that projects the exhaust is the same
force that propels the rocket. It partakes in Newton’s third law—‘action and reaction are equal and
opposite’, where ‘action’ means force. The accelerating force is represented, using Newton’s law,
as
F = Ma
In this equation, the thrust of the rocket is expressed in terms of the mass flow rate, m, and the
effective exhaust velocity, ve.
So the energy released by the burning propellant appears as a fast-moving jet of matter, and a
rocket accelerating in the opposite direction. Newton’s law can be applied to this dynamical
system, and the decreasing mass can be taken into account, using some simple differential calculus.
The resultant formula which Tsiolkovsky obtained for the vehicle velocity is simple and revealing„
Here 0 is the mass of the rocket at ignition, and is the current mass of the rocket. The only other
parameter to enter into the formula is ve, the effective exhaust velocity. This simple formula is the
basis of all rocket propulsion. The velocity increases with time as the propellant is burned. It
depends on the natural logarithm of the ratio of initial to current mass; that is, on how much of the
propellant has been burned. For a fixed amount of propellant burned, it also depends on the exhaust
velocity—how fast the mass is being expelled.
This is shown in Figure 2.3, where the rocket velocity is plotted as a function of the mass ratio.
The mass ratio, often written as is just the ratio of the initial to the current mass„
In most cases, the final velocity of the rocket needs to be known, and here the appropriate value is
the mass ratio when all the fuel is exhausted. Unless otherwise stated, the final mass ratio should be
assumed.
The rocket equation shows that the final speed depends upon only two numbers„ the final mass
ratio, and the exhaust velocity. It does not depend on the thrust, rather surprisingly, or the size of
the rocket engine, or the time the rocket burns, or any other parameter. Clearly, a higher exhaust
velocity produces a higher rocket velocity, and much of the effort in rocket design goes into
increasing the exhaust velocity
Gunpowder, and the range of propellants used for nineteenth century rockets, produced an exhaust
velocity around 2,000 m s—1, or a little more. The most advanced liquid-fuelled chemical rockets
today produce an exhaust velocity of, at best, 4,500 m s—1. There is nowhere else to go„ this is
close to the theoretical limit of chemical energy extraction.
To achieve a high rocket velocity, the mass ratio has to be large. The mass ratio is defined as theratio
of vehicle-plus-propellant mass, to vehicle mass. In these terms, a mass ratio of, say, 5 indicate that
80% of the initial mass of the rocket is fuel. This is very different from a car, for instance, which has
a typical empty mass of 1.5 tones, and a fuel mass of 40 kg; a mass ratio of 1.003. So a rocket vehicle
is nothing like any other kind of vehicle, because of the requirement to have a mass ratio
considerably greater than 1. The most obvious feature about a rocket like the Saturn V, or the
Space Shuttle, is its sheer size compared with its payload. The Saturn V carried three men on an
eight-day journey, and weighed 3,000 tones. Most of this weight was fuel.

We know that the rocket can travel faster than the speed of its exhaust. This seems counter-
intuitive when thinking in terms of the exhaust pushing against something. In fact, the exhaust is
not pushing against anything at all, and once it has left the nozzle of the rocket engine it has no
further effect on the rocket. All the action takes place inside the rocket, where a constant
accelerating forces is being exerted on the inner walls of the combustion chamber and the inside
of the nozzle. So, while the speed of the rocket depends on the magnitude of the exhaust velocity,
it can itself be much greater. A stationary observer sees the rocket and its exhaust passing by, both
moving in the same direction, although the rocket is moving faster than the exhaust.
The point at which the rocket speed exceeds the exhaust speed is when the mass ratio becomes
equal to e, or 2.718, the base of natural logarithms. It should also be kept in mind that the
accelerating force is independent of the speed of the rocket; however fast it goes, the thrust is still
the same. So with a very large mass ratio, a very high speed can be attained. A big enough rocket
could, in principle, reach α Centauri within a few centuries.
It is as well to mention here that a rocket carries both its fuel and its oxidizer, and needs no intake
of air to operate, like, for example, a jet engine. It can therefore function in a vacuum—and in fact
works better, because air pressure retards the exhaust and reduces the thrust. It also works, rather
inefficiently, under water, provided that the combustion chamber pressure exceeds the hydrostatic
pressure; those who have cast a weighted firework into water can vouch for this.
Tsiolkovsky also calculated how fast a rocket needs to travel to reach space,
he realized, from the rocket equation, that there was a limit. It is obvious from Figure 2.3 that after
a certain point, increasing the mass of fuel has a diminishing effect on the velocity gain—
notwithstanding what we have said about α Centauri. If we take the curve for an exhaust velocity of
1,000 m s—1—already about the speed of sound—we can see that a speed of 3,000 m s—1 is about
the limit that can be reasonably achieved. A higher mass ratio would produce a higher velocity,
but with a diminishing return. Figure 2.3 has a wildly optimistic ordinate„ a mass ratio of 10 is
almost impossible to achieve, particularly with a sophisticated high exhaust velocity engine. Those
working, at the moment, on single stage to orbit rockets, would be happy to achieve a mass ratio of
around 8. So while Tsiolkovsky was able to calculate the velocity achievable by a particular rocket,
we would no doubt have been disappointed with the numbers that derived from his calculations.
He knew that a velocity of 11 km s—1 was needed to escape the Earth’s gravitational field. Faced
with a gunpowder rocket, having at most about 2 km s—1 of exhaust velocity, the necessary mass
ratio would have been wholly impossible to achieve.
Naturally, the first thing to do was to consider increasing the exhaust velocity. Tsiolkovsky knew
that this was a matter of combustion temperature and molecular weight, which could be handled by
nineteenth century chemistry. He quickly realized that liquid-fuelled rockets, using pure hydrogen
and oxygen, could produce a considerable increase in exhaust velocity—in excess of 4,000 m s—
1
. Referring to the graph, escape velocity begins to appear possible. A mass ratio of about 14 is a
less daunting task, but was still extremely difficult to achieve.
1.10 TEST FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS TES TEST FACILITIES AND

SAFEGUARDS FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS:
For chemical rocket propulsion systems, each test facility usually has the following major
systems or components:
1. A test cell or test bay where the article to be tested is mounted, usually in
a special test fixture. If the test is hazardous, the test facility must have provisions to protect
operating personnel and to limit damage in case of an accident.
2. An instrumentation system with associated computers for sensing, maintaining, measuring,
analyzing, correcting, and recording various physical and chemical parameters. It usually
includes calibration systems and timers to accurately synchronize the measurements.
3. A control system for starting, stopping, and changing the operating conditions.
4. Systems for handling heavy or awkward assemblies, supplying liquid propellant, and providing
maintenance, security, and safety.
5. For highly toxic propellants and toxic plume gases it has been required to capture the hazardous
gas or vapor (firing inside a closed duct system), remove almost all of the hazardous ingredients
(e.g., by wet scrubbing and/or chemical treatment), allow the release of the nontoxic portion of
the cleaned gases, and safely dispose of any toxic solid or liquid residues from the chemical
treatment. With exhaust gas containing fluorine, for example, the removal of much of this toxic
gas can be achieved by scrubbing it with water that contains dissolved calcium; it will then form
calcium fluoride, which can be precipitated and removed.
6. In some tests specialized test equipment and unique facilities are needed to conduct static testing
under different environmental conditions or under simulated emergency conditions. For
example, high and low ambient temperature tests of large motors may require a temperature-
controlled enclosure around the motor; a rugged explosion-resistant facility is needed for bullet
impact tests of propellant-loaded missile systems and also for cook-off tests, where gasoline or
rocket fuel is burned with air below a stored missile. Similarly, special equipment is needed for
vibration testing, measuring thrust vector forces and moments in three dimensions, or
determining total impulse for very short pulse durations at low thrust.
Figure 2.4 Simplified sketch of a typical static test stand for a large liquid propellant thrust
chamber firing vertically downward
1.10.1 SAFETY PROVISIONS IN A MODERN TEST FACILITY INCLUDE THE
FOLLOWING:
1. Concrete-walled blockhouse or control stations for the protection of personnel and
instruments remote from the actual rocket propulsion location.
2. Remote control, indication, and recording of all hazardous operations and measurements;
isolation of propellants from the instrumentation and control room.
3. Automatic or manual water deluge and fire-extinguishing systems.
4. Closed circuit television systems for remotely viewing the test.
5. Warning signals (siren, bells, horns, lights, speakers) to notify personnel to clear the test area
prior to a test, and an all-clear signal when the conditions are no longer hazardous.
6. Quantity and distance restrictions on liquid propellant tankage and solid propellant storage to
minimize damage in the event of explosions; separation of liquid fuels and oxidizers.
7. Barricades around hazardous test articles to reduce shrapnel damage in the event of a blast.
8. Explosion-proof electrical systems, spark-proof shoes, and non-spark hand tools to prevent
ignition of flammable materials.
9. For certain propellants also safety clothing , including propellant- and fire-resistant suits, face
masks and shields, gloves, special shoes, and hard hats.
10. Rigid enforcement of rules governing area access, smoking, safety inspections, and so forth.
11. Limitations on the number of personnel that may be in a hazardous area at any time.
1.10.2 INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT:

Some of the physical quantities measured in rocket testing are as follows:
1. Forces (thrust, thrust vector control side forces, short thrust pulses).
2. Flows (hot and cold gases, liquid fuel, liquid oxidizer, leakage).
3. Pressures (chamber, propellant, pump, tank, etc.).
4. Temperatures (chamber walls, propellant, structure, and nozzle).
5. Timing and command sequencing of valves, switches, igniters, etc.
6. Stresses, strains, and vibrations (combustion chamber, structures, propellant lines,
accelerations of vibrating parts).
7. Time sequence of events (ignition, attainments of full pressure).
8. Movement and position of parts (valve stems, gimbal position, deflection of parts under load
or heat).Voltages, frequencies, and currents in electrical or control subsystems.
9. Visual observations (flame configuration, test article failures, explosions)
10. Using high-speed cameras or video cameras.
Special quantities such as turbo pump shaft speed, liquid levels in propellant tanks, burning rates,
flame luminosity, or exhaust gas composition.

UNIT-2
SOLID ROCKET PROPULSION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Solid propellant motors are the simplest of all rocket designs. They consist of a casing, usually
steel, filled with a mixture of solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) that burn at a rapid rate,
expelling hot gases from a nozzle to produce thrust. When ignited, a solid propellant burns from
the center out towards the sides of the casing. The shape of the center channel determines the rate
and pattern of the burn, thus providing a means to control thrust. Unlike liquid propellant engines,
solid propellant motors cannot be shut down. Once ignited, they will burn until all the propellant
is exhausted.
2.1.2 Salient features of solid propellant rockets:
There are two families of solids propellants: homogeneous and composite. Both types are dense,
stable at ordinary temperatures, and easily storable.
Homogeneous propellants are either simple base or double base. A simple base propellant consists
of a single compound, usually nitrocellulose, which has both an oxidation capacity and a reduction
capacity. Double base propellants usually consist of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, to which a
plasticiser is added. Homogeneous propellants do not usually have specific impulses greater than
about 210 seconds under normal conditions. Their main asset is that they do not produce traceable
fumes and are, therefore, commonly used in tactical weapons. They are also often used to perform
subsidiary functions such as jettisoning spent parts or separating one stage from another.
Modern composite propellants are heterogeneous powders (mixtures) that use a crystallized or
finely ground mineral salt as an oxidizer, often ammonium perchlorate, which constitutes between
60% and 90% of the mass of the propellant. The fuel itself is generally aluminum. The propellant
is held together by a polymeric binder, usually polyurethane or polybutadienes, which is also
consumed as fuel. Additional compounds are sometimes included, such as a catalyst to help
increase the burning rate, or other agents to make the powder easier to manufacture. The final
product is rubber like substance with the consistency of a hard rubber eraser.
Composite propellants are often identified by the type of polymeric binder used. The two most
common binders are polybutadiene acrylic acid acrylonitrile (PBAN) and hydroxy-terminator
polybutadiene (HTPB). PBAN formulations give a slightly higher specific impulse, density, and
burn rate than equivalent formulations using HTPB. However, PBAN propellant is the more
difficult to mix and process and requires an elevated curing temperature. HTPB binder is stronger
and more flexible than PBAN binder. Both PBAN and HTPB formulations result in propellants
that deliver excellent performance, have good mechanical properties, and offer potentially long
burn times.
Solid propellant motors have a variety of uses. Small solids often power the final stage of a launch
vehicle, or attach to payloads to boost them to higher orbits. Medium solids such as the

Payload Assist Module (PAM) and the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) provide the added boost to place
satellites into geosynchronous orbit or on planetary trajectories.
The Titan, Delta, and Space Shuttle launch vehicles use strap-on solid propellant rockets to provide
added thrust at liftoff. The Space Shuttle uses the largest solid rocket motors ever built and flown.
Each booster contains 500,000 kg (1,100,000 pounds) of propellant and can produce up to
14,680,000 Newtons (3,300,000 pounds) of thrust.
2.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF SOLID PROPELLANTS:
Figure 3.1 propellant selection and tailoring in design criteria

Figure 3.2: influence of propellant properties
2.3 ESTIMATION OF SOLID PROPELLANT ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE:
Adiabatic Flame Temperature: For a combustion process that takes place adiabatically with no shaft work,
the temperature of the products is referred to as the adiabatic flame temperature. This is the maximum
temperature that can be achieved for given reactants. Heat transfer, incomplete combustion, and dissociation
all result in lower temperature. The maximum adiabatic flame temperature for a given fuel and oxidizer
combination occurs with a stoichiometric mixture (correct proportions such that all fuel and all oxidizer are
consumed). The amount of excess air can be tailored as part of the design to control the adiabatic flame
temperature. The considerable distance between present temperatures in a gas turbine engine and the
maximum adiabatic flame temperature at stoichiometric conditions is shown in Figure , based on
acompressor exit temperature of (922 K).

Figure 3.3: Schematic of adiabatic flame temperature
An initial view of the concept of adiabatic flame temperature is provided by examining two
reacting gases, at a given pressure, and asking what the end temperature is. The process is shown
schematically in Figure 3.3, where temperature is plotted versus the percentage completion of the
reaction. The initial state is and the final state is , with the final state at a higher
temperature than the initial state. The solid line in the figure shows a representation of the
``actual'' process.
To see how we would arrive at the final completion state the dashed lines break the state of reaction
change into two parts. Process (1) is reaction at constant and . To carry out such a process,
we would need to extract heat. Suppose the total amount of heat extracted per unit
mass is . The relation between the enthalpy changes in Process (1) is
where is the ``heat of reaction.''
For Process (2), we put this amount back into the products to raise their temperature to the final
level. For this process,
or, if we can approximate the specific heat as constant (using some appropriate average value)

For the overall process there is no work done and no heat exchanged so that the difference in
enthalpy between initial and final states is zero:
The temperature change during this second process is therefore given by (approximately)
(1)
The value of the adiabatic flame temperature given in Equation (1) is for 100% completion of the
reaction. In reality, as the temperature increases, the tendency is for the degree of reaction to be
less than 100%. For example, for the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, at high temperatures
the combustion product (water) dissociates back into the simpler elemental reactants. The degree
of reaction is thus itself a function of temperature that needs to be computed. We used this idea in
discussing the stoichiometric ramjet, when we said that the maximum temperature was
independent of flight Mach number and hence of inlet stagnation temperature. It is also to be
emphasized that the idea of a constant (average) specific heat, , is for illustration and not
inherently part of the definition of adiabatic flame temperature.
2.4 PROPELLANT GRAIN DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:
The rocket motor's operation and design depend on the combustion characteristics of the propellant, its
burning rate, burning surface, and grain geometry. The branch of applied science describing these is known
as internal ballistics; The burning surface of a propellant grain recedes in a direction essentially
perpendicular to the surface. The rate of regression, usually expressed in cm/sec, mm/sec, or in./sec, is the
burning rate r. In Fig. 3.5 we can visualize the change of the grain geometry by drawing successive burning
surfaces with a constant time interval between adjacent surface contours. Figure 3.5 shows this for a two-
dimensional grain with a central cylindrical cavity with five slots. Success in rocket motor design and
development depends significantly on knowledge of burning rate behavior of the selected propellant under
all motor operating conditions and design limit conditions.
Burning rate is a function of the propellant composition. For composite propellants it can be increased by
changing the propellant characteristics:
1. Add a burning rate catalyst, often called burning rate modifier (0.1 to
3.0% of propellant) or increase percentage of existing catalyst.
2. Decrease the oxidizer particle size.
3. Increase oxidizer percentage.
4. Increase the heat of combustion of the binder and/or the plasticizer.
5. Imbed wires or metal staples in the propellant.
Aside from the propellant formulation and propellant manufacturing process,

burning rate in a full-scale motor can be increased by the following:
1. Combustion chamber pressure.
2. Initial temperature of the solid propellant prior to start.
3. Combustion gas temperature.
4. Velocity of the gas flow parallel to the burning surface.

5. Motor motion (acceleration and spin-induced grain stress).
The grain is the shaped mass of processed solid propellant inside the rocket
motor. The propellant material and geometrical configuration of the grain
determine the motor performance characteristics. The propellant grain is a cast,
molded, or extruded body and its appearance and feel is similar to that of hard
rubber or plastic. Once ignited, it will burn on all its exposed surfaces to form hot
gases that are then exhausted through a nozzle. A few rocket motors have more
than one grain inside a single case or chamber and very few grains have segments
made of different propellant composition (e.g., to allow different burning rates).
However, most rockets have a single grain. There are two methods of holding the
grain in the case, as seen in Fig. 3.4. Cartridge-loaded or freestanding grains are
manufactured separately from the case (by extrusion or by casting into a cylindrical
mold or cartridge) and then loaded into or assembled into the case. In case-bonded
grains the case is used as a mold and the propellant is cast directly into the case and
is bonded to the case or case insulation. Free-standing grains can more easily be
replaced loaded) and a case-bonded grain.
Fig. 3.4 Simplified schematic diagrams of a free-standing (or cartridge-loaded)

and a case-bonded grain.
If the propellant grain has aged excessively. Aging is discussed in the next chapter.
Cartridge-loaded grains are used in some small tactical missiles and a few medium-
sized motors. They often have a lower cost and are easier to inspect. The case- bonded
grains give a somewhat better performance, a little less inert mass (no holding device,
support pads, and less insulation), a better volumetric loading fraction, are more
highly stressed, and often somewhat more difficult and expensive to manufacture.
Today almost all larger motors and many tactical missile motors use case bonding.
2.5 EROSIVE BURNING IN SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS
Definitions and terminology important to grains include:

Configuration: The shape or geometry of the initial burning surfaces of a grain as it
is intended to operate in a motor.
Cylindrical Grain: A grain in which the internal cross section is constant along the
axis regardless of perforation shape.
Neutral Burning: Motor burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning

surface area remain approximately constant, typically within about +15%. Many
grains are neutral burning.
Perforation: The central cavity port or flow passage of a propellant grain; its cross
section may be a cylinder, a star shape, etc.
Progressive Burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface
area increase.
Regressive Burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface
area decrease
Sliver: Unburned propellant remaining (or lost--that is, expelled through the nozzle)
at the time of web burnout.
Figure3.5 classification of grain according to their pressure -time
A grain has to satisfy several interrelated requirements:

1. From the flight mission one can determine the rocket motor requirements. They have to be defined
and known before the grain can be designed. They are usually established by the vehicle designers.
This can include total impulse, a desired thrust-time curve and a tolerance thereon, motor mass,
ambient temperature limits during storage and operation, available vehicle volume or envelope, and
vehicle accelerations caused by vehicle forces (vibration, bending, aerodynamic loads, etc.).
2. The grain geometry is selected to fit these requirements; it should be compact and use the available
volume efficiently, have an appropriate burn surface versus time profile to match the desired thrust-
time curve, and avoid or predictably control possible erosive burning. The remaining unburned
propellant slivers, and often also the shift of the center of gravity during burning, should be
minimized. This selection of the geometry can be complex.
3. The propellant is usually selected on the basis of its performance capability (e.g., characteristic
velocity), mechanical properties (e.g., strength), ballistic properties (e.g., burning rate),
manufacturing characteristics, exhaust plume characteristics, and aging properties. If necessary, the
propellant formulation may be slightly altered or "tailored" to fit exactly the required burning time
or grain geometry.
4. The structural integrity of the grain, including its liner and/or insulator, must be analyzed to assure
that the grain will not fail in stress or strain under all conditions of loading, acceleration, or thermal
stress. The grain geometry can be changed to reduce excessive stresses.
5. The complex internal cavity volume of perforations, slots, ports, and fins increases with burning
time. These cavities need to be checked for resonance, damping, and combustion stability.
6. The processing of the grain and the fabrication of the propellant should be simple and low cost.
2.6 COMBUSTION INSTABILITY:
There seem to be two types of combustion instability: a set of acoustic resonances or pressure oscillations,
which can occur with any rocket motor, and a vortex shedding phenomenon, which occurs only with
particular types of grains.
2.6.2 Acoustic Instabilities: When a solid propellant rocket motor experiences unstable
combustion, the pressure in the interior gaseous cavities (made up by the volume of the port or
perforations, fins, slots, conical or radial groves) oscillates by at least 5% and often by more than
30% of the chamber pressure. When instability occurs, the heat transfer to the burning surfaces, the
nozzle, and the insulated case walls is greatly increased; the burning rate, chamber pressure, and
thrust usually increase; but the burning duration is thereby decreased. The change in the thrust-time
profile causes significant changes in the flight path, and at times this can lead to failure of the
mission. If prolonged and if the vibration energy level is high, the instability can cause damage to
the hardware, such as overheating the case and causing a nozzle or case failure. Instability is a
condition that should be avoided and must be carefully investigated and remedied if it occurs during
a motor development program. Final designs of motors must be free of such instability.
There are fundamental differences with liquid propellant combustion behavior. In liquid propellants there
is fixed chamber geometry with a rigid wall; liquids in feed systems and in injectors that are not part of the
oscillating gas in the combustion chamber can interact strongly with the pressure fluctuations. In solid
propellant motors the geometry of the oscillating cavity increases in size as burning proceeds and there are
stronger damping factors, such as solid particles and energy-absorbing viscoelastic materials. In general,
combustion instability problems do not occur frequently or in every motor development, and, when they do
occur, it is rarely the cause for a drastic sudden motor failure or disintegration. Nevertheless, drastic failures
have occurred. Undesirable oscillations in the combustion cavity propellant rocket motors is a continuing
problem in the design, development, production, and even long-term (10 yr) retention of solid rocket
missiles. While acoustically "softer" than a liquid rocket combustion chamber, the combustion cavity of a
solid propellant rocket is still a low-loss acoustical cavity containing a very large acoustical energy source,
the combustion process itself. A small fraction of the energy released by combustion is more than sufficient
to drive pressure vibrations to an unacceptable level.

Combustion instability can occur spontaneously, often at some particular time during the motor burn period,
and the phenomenon is usually repeatable in identical motors. Both longitudinal and transverse waves
(radial and tangential) can occur. The pressure oscillations increase in magnitude, and the thrust and burning
rate also increase. The frequency seems to be a function of the cavity geometry, propellant composition,
pressure, and internal flame field. As the internal grain cavity is enlarged and local velocities change, the
oscillation often abates and disappears. The time and severity of the combustion vibration tend to change
with the ambient grain temperature prior to motor operation.
For a simple grain with a cylindrical port area, the resonant transverse mode oscillations (tangential and
radial) correspond roughly for liquid propellant thrust chambers. The longitudinal or axial modes, usually
at a lower frequency, are an acoustic wave traveling parallel to the motor axis between the forward end of
the perforation and the convergent nozzle section. Harmonic frequencies of these basic vibration modes can
also be excited. The internal cavities can become very complex and can include igniter cases, movable as
well as submerged nozzles, fins, cones, slots, star-shaped perforations, or other shapes, as described in the
section on grain geometry ,determination of the resonant frequencies of complex cavities is not always easy.
Furthermore, the geometry of the internal resonating cavity changes continually as the burning propellant
surfaces recede; as the cavity volume becomes larger, the transverse oscillation frequencies are reduced.
The bulk mode, also known as the Helmholtz mode, L* mode, or chuffing mode, is not a wave mode as
described above. It occurs at relatively low frequencies (typically below 150 Hz and sometimes below 1
Hz), and the pressure is essentially uniform throughout the volume. The unsteady velocity is close to zero,
but the pressure rises and falls. It is the gas motion (in and out of the nozzle) that corresponds to the classical
Helmholtz resonator mode, similar to exciting a tone when blowing across the open mouth of a bottle . It
occurs at low values of L* , sometimes during the ignition period, and disappears when the motor internal
volume becomes larger or the chamber pressure becomes higher. Chuffing is the periodic low frequency
discharge of a bushy, unsteady flame of short duration (typically less than 1 sec) followed by periods of no
visible flame, during which slow outgassing and vaporization of the solid propellant accumulates hot gas
in the chamber. The motor experiences spurts of combustion and consequent pressure buildup followed by
periods of nearly ambient pressure. This dormant period can extend for a fraction of a second to a few
seconds.
A useful method of visualizing unstable pressure waves is shown in Figs. It consists of a series of Fourier
analyses of the measured pressure vibration spectrum, each taken at a different time in the burning duration
and displayed at successive vertical positions on a time scale, providing a map of amplitude versus
frequency versus burning time. This figure shows a low-frequency axial mode and two tangential modes,
whose frequency is reduced in time by the enlargement of the cavity; it also shows the timing of different
vibrations, and their onset and demise.
The initiation or triggering of a particular vibration mode is still not well understood but has to do with
energetic combustion at the propellant surface.
A sudden change in pressure is known to be a trigger, such as when a piece of broken-off insulation or
unburned propellant flows through the nozzle and temporarily blocks all or a part of the nozzle area (causing
a momentary pressure rise).
The shifting balance between amplifying and damping factors changes during the burning operation and
this causes the growth and also the abatement of specific modes of vibration. The response of a solid
propellant describes the change in the gas mass production or energy release at the burning surface when it
is stimulated by pressure perturbations. When a momentary high pressure peak occurs on the surface, it
increases the instantaneous heat transfer and thus the burning rate, causing the mass flow from that surface
to also increase. Velocity perturbations along the burning surface are also believed to cause changes in mass
flow. Phenomena that contribute to amplifying the vibrations, or to gains in the acoustic energy, are:
1. The dynamic response of the combustion process to a flow disturbance or the oscillations in the burning
rate. This combustion response can be determined from tests of T-burners. The response function
depends on the frequency of these perturbations and the propellant formulation. The

combustion response may not be in a phase with the disturbance. The effects of boundary layers on
velocity perturbations have been investigated.
2. The interactions of flow oscillation with the main flow, similar to the basis for the operation of
musical wind instruments or sirens.
3. The fluid dynamic influence of vortexes.
Phenomena that contribute to a diminishing of vibration or to damping are energy-absorbing processes;

they include the following:
1. Viscous damping in the boundary layers at the walls or propellant surfaces.
2. Damping by particles or droplets flowing in an oscillating gas/vapor flow is often substantial. The
particles accelerate and decelerate by being "dragged" along by the motion of the gas, a viscous flow
process that absorbs energy. The attenuation for each particular vibration frequency is an optimum at a
particular size of particles; high damping for low frequency oscillation (large motors) occurs with
relatively large solid particles (8 to 20 ~tm); for small motors or high-frequency waves the best damping
occurs with small particles (2 to 6 ~tm). The attenuation drops off sharply if the particle size distribution
in the combustion gas is not concentrated near the optimum for damping.
3. Energy from longitudinal and mixed transverse/longitudinal waves is lost out through the exhaust
nozzle. Energy from purely transverse waves does not seem to be damped by this mechanism.
4. Acoustic energy is absorbed by the viscoelastic solid propellant, insulator, and the motor case; its
magnitude is difficult to estimate.
The propellant characteristics have a strong effect on the susceptibility to instability. Changes in the binder,
particle-size distribution, ratio of oxidizer to fuel, and burn-rate catalysts can all affect stability, often in
ways that are not predictable. All solid propellants can experience instability. As a part of characterizing a
new or modified propellant (e.g., determining its ballistic, mechanical, aging, and performance
characteristics), many companies now also evaluate it for its stability behavior, as described below.
2.7 STRAND BURNER AND T-BURNER: In contrast with liquid rocket technology, an accepted
combustion stability rating procedure does not now exist for full-scale solid rockets. Undertaking stability
tests on large full-scale flight-hardware rocket motors is expensive, and therefore lower-cost methods,
such as subscale motors, T-burners, and other test equipment, have been used to assess motor stability.
The best known and most widely used method of gaining combustion stability- related data is the use of a
T-burner, an indirect, limited method that does not use a full-scale motor. Standard T-burner has a 1.5-in.
internal diameter double-ended cylindrical burner vented at its midpoint.
Venting can be through a sonic nozzle to the atmosphere or by a pipe connected to a surge tank which
maintains a constant level of pressure in the burner cavity. T-burner design and usage usually concentrate
on the portion of the frequency spectrum dealing with the transverse oscillations expected in a full-scale
motor. The desired acoustical frequency, to be imposed on the propellant charge as it burns, determines the
burner length (distance between closed ends).
The nozzle location, midway between the ends of the burner, minimizes attenuation of fundamental
longitudinal mode oscillations (in the propellant grain cavity). Theoretically, an acoustic pressure node
exists at the center and antinodes occur at the ends of the cavity. Acoustic velocity nodes are out of phase
with pressure waves and occur at the ends of the burner. Propellant charges are often in the shape of discs
or cups cemented to the end faces of the burner. The gas velocity in the burner cavity is kept intentionally
low (Mach 0.2 or less) compared with the velocity in a full-scale motor. This practice minimizes the
influence of velocity-coupled energy waves and allows the influence of pressure-coupled waves to be more
clearly recognized.
Use of the T-burner for assessing the stability of a full-scale solid rocket presupposes valid theoretical
models of the phenomena occurring in both the T-burner and the actual rocket motor; these theories are still
not fully validated.
In addition to assessing solid rocket motor combustion stability, the T burner also is used to evaluate new
propellant formulations and the importance of seemingly small changes in ingredients, such as a change in
aluminum powder particle size and oxidizer grind method.

Once instability has been observed or predicted in a given motor, the motor design has to fix the problem.
There is no sure method for selecting the right remedy, and none of the cures suggested below may work.
The usual alternatives are:
1. Changing the grain geometry to shift the frequencies away from the undesirable values. Sometimes,
changing fin locations, port cross-section profile, or number of slots has been successful.
2. Changing the propellant composition. Using aluminum as an additive has been most effective in
curing transverse instabilities, provided that the particle-size distribution of the aluminum oxide is
favorable to optimum damping at the distributed frequency. Changing size distribution and using other
particulates (Zr, A1203, or carbon particles) has been effective in some cases. Sometimes changes in
the binder have worked.
3. Adding some mechanical device for attenuating the unsteady gas motions or changing the natural
frequency of cavities. Various inert resonance rods, baffles, or paddles have been added, mostly as a
fix to an existing motor with observed instability. They can change the resonance frequencies of the
cavities, introduce additional viscous surface losses, but also cause extra inert mass and potential
problems with heat transfer or erosion.
Combustion instability has to be addressed during the design process, usually through a combination of
some mathematical simulation, understanding similar problems in other motors, studies of possible
changes, and supporting experimental work (e.g., T-burners, measuring particle-size distribution). Most
solid propellant rocket companies have in-house two and three-dimensional computer programs to calculate
the likely acoustic modes (axial, tangential, radial, and combinations of these) for a given grain/motor, the
initial and intermediate cavity geometries, and the combustion gas properties calculated from
thermochemical analysis. Data on combustion response (dynamic burn rate behavior) and damping can be
obtained from T-burner tests. Data on particle sizes can be estimated from prior experience or plume
measurements.
Estimates of nozzle losses, friction, or other damping need to be included. Depending on the balance
between gain and damping, it may be possible to arrive at conclusions on the grain's propensity to instability
for each specific instability mode that is analyzed. If unfavorable, either the grain geometry or the propellant
usually has to be modified. If favorable, full-scale motors have to be built and tested to validate the predicted
stable burning characteristics. There is always a trade-off between the amount of work spent on extensive
analysis, subscale experiments and computer programs (which will not always guarantee a stable motor),
and taking a chance that a retrofit will be needed after full-scale motors have been tested. If the instability
is not discovered until after the motor is in production, it is often difficult, time consuming, and expensive
to fix the problem.
2.8 APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:
Major Application Categories for Solid Propellant Rocket Motors
Two general types of solid propellants are in use. The first, the so called double-base propellant, consists
of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, plus additives in small quantity. There is no separate fuel and oxidizer.
The molecules are unstable, and upon ignition break apart and rearrange themselves, liberating large
quantities of heat. These propellants lend themselves well to smaller rocket motors. They are often
processed and formed by extrusion methods, although casting has also been employed.
The other type of solid propellant is the composite. Here, separate fuel and oxidized chemicals are used,
intimately mixed in the solid grain. The oxidizer is usually ammonium nitrate, potassium chlorate, or
ammonium chlorate, and often comprises as much as four-fifths or more of the whole propellant mix. The
fuels used are hydrocarbons, such as asphaltic-type compounds, or plastics. Because the oxidizer has no
significant structural strength, the fuel must not only perform well but must also supply the necessary form
and rigidity to the grain. Much of the research in solid propellants is devoted to improving the physical as
well as the chemical properties of the fuel.

Ordinarily, in processing solid propellants the fuel and oxidizer components are separately prepared for
mixing, the oxidizer being a powder and the fuel a fluid of varying consistency. They are then blended
together under carefully controlled conditions and poured into the prepared rocket case as a viscous
semisolid. They are then caused to set in curing chambers under controlled temperature and pressure.
Solid propellants offer the advantage of minimum maintenance and instant readiness. However, the more
energetic solids may require carefully controlled storage conditions, and may offer handling problems in
the very large sizes, since the rocket must always be carried about fully loaded. Protection from mechanical
shocks or abrupt temperature changes that may crack the grain is essential.

UNIT 3
LIQUID ROCKET PROPULSION
3.1 SALIENT FEATURES OF LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS: The propellants, which are the
working substance of rocket engines, constitute the fluid that undergoes chemical and thermodynamic changes.
The term liquid propellant embraces all the various liquids used and may be one of the following:
1. Oxidizer (liquid oxygen, nitric acid, etc.)

2. Fuel (gasoline, alcohol, liquid hydrogen, etc.).
3. Chemical compound or mixture of oxidizer and fuel ingredients, capable of self-decomposition.
4. Any of the above, but with a gelling agent.
A bipropellant rocket unit has two separate liquid propellants, an oxidizer and a fuel. They are stored
separately and are not mixed outside the combustion chamber. The majority of liquid propellant rockets
have been manufactured for bipropellant applications.
A monopropellant contains an oxidizing agent and combustible matter in a single substance. It may be a
mixture of several compounds or it may be a homogeneous material, such as hydrogen peroxide or
hydrazine.
Monopropellants are stable at ordinary atmospheric conditions but decompose and yield hot combustion
gases when heated or catalyzed.
A cold gas propellant (e.g., nitrogen) is stored at very high pressure, gives a low performance, allows a
simple system and is usually very reliable. It has been used for roll control and attitude control.
A cryogenic propellant is liquefied gas at low temperature, such as liquid oxygen (-183°C) or liquid
hydrogen (-253°C). Provisions for venting the storage tank and minimizing vaporization losses are
necessary with this type.
Storable propellants (e.g., nitric acid or gasoline) are liquid at ambient temperature and can be stored for
long periods in sealed tanks. Space storable propellants are liquid in the environment of space; this
storability depends on the specific tank design, thermal conditions, and tank pressure. An example is
ammonia.
A gelled propellant is a thixotropic liquid with a gelling additive. It behaves like a jelly or thick paint. It
will not spill or leak readily, can flow under pressure, will burn, and is safer in some respects.
3.2 SELECTION OF LIQUID PROPELLANTS:
Mission Definition: Purpose, function, and final objective of the mission of an overall system are
well defined and their implications well understood. There is an expressed need for the mission,
and the benefits are evident. The mission requirements are well defined. The payload, flight
regime, vehicle, launch environment, and operating conditions are established. The risks, as
perceived, appear acceptable. The project implementing the mission must have political,
economic, and institutional support with assured funding. The propulsion system requirements,
which are derived from mission definition, must be reasonable and must result in a viable
propulsion system.
Affordability (Cost): Life cycle costs are low. They are the sum of R&D costs, production costs,
facility costs, operating costs, and decommissioning costs, from inception to the retirement of the
system. Benefits of achieving the mission should appear to justify costs. Investment in new
facilities should be low. Few, if any, components should require expensive materials. For
commercial applications, such as communications satellites, the return on investment must look

attractive. No need to hire new, inexperienced personnel, who need to be trained and are more
likely to make expensive errors.
System Performance: The propulsion system is designed to optimize vehicle and system
performance, using the most appropriate and proven technology. Inert mass is reduced to a
practical minimum, using improved materials and better understanding of loads and stresses.
Residual (unused) propellant is minimal. Propellants have the highest practical specific impulse
without undue hazards, without excessive inert propulsion system mass, and with simple loading,
storing, and handling. Thrust-time profiles and number of restarts must be selected to optimize the
vehicle mission. Vehicles must operate with adequate performance for all the possible conditions
(pulsing, throttling, temperature excursions, etc.). Vehicles should be storable over a specified
lifetime. Will meet or exceed operational life. Performance parameters (e.g., chamber pressure,
ignition time, or nozzle area ratio) should be near optimum for the selected mission. Vehicle should
have adequate TVC. Plume characteristics are satisfactory.
Survivability (Safety): All hazards are well understood and known in detail. If failure occurs, the
risk of personnel injury, damage to equipment, facilities, or the environment is minimal. Certain
mishaps or failures will result in a change in the operating condition or the safe shutdown of the
propulsion system. Applicable safety standards must be obeyed. Inadvertent energy input to the
propulsion system (e.g., bullet impact, external fire) should not result in a detonation. The
probability for any such drastic failures should be very low. Safety monitoring and inspections
must have proven effective in identifying and preventing a significant share of possible incipient
failures. Adequate safety factors must be included in the design. Spilled liquid propellants should
cause no undue hazards. All systems and procedures must conform to the safety standards. Launch
test range has accepted the system as being safe enough to launch.
Reliability: Statistical analyses of test results indicate a satisfactory high-reliability level.

Technical risks, manufacturing risks, and failure risks are very low, well understood, and the
impact on the overall system is known. There are few complex components. Adequate storage and
operating life of components (including propellants) have been demonstrated. Proven ability to
check out major part of propulsion system prior to use or launch. If certain likely failures occur,
the system must shut down safely. Redundancy of key components should be provided, where
effective. High probability that all propulsion functions must be performed within the desired
tolerances. Risk of combustion vibration or mechanical vibration should be minimal.
Controllability: Thrust buildup and decay are within specified limits. Combustion process is
stable. The time responses to control or command signals are within acceptable tolerances.
Controls need to be foolproof and not inadvertently create a hazardous condition. Thrust vector
control response must be satisfactory. Mixture ratio control must assure nearly simultaneous
emptying of the fuel and oxidizer tanks. Thrust from and duration of afterburning should be
negligible. Accurate thrust termination feature must allow selection of final velocity of flight.
Changing to an alternate mission profile should be feasible. Liquid propellant sloshing and pipe
oscillations need to be adequately controlled. In a zero-gravity environment, a propellant tank
should be essentially fully emptied.

Maintainability: Simple servicing, foolproof adjustments, easy parts replacement, and fast,
reliable diagnosis of internal failures or problems. Minimal hazard to service personnel. There
must be easy access to all components that need to be checked, inspected, or replaced. Trained
maintenance personnel are available. Good access to items which need maintenance.
Geometric Constraints: Propulsion system fits into vehicle, can meet available volume, specified
length, or vehicle diameter. There is usually an advantage for the propulsion system that has the
smallest volume or the highest average density. If the travel of the center of gravity has to be
controlled, as is necessary in some missions, the propulsion system that can do so with minimum
weight and complexity will be preferred.
Prior Related Experience: There is a favorable history and valid, available, relevant data of
similar propulsion systems supporting the practicality of the technologies, manufacturability,
performance, and reliability. Experience and data validating computer simulation programs are
available. Experienced, skilled personnel are available.
Operability: Simple to operate. Validated operating manuals exist. Procedures for loading
propellants, arming the power supply, launching, igniter checkout, and so on, must be simple. If
applicable, a reliable automatic status monitoring and check-out system should be available. Crew
training needs to be minimal. Should be able to ship the loaded vehicle on public roads or railroads
without need for environmental permits and without the need for a decontamination unit and crew
to accompany the shipment. Supply of spare parts must be assured. Should be able to operate under
certain emergency and overload conditions.
Producibility: Easy to manufacture, inspect, and assemble. All key manufacturing processes are
well understood. All materials are well characterized, critical material properties are well known,
and the system can be readily inspected. Proven vendors for key components have been qualified.
Uses standard manufacturing machinery and relatively simple tooling. Hardware quality and
propellant properties must be repeatable. Scrap should be minimal. Designs must make good use
of standard materials, parts, common fasteners, and off-the-shelf components. There should be
maximum use of existing manufacturing facilities and equipment. Excellent reproducibility, i.e.,
minimal operational variation between identical propulsion units. Validated specifications should
be available for major manufacturing processes, inspection, parts fabrication, and assembly.
Schedule: The overall mission can be accomplished on a time schedule that allows the system
benefits to be realized. R&D, qualification, flight testing, and/or initial operating capability are
completed on a preplanned schedule. No unforeseen delays. Critical materials and qualified
suppliers must be readily available.
Environmental Acceptability: No unacceptable damage to personnel, equipment, or the

surrounding countryside. No toxic species in the exhaust plume. No serious damage (e.g.,
corrosion) due to propellant spills or escaping vapors. Noise in communities close to a test or
launch site should remain within tolerable levels. Minimal risk of exposure to cancer-causing

chemicals. Hazards must be sufficiently low, so that issues on environmental impact statements
are not contentious and approvals by environmental authorities become routine. There should be
compliance with applicable laws and regulations. No unfavorable effects from currents generated
by an electromagnetic pulse, static electricity, or electromagnetic radiation.
Reusability: Some applications (e.g., Shuttle main engine, Shuttle solid rocket booster, or aircraft
rocket assisted altitude boost) require a reusable rocket engine. The number of flights,
serviceability, and the total cumulative firing time then become key requirements that will need to
be demonstrated. Fatigue failure and cumulative thermal stress cycles can be critical in some of
the system components. The critical components have been properly identified; methods,
instruments, and equipment exist for careful check-out and inspection after a flight or test (e.g.,
certain leak tests, inspections for cracks, bearing clearances, etc.). Replacement and/or repair of
unsatisfactory parts should be readily possible. Number of firings before disassembly should be
large, and time interval between overhauls should be long.
Other Criteria: Radio signal attenuation by exhaust plume to be low. A complete propulsion
system, loaded with propellants and pressurizing fluids, can be storable for a required number of
years without deterioration or subsequent performance decrease. Interface problems are minimal.
Provisions for safe packaging and shipment are available. The system includes features that allow
decommissioning (such as to deorbit a spent satellite) or disposal (such as the safe removal and
disposal of over-age propellant from a refurbishable rocket motor).
3.3 INJECTOR: The functions of the injector are similar to those of a carburetor of an internal
combustion engine. The injector has to introduce and meter the flow of liquid propellants to the
combustion chamber, cause the liquids to be broken up into small droplets (a process called
atomization), and distribute and mix the propellants in such a manner that a correctly
proportioned mixture of fuel and oxidizer will result, with uniform propellant mass flow and
composition over the chamber cross section. This has been accomplished with different types of
injector designs and elements; several common types are shown in Fig. 4.1 and complete
injectors are shown in Fig. 4.2.
The injection hole pattern on the face of the injector is closely related to the internal manifolds
or feed passages within the injector. These provide for the distribution of the propellant from the
injector inlet to all the injection holes. A large complex manifold volume allows low passage
velocities and good distribution of flow over the cross section of the chamber. A small manifold
volume allows for a lighter weight injector and reduces the amount of "dribble" flow after the main
valves are shut. The higher passage velocities cause a more uneven flow through different identical
injection holes and thus a poorer distribution and wider local gas composition variation. Dribbling
results in afterburning, which is an inefficient irregular combustion that gives a little "cutoff" thrust
after valve closing. For applications with very accurate terminal vehicle velocity requirements, the
cutoff impulse has to be very small and reproducible and often valves are built into the injector to
minimize passage volume.
Impinging-stream-type, multiple-hole injectors are commonly used with oxygen- hydrocarbon

and storable propellants. For unlike doublet patterns the propellants are injected through a number
of separate small holes in such a manner that the fuel and oxidizer streams impinge upon each
other. Impingement forms thin liquid fans and aids atomization of the
liquids into droplets, also aiding distribution. Impinging hole injectors are also used for like-on-
like or self-impinging patterns (fuel-on-fuel and oxidizer-on- oxidizer). The two liquid streams
then form a fan which breaks up into droplets. Unlike doublets work best when the hole size
(more exactly, the volume flow) of the fuel is about equal to that of the oxidizer and the ignition
delay is long enough to allow the formation of fans. For uneven volume flow the triplet pattern
seems to be more effective.
The non-impinging or shower head injector employs non impinging streams of propellant
usually emerging normal to the face of the injector. It relies on turbulence and diffusion to achieve
mixing. The German World War II V-2 rocket used this type of injector. This type is now not
used, because it requires a large chamber volume for good combustion. Sheet or spray- type
injectors give cylindrical, conical, or other types of spray sheets; these sprays generally intersect
and thereby promote mixing and atomization. By varying the width of the sheet (through an
axially moveable sleeve) it is possible to throttle the propellant flow over a wide range without
excessive reduction in injector pressure drop. This type of variable area concentric tube injector
was used on the descent engine of the Lunar Excursion Module and throttled over a 10:1 range
of flow with only a very small change in mixture ratio.
The coaxial hollow post injector has been used for liquid oxygen and gaseous hydrogen injectors
by most domestic and foreign rocket designers. It is shown in the lower left of Fig. 4.1. It works
well when the liquid hydrogen has absorbed heat from cooling jackets and has been gasified. This
gasified hydrogen flows at high speed (typically 330 m/sec or 1000 ft/sec); the liquid oxygen
flows far more slowly (usually at less than 33 m/sec or 100 ft/sec) and the differential velocity
causes a shear action, which helps to break up the oxygen stream into small droplets. The injector
has a multiplicity of these coaxial posts on its face. This type of injector is not used with liquid
storable bipropellants, in part because the pressure drop to achieve high velocity would become
too high.

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagrams of several injector types. The movable sleeve type variable thrust
injector
The SSME injector uses 600 concentric sleeve injection elements; 75 of them have been
lengthened beyond the injector face to form cooled baffles, which reduce the incidence of
combustion instability.
Figure 4.2: injector

Figure 4.2 Injector with 90° self-impinging (fuel-against-fuel and oxidizer-against oxidizer) -
type countersunk doublet injection pattern. Large holes are inlets to fuel manifolds. Pre-drilled
rings are brazed alternately over an annular fuel manifold or groove and a similar adjacent
oxidizer manifold or groove.
The original method of making injection holes was to carefully drill them and round out or chamfer
their inlets. This is still being done today. It is difficult to align these holes accurately (for good
impingement) and to avoid burrs and surface irregularities. One method that avoids these problems
and allows a large number of small accurate injection orifices is to use multiple etched, very thin
plates (often called platelets) that are then stacked and diffusion bonded together to form a
monolithic structure as shown in Fig.4. 3. The photo-etched pattern on each of the individual plates
or metal sheets then provides not only for many small injection orifices at the injector face, but
also for internal distribution or flow passages in the injector and sometimes also for a fine-mesh
filter inside the injector body. The platelets can be stacked parallel to or normal to the injector face.
The finished injector has been called the platelet injector and has been patented by the Aero jet
Propulsion Company.

Figure 4.3 Simplified diagrams of two types of injector using a bonded platelet construction technique:
(a) injector for low thrust with four impinging unlike doublet liquid streams; the individual plates are
parallel to the injector face; (b) Like-on-like impinging stream injector with 144 orifices; plates are
perpendicular to the injector face.
3.4 PROPELLANT FEED SYSTEMS:
Figure 4.4 Design options of fed systems for liquid propellant rocket engines. The more common
types are designated with a double line at the bottom of the box.
The propellant feed system has two principal functions: to raise the pressure of the propellants
and to feed them to one or more thrust chambers. The energy for these functions comes either from a
high- pressure gas, centrifugal pumps, or a combination of the two. The selection of a particular feed
system and its components is governed primarily by the application of the rocket, duration, number or
type of thrust chambers, past experience, mission, and by general requirements
of simplicity of design, ease of manufacture, low cost, and minimum inert mass. A classification of
several of the more important types of feed system is shown in Fig. 4.4 and some are discussed in more
detail below. All feed systems have piping, a series of valves, provisions for filling and removing
(draining and flushing) the liquid propellants, and control devices to initiate, stop, and regulate their
flow and operation.
In general, a pressure feed system gives a vehicle performance superior to a turbo pump system
when the total impulse or the mass of propellant is relatively low, the chamber pressure is low, the
engine thrust-to-weight ratio is low (usually less than 0.6), and when there are repeated short-duration
thrust pulses; the heavy-walled tanks for the propellant and the pressurizing gas usually constitute the
major inert mass of the engine system. In a turbo pump feed systems the propellant tank pressures are
much lower (by a factor of 10 to 40) and thus the tank masses are much lower (again by a factor of 10
to 40).
Turbo pump systems usually give a superior vehicle performance when the total impulse is
large (higher Au) and the chamber pressure is higher. The pressurized feed system can be relatively
simple, such as for a single operation, factory-preloaded, simple unit (with burst diaphragms instead
of some of the valves), or quite complex, as with multiple restartable thrusters or reusable systems. If
the propulsion system is to be reusable or is part of a manned vehicle (where the reliability
requirements are very high and the vehicle's crew can monitor and override automatic commands), the
feed system becomes more complex (with more safety features and redundancies) and more expensive.
The pneumatic (pressurizing gas) and hydraulic (propellant) flows in a liquid propellant engine
can be simulated in a computer analysis that provides for a flow and pressure balance in the oxidizer
and the fuel flow paths through the system. Some of these analyses can provide information on
transient conditions (filling up of passages) during start, flow decays at cutoff, possible water hammer,
or flow instabilities.
3.5 THRUST CONTROL COOLING IN LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS AND THE

ASSOCIATED HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS:
Liquid rocket engines developed for space missions encompass a wide spectrum of performance and
structural requirements.
Thrust levels may vary from a few Newtons to many thousands of Newtons, with burning time from
fraction of a second to hours. In all these engines, the energy released by the propellants must be
contained inside the thrust chamber and accelerated through the nozzle to extract the thrust. Extremely
high heat flux levels and temperature gradients are present not only in the immediate vicinity of the
injector head, but also in the nozzle throat region.
It is seen that the maximum heat flux occurs in the close proximity to nozzle throat, and an effective
cooling of the throat area is crucial for enhanced reliability and reusability. Regenerative cooling is the
standard cooling system for almost all modern main stage, booster, and upper stage engines. Different
cooling techniques such as film cooling, transpiration cooling, ablative cooling, radiation cooling, heat
sink cooling and dump cooling have been developed in the past to reduce regenerative cooling load and
propellant requirements. Film cooling can be employed either at the combustion chamber or at the
nozzle of a rocket engine.
Liquid film cooling with fuel or oxidizer as the coolant can be employed in the combustion chambers
of gas generator/expander/staged combustion cycle engines. In case of gas generator cycle, the turbine
exhaust gas can be used as a gaseous film coolant in the combustion chamber or nozzle sections. It is
found that all these methods lead to reduced wall temperatures. The mechanism by which film cooling
maintains a lower combustor wall temperature is considerably different from that of convective cooling.
Film cooling is accomplished by interposing a layer of coolant fluid between the surface to be protected
and the hot gas stream. The fluid is introduced directly into the combustion

chamber through slots or holes and is directed along the walls (Figure 4.5). A typical temperature
distribution from the hot combustion gases to the exterior of the chamber wall in a film cooled
Figure 4.5: Schematic of the physical system
Combustion chamber is shown in Figure 4.6. It can be observed that the coolant film produces a thermal
insulation effect and reduces the chamber wall temperature. Coolant film may be generated by injecting
liquid fuel or oxidizer through wall slots or holes in the combustion chamber, or through the propellant
injector. The cooling effect will persist up to the throat region in the case of a shorter combustion
chamber. In a fully film-cooled design, injection points are located at incremental distances along the
wall length.
In liquid film cooling, the vaporized film coolant does not diffuse rapidly into the main gas stream but
persists as a protective layer of vapor adjacent to the wall for an appreciable distance downstream from
the terminus of the liquid film. The film coolant also forms a protective film which restricts the transport
of the combustion products to the wall, thus reducing the rate of oxidation of the walls.

Figure 4.6 Typical temperature distribution of combustion chamber across wall
3.6 COMBUSTION INSTABILITY IN LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKETS:
If the process of rocket combustion is not controlled (by proper design), then combustion instabilities
can occur which can very quickly cause excessive pressure vibration forces (which may break engine
parts) or excessive heat transfer (which may melt thrust chamber parts). The aim is to prevent
occurrence of this instability and to maintain reliable operation.
Although much progress has been made in understanding and avoiding combustion instability, new
rocket engines can still be plagued by it.
Table below lists the principal types of combustion vibrations encountered in liquid rocket thrust
chambers .Admittedly, combustion in a liquid rocket is never perfectly smooth; some fluctuations of
pressure, temperature, and velocity are always present. When these fluctuations interact with the natural
frequencies of the propellant feed system (with and without vehicle structure) or the chamber acoustics,
periodic superimposed oscillations, recognized as instability, occur. In normal rocket practice smooth
combustion occurs when pressure fluctuations during steady operation do not exceed about -t-5% of the
mean chamber pressure. Combustion that gives greater pressure fluctuations at a chamber wall location
which occur at completely random intervals is called rough combustion. Unstable combustion, or
combustion instability, displays organized oscillations occurring at well- defined intervals with a
pressure peak that may be maintained, may increase, or may die out. These periodic peaks, representing
fairly large concentrations of vibratory energy, can be easily recognized against the random-noise
background in fig 4.7.

Fig. 4.7 Typical oscillogrpah traces of chamber pressure Pl with time for different combustion events.
3.7 PRINCIPAL TYPES OF COMBUSTION INSTABILITY:
Type and word description Frequency Cause relationship

10-400 Linked with pressure interactions
Low frequency, called chugging or between propellant feed system, if not
feed system instability the entire vehicle, and combustion
chamber
Intermediate frequency, called acoustic, 400-1000 Linked with mechanical vibrations of
a buzzing, or entropy waves propulsion structure, injector manifold,
flow eddies, fuel/oxidizer ratio
fluctuations, and propellant feed system
resonances
High frequency, called screaming, Above Linked with combustion process forces
(pressure waves) and chamber acoustical
screeching, or squealing 1000 resonance properties
3.8 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH OPERATION OF CRYOGENIC ENGINES:

Peculiar problems associated with operation of cryogenic engines. The thrust comes from the rapid expansion
from liquid to gas with the gas emerging from the motor at very high speed. The energy needed to heat the
fuels comes from burning them, once they are gasses. Cryogenic engines are the highest performing rocket
motors. Cryogenic engines are fundamentally different from electric motors because there isn't anything
rotating in them. They're essentially reaction engines. By 'reaction' I'm referring to Newton's law: "to every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction. "The cryogenic (or rocket) engine throws mass in one direction,
and the reaction to this is a thrust in the opposite direction. Therefore, to get the required mass flow rate, the
only option was to cool the propellants down to cryogenic temperatures (below −183 °C [90 K], −253 °C
[20 K]), converting them to liquid form. Hence, all cryogenic rocket engines are also, by definition, either liquid-
propellant rocket engines or hybrid rocket engines Introduction to hybrid rocket propulsion-standard and
reverse hybrid systems-combustion mechanism in hybrid propellant rockets applications and limitations.

UNIT 4
HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID ROCKET PROPULSION:
Rocket propulsion concepts in which one component of the propellant is stored in liquid phase while the other is
stored in solid phase are called hybrid propulsion systems. Such systems most commonly employ a liquid
oxidizer and solid fuel. Various combinations of solid fuels and liquid oxidizers as well as liquid fuels and solid
oxidizers have been experimentally evaluated for use in hybrid rocket motors. Most common is the liquid
oxidizer-solid fuel concept shown in Fig. 4.8. Illustrated here is a large pressure-fed hybrid booster configuration.
The means of pressurizing the liquid oxidizer is not an important element of hybrid technology and a turbo pump
system could also perform this task. $ The oxidizer can be either a non-cryogenic (storable) or a cryogenic liquid,
depending on the application requirements.
In this hybrid motor concept, oxidizer is injected into a pre combustion or vaporization chamber upstream of the
primary fuel grain. The fuel grain contains numerous axial combustion ports that generate fuel vapor to react
with the injected oxidizer. An aft mixing chamber is employed to ensure that all fuel and oxidizer are burned
before exiting the nozzle.
The main advantages of a hybrid rocket propulsion system are:
(1) Safety during fabrication, storage, or operation without any possibility of explosion or detonation;
(2) start-stop-restart capabilities;
(3) Relatively low system cost;
(4) Higher specific impulse than solid rocket motors and higher density-specific impulse than liquid
bipropellant engines; and
(5) The ability to smoothly change motor thrust over a wide range on demand.
The disadvantages of hybrid rocket propulsion systems are:

(1) Mixture ratio and, hence, specific impulse will vary somewhat during steady-state operation and throttling;
(2) lower density-specific impulse than solid propellant systems;
(3) some fuel sliver must be retained in the combustion chamber at end-of burn, which slightly reduces motor
mass fraction; and
(4) Unproven propulsion system feasibility at large scale.
4.2 STANDARD AND REVERSE HYBRID SYSTEMS :

Figure 4.8. Large hybrid rocket booster concept capable of boosting the Space Shuttle. It has an inert
solid fuel grain, pressurized liquid oxygen feed system, and can be throttled.
4.3 : HYBRID ROCKET CONFIGURATION:
Figure 4.9 hybrid rocket
The hybrid is inherently safer than other rocket designs. The idea is to store the oxidizer as a liquid and the fuel
as a solid, producing a design that is less susceptible to chemical explosion than conventional solid and bi-
propellant liquid designs. The fuel is contained within the rocket combustion chamber in the form of a cylinder
with a circular channel called a port hollowed out along its axis. Upon ignition, a diffusion flame forms over the
fuel surface along the length of the port. The combustion is sustained by heat transfer from the flame to the solid
fuel causing continuous fuel vaporization until the oxidizer flow is turned off. In the event of a structural failure,
oxidizer and fuel cannot mix intimately leading to a catastrophic explosion that might endanger personnel or
destroy a launch pad.

The hybrid rocket requires one rather than two liquid containment and delivery systems. The complexity
is further reduced by omission of a regenerative cooling system for both the chamber and nozzle. Throttling
control in a hybrid is simpler because it alleviates the requirement to match the momenta of the dual propellant
streams during the mixing process. Throttle ratios up to 10 have been common in hybrid motors. The fact that
the fuel is in the solid phase makes it very easy to add performance enhancing materials to the fuel such as
aluminum powder. In principle, this could enable the hybrid to gain an Isp advantage over a comparable
hydrocarbon fueled liquid system.
Fig. 4.10 Schematic of a hybrid rocket motor.
4.4 : COMBUSTION MECHANISM IN HYBRID PROPELLANT ROCKETS
The process in a hybrid rocket combustion chamber over a large portion of the chamber constitutes the
diffusive combustion in the boundary layer very close to the regressing fuel surface. The initial part is
dominated by processes of impingement of the liquid oxidizer (which is sprayed by an injector) on the
fuel surface and its vaporisation .Since the process is essentially diffusion-dominated, chemical kinetics,
and therefore pressure, have a relatively smaller effect. It is the flux of hot gases (consisting of the
products of combustion and oxidizer not yet utilised) past the fuel surface which primarily affects the
regression of the fuel. The regression rate law can be deduced from the boundary layer considerations
as was first accomplished by Marxman & Gilbert (1963). The law reads that rh=aG', where G is the
mass flux of hot gases past the surface, a and n are constants; typically a 0.01--0.03 cm/s (flux) n, n=0.5
for laminar flow and 0.8 for turbulent flow.
Now it is possible to explain some features of hybrid engines. First, the O/F of a hybrid engine is not
necessarily constant throughout the firing. Using the expression, we can express O/F in terms of the
inner diameter of the cylindrical fuel block burning from inside outwards as
Where d=inner diameter of the port and L is the length of the fuel block. If n=0.5, as in the ease of
laminar flow, O/F is a constant and does not change during the firing; and if n =0.8, as in the case of
turbulent flow, the value of O/F increases during the firing, showing that the products become oxidiser-
rich. This, in fact, causes changes in the specific impulse of the system during the firing. There are ways
of combating this problem (see Anon 1964). One of these is to fix the initial operating point on a slightly
fuel-rich side so that when the operating point moves to the oxidiser-rich side, the specific impulse does
not vary by more than 1-2 Yo. Another technique which maintains a constant O/F level is to use two
oxidiser injection points, one near the head end and the other near the aft end. In the early part of the
firing the burning is fuel-rich and aft end injection is used to optimize it.

During the later part of the firing the products of combustion from the end of the fuel block tend towards
oxidiser-richness and so aft-end injection is reduced to maintain the same O/F level.
The second feature concerns the low explosion hazard during storage, transportation and firing. That
the explosion and fire hazard are small compared to that for a solid rocket is easy to appreciate because
the solid rocket has the fuel and oxidizer imbedded in the same matrix whereas the hybrid has the solid
fuel and liquid oxidizer separately stored. And in the event of an accidental initiation, the former can
burn by itself, whereas the fuel in the hybrid rocket has to receive oxidiser for its combustion.
The fire hazard of the hybrid is smaller than of liquids because, in the event of an explosion, the liquids
of a liquid rocket can flow, widely spread and get mixed up, while the fuel and oxidiser in the hybrid
have greater resistance to large scale mixing since the fuel is in the form of a solid.
We can further argue that a crack or a tiny hole in the fuel block of a hybrid causes little or no change
in the performance, whereas the same crack or hole in a solid propellant may cause explosion. To
appreciate this we notice that the regression of the fuel occurs under the action of a heat flux from the
diffusion flame. Thus any area of the fuel which receives less heat flux will regress less. The tiny hole
represents a zone which is farther away from the flame and hence receives less heat flux and so will
regress less. This means that the tiny hole evens out instead of becoming larger as in a solid rocket and
the perturbation due to changed mass flow becomes small as burning progresses.
The third feature concerns the sensitivity of the regression rate to the nature of fuel. It has already been
noted that addition of even a small amount of some compounds can disastrously alter the burning rate
of a solid propellant. The situation is quite the opposite in the case of hybrids. The regression rate is
negligibly dependent on the nature of fuels, even when they are as different as polystyrene and natural
rubber or polybutadiene. The reason for this lies in the counter-balancing effect called 'blowing effect'.
This effect is simply that the burning rate does not linearly scale with the ratio of the input heat flux to
heat of phase transformation at the surface, but less (in fact, much less) strongly dependent on it. If we
invoke the heat balance at the surface of the burning fuel, we have
where (Ah), is the heat of phase change at the surface (including that needed for degradation) and q",
the heat flux into the surface. Now, if by some mechanism rh increases by decrease of (Ah)~, this
increase in rn causes an increase in boundary layer thickness, hence, reduction in gradients at the surface
and in heat flux. The net result is of course, an increase in regression rate but much less than is to be
expected from the linear relation. This effect is so significant that a 10 ~o increase in q" leaves rn
virtually unaltered. Even a 35~o increase in q" causes only a 10~o increase in the regression rate
(Marxman & Gilbert 1963).
Similar arguments can be used to explain why the initial temperature change causes much less change
in the regression rate of a hybrid fuel than in the burning rate of a solid propellant.
 The purpose is to predict the

regression rate. Assumptions:
– Steady-state operation.
– Simple grain configuration (flat plate).
– No exothermic reactions in the solid grain (No oxidizer in solid phase).
– Oxidizer enters the port as a uniform gas.

– Le =Pr=1 (Le =k/D)
– No heat transfer to the ambient air through the walls of the rocket.
– All kinetic effects are neglected (Characteristic times for all chemical rxns << characteristic times
for diffusion processes).
– Flame zone is infinitely thin. (Flame sheet). No oxidizer beneath the flame.
– Boundary layer is turbulent.
 Energy balance at the fuel surface: (Steady-state)
= Total heat flux to the wall

hv = Effective heat of gasification (Heating of the solid fuel grain + Heat of evaporation and melting +
Heat of reaction for degradation of the polymer)
• End result:
 Space time averaged regression rate ( n ~0.5-0.8)
4.5 Limitations of the Theory:
Each propellant combination has an upper and lower limit for the mass flux beyond which the
model is not applicable.
• High mass fluxes Kinetic effects (Pressure dependency via the gas phase rxn rates)
• Low mass fluxes Radiation effects (Pressure dependency via the radiation effects)
• Transition to laminar boundary layer
• Cooking of the propellant (at very low regression rates)
• Dilution of the oxidizer

Figure 4.11 Effect of Pressure on the Regression Rate
 The heat conduction equation in the solid in reference of frame fixed to the regressing
surface
 During Steady state operating this expression can be integrated to yield
 Here the characteristic thermal thickness can be given as
• Similarly the characteristics time is
• During typical operation of a polymeric hybrid fuel

Fig. 4.12 Boundary layer combustion.
Disadvantage of Classical Hybrids:
Low Burning Rates --> Multi-port design

 Issues with multi-port design
 Excessive unburned mass fraction (i.e. typically in the 5% to 10% range).
 Complex design/fabrication, requirement for a web support structure.
• Compromised grain structural integrity, especially towards the end of the burn.
• Uneven burning of individual ports.
• Requirement for a substantial pre combustion chamber or individual injectors for each port.

4.6 : APPLICATIONS:
Hybrid propulsion is well suited to applications or missions requiring throttling, command shutdown
and restart, long-duration missions requiring storable nontoxic propellants, or infrastructure operations
(manufacturing and launch) that would benefit from a non-self-deflagrating propulsion system.
Such applications would include primary boost propulsion for space launch vehicles, upper stages, and
satellite maneuvering systems.
Many early hybrid rocket motor developments were aimed at target missiles and low-cost tactical
missile applications (Ref. 15-1). Other development efforts focused on high-energy upper-stage motors.
In recent years development efforts have concentrated on booster prototypes for space launch
applications.
4.7 : ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID PROPELLANTS:
Compared to Solids Liquids

Simplicity o Chemically Simpler o Mechanically Simpler
o Tolerant to processing o Tolerant to fabrication
errors errors
Safety o Reduced Chemical o Reduced fire hazard
Explosion hazard o Less prone to hard starts
o Thrust termination and
Abort possibility
Performance Related o Better Isp Performance o Higher fuel density

o Throttling/Restart o Easy inclusion of solid
capability performance additives
(Al. Be)
Other o Reduced Environmental o Reduced number and
impact mass of liquids
Cost o Reduced Development costs are expected
o Reduced recurring costs are expected

UNIT-5
ADVANCED PROPULSION TECHNIQUES
5.1 ELECTRIC ROCKET PROPULSION:

In all electric propulsion the source of the electric power (nuclear, solar radiation receivers, or batteries)
is physically separate from the mechanism that produces the thrust. This type of propulsion has been
handicapped by heavy and inefficient power sources. The thrust usually is low, typically
0.005 to 1 N. In order to allow a significant increase in the vehicle velocity, it is necessary to apply the
low thrust and thus a small acceleration for a long time (weeks or months).
Of the three basic types, electro thermal rocket propulsion most resembles the chemical rocket units;
propellant is heated electrically(by heated resistors or electric arcs) and the hot gas is then
thermodynamically expanded and accelerated to supersonic velocity through an exhaust nozzle. These
electro thermal units typically have thrust ranges of 0.01 to 0.5 N, with exhaust velocities of 1000 to
5000 m/sec, and ammonium, hydrogen, nitrogen, or hydrazine decomposition product gases have been
used as propellants.
The two other types--the electrostatic or ion propulsion engine and the
Electromagnetic or magneto plasma engine--accomplish propulsion by different principles and the
thermodynamic expansion of gas in a nozzle, as such, does not apply. Both will work only in a vacuum.
In an ion rocket a working fluid (typically, xenon) is ionized (by stripping off electrons) and then the
electrically charged heavy ions are accelerated to very high velocities (2000 to 60,000 rn/sec) by means
of electrostatic fields. The ions are subsequently electrically neutralized; they are combined with
electrons to prevent the buildup of a space charge on the vehicle.
In the magneto plasma rocket an electrical plasma (an energized hot gas
Containing ions, electrons, and neutral particles) is accelerated by the interaction between electric
currents and magnetic fields and ejected at high velocity.
Figure: 5.1 Simplified Diagram of Arc Heating Electric Propulsion

Figure. 5.2 Simplified Schematic Diagram Of A Typical Ion Rocket
5.1.1 REVIVED INTEREST IN ELECTRIC PROPULSION:

 The concept of electric propulsion has been known for a considerable time, and different types
of electric thruster have been developed and tested in space. However, they have remained a
curiosity until comparatively recent times, when it was realised that the requirement for high
velocity increment did not apply only to ambitious space exploration missions, but to station
keeping for communications satellites.
 Over the satellite’s lifetime, drift from the correct orbit, induced by solar radiation pressure and
gravity gradients, has to be constantly corrected. This requires a significant amount of
propellant, the mass of which could be used for more communications equipment, leading to
higher profitability. Increased exhaust velocity from the thrusters translates directly into
decreased propellant mass. propulsion. The advantages, even for unmanned planetary missions,
are significant.
 The alternative is to carry the extra propellant required for a chemical thruster into Earth orbit
with the probe, which has a dramatic effect on the mass ratio at launch, and results in a serious
reduction in payload. Use of electric propulsion enables unmanned interplanetary missions,
requiring large velocity increments, which would otherwise be difficult using present-day
launchers.
5.2 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION: The basic principle of electric propulsion is to

apply electrical energy to the propellant from an external power source. This can be done in several
ways. The simplest is to heat the propellant with a hot wire coil, through which an electric current
passes. This elementary approach, used in some commercial thrusters, is very successful.
More energy can be delivered from the electric current if an arc is struck through the propellant,
which generates higher temperatures than the resistive approach and produces a higher exhaust velocity.
Finally, electric or magnetic fields can be used directly to accelerate propellant ions to very high
velocities, producing the highest exhaust velocity of all. These ion thrusters, and Kall effect thrusters
are seen as the most promising for deep space applications, and they are already coming into
commercial use for station keeping and interplanetary propulsion.
While for a chemical rocket the link between energy supply and propellant simplifies analysis, for
electrical propulsion the power supply introduces free parameters for which we have to make estimates
when deriving expected vehicle performance.
Electric power can come from a battery, solar panels or an onboard nuclear or solar generator, each of
which has its own advantages and disadvantages. What is important, from the vehicle performance point
of view, is the power-to-mass ratio—W/kg.
In most cases the power does not diminish with progress through the flight, while the mass of propellant
decreases in the familiar way as the vehicle accelerates. This is in direct contrast to the chemical rocket,
in which both the propellant and the available energy decrease together. Using these ideas, simple
estimates of vehicle performance can be produced.
5.3 ION PROPULSION: This is the simplest concept„ propellant is ionised, and then enters a region
of strong electric field, where the positive ions are accelerated. Passing through a grid, they leave the
engine as a high-velocity exhaust stream. The electrons do not leave, and so the exhaust is positively
charged. Ultimately this would result in a retarding field developing between the spacecraft and the
exhaust, and so an electron current is therefore discharged into the exhaust to neutralize the spacecraft.
The electrons carry little momentum, and so this does not affect the thrust.
The schematic (Figure 5.3) shows the thruster is divided into two chambers. The propellant enters
the ionisation chamber in the form of neutral gas molecules. There is a radial electric field across the
chamber, and electrons are released from the cathode (which can be a thermionic emitter). The
electrons are accelerated by the radial field, and reach energies of several tens of electron volts, which
is enough to ionise the neutral propellant atoms by collision. To extend the path length of the electrons
and ensure that they encounter as many neutral atoms as possible, an axial magnetic field is provided,
which makes them move in a spiral path. The ionisation therefore becomes efficient; that is, the number
of ions produced, as a function of the electron current, is maximised. In theory, all the electrical energy
in an electro thermal thruster enters the exhaust stream, but in an electromagnetic thruster each ion in
the exhaust has to be created with an energy of about 20−30 eV per ion. This energy does not go into
propulsion, and is lost. Thus, it is important to maximise the ionisation efficiency.
The ionised propellant atoms drift under a small negative field through the first grid into the
accelerating chamber. The grids have a high potential across them, and are separated by 1−2 mm. The
ions gain energy in the strong electric field and, passing through the outer grid, form the ion beam.
There is no need for a nozzle to generate the thrust, because the motion of the ion beam is ordered
and not chaotic.
Figure 5.3 Schematic Diagram Of The NSTAR Ion Thruster

5.3.1 ION THRUSTER THEORY: The ion thruster is simple in concept, as described above. The
theory of operation is also relatively simple, and because it is so different from that of a thermal rocket
it is useful to include a brief description here, so that the strengths and limitations can be appreciated.
As in all reaction propulsion systems, the thrust depends ultimately on the transfer of momentum
from an exhaust stream to the vehicle. The exhaust velocity is straightforwardly given by the potential
difference between the grids. Ions dropping throughthispotentialdifferenceeachgainafixed amount
of energy, and this converts directly into a velocity. The other parameter in the thrust is the mass flow
rate. For an ion thruster this is directly related to the current flowing between the grids, and the ion
current itself becomes the exhaust stream. To increase the thrust of a given ion thruster, the current
has to be increased; but it cannot be increased indefinitely, as there is a natural limit. It is this limit
which we can examinetheoretically.
5.4 SOLAR CELLS:
The maximum efficiency of solar cells, in converting solar energy to electricity, ranges from
15 to 20% depending on the type. Typically, for a 30-kw array, the mass per kilowatt is about 13
kg. The areal extent would be about 210 m2, achieved by deploying a folded structure, once in space.
For lower power, 5−6 kw, a mass per kilowatt of 7 kg can be achieved. This reflects the mass needed for
the structure of the larger deployable array. with improved solar cells, especially gallium arsenide,
and the use of solar concentrators, which focus the sunlight collected by lightweight reflectors
on to a smaller area of solar cells, a mass per kilowatt of about 3 kg is thought to be achievable.
The immediately obvious disadvantage of solar power is the limit to the total power available
imposed by our inability to build very large deployable arrays. Powers much above 100 kw are
unlikely to be achievable with the current technology. A less obvious disadvantage is the fact that
sunlight diminishes in intensity with the square of the distance from the sun; a spacecraft travelling
away from Earth orbit towards the outer solar system faces constantly decreasing power availability.
It is difficult to imagine that enough power can be extracted from solar panels to drive an
electricallypropelledspacecraftmuchbeyondtheorbit of Mars. On the other hand the power output
drops significantly with increased temperature, so that travelling much inside the orbit of Mercury is
not possible with solar cells as the main power source There is a further problem with solar cells,
and this is their sensitivity to radiation damage. Energetic protons, in the Earth’s radiation belts, or
emitted by the sun during solar storms, displace atoms in the silicon and change its properties so that
the power available decreases significantly with time, depending on the radiation exposure.
Normally a 130% over-size requirement ensures 5 years of adequate power for satellites in Earth orbit.
For electric propulsion, using low thrust, a spacecraft could spend several months in the radiation
belts of the Earth, and the cells would degrade significantly during that time. This again indicates the
need for over-sizing of the panels, and correspondingly lower power-to-mass ratios. Despite these
disadvantages, all current electrically propelled space missions use solar cells; the system is called
Solar Electric Propulsion, or SEP.
5.5 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION: The advantages of electric thrusters are

mainly concerned with their ability to provide a high exhaust velocity, and hence to use propellant very
economically. One way to look at this is to consider the following. Rearranging the rocket equation
again we find

In this inversion, the ratio of propellant mass to vehicle mass is given in terms of the exhaust and
vehicle velocities. This is useful in calculating the quantity of propellant needed for any manoeuvre
for a given payload. The ratio Mf /M is the propellant efficiency or fuel multiplier, and depends only
on the ratio of the vehicle velocity to the exhaust velocity (Figure 5.4). we see that the propellant
efficiency depends exponentially on the exhaust velocity, and this is why the high exhaust velocity
provided by electric propulsion is so beneficial.
when comparing the performance of electric propulsion devices it is sensible to include a variety
of diffierent missions. Here we shall consider three cases„ station keeping for a mission lifetime of
10 years, transfer from LEO to GEO, and a nine- month journey to Mars. It is sometimes useful to
express the performance in terms of the propellant to total vehicle mass, which is
Figure:5.4 Propellant Efficiency

5.6 NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINES: Three different types of nuclear energy sources have been
investigated for delivering heat to a working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, which subsequently can be
expanded in a nozzle and thus accelerated to high ejection velocities (6000 to 10,000 m/sec). However,
none can be considered fully developed today and none have flown. They are the fission reactor, the
radioactive isotope decay source, and the fusion reactor. All three types are basically extensions of
liquid propellant rocket engines. The heating of the
gas is accomplished by energy derived from transformations within the nuclei of atoms.
In chemical rockets the energy is obtained from within the propellants, but in nuclear rockets the power
source is usually separate from the propellant.
In the nuclear fission reactor rocket, heat can be generated by the fission of uranium in the solid reactor
material and subsequently transferred to the working fluid.). The nuclear fission rocket is primarily a
high-thrust engine (above 40,000 N) with specific impulse values up to 900 sec. Fission rockets were
designed and tested in the 1960s. Ground tests with hydrogen as a working fluid culminated in a thrust
of 980,000 N (210,000 lb force) at a graphite core nuclear reactor level of 4100 MW with an equivalent
altitude-specific impulse of 848 sec and a hydrogen temperature of about 2500 K. There were concerns
with the endurance of the materials at the high temperature (above 2600
K) and intense radiations, power level control, cooling a reactor after operation, moderating the high
energy neutrons, and designing lightweight radiation shields for a manned space vehicle.
In recent years there has been renewed interest in nuclear fission rocket propulsion primarily for a
potential manned planetary exploration mission. Studies have shown that the high specific impulse
(estimated in some studies at 1100 sec) allows shorter interplanetary trip transfer times, smaller
vehicles, and more flexibility in the launch time when planets are not in their optimum relative position.
In the isotope decay engine a radioactive material gives off radiation, which is readily converted into
heat. Isotope decay sources have been used successfully for generating electrical power in space
vehicles and some have been flown as a power supply for satellites and deep space probes. The released
energy can be used to raise the temperature of a propulsive working fluid such as hydrogen or perhaps
drive an electric propulsion system. It provides usually a lower thrust and lower temperature than the
other types of nuclear rocket. As yet, isotope decay rocket engines have not been developed or flown.
Fusion is the third nuclear method of creating nuclear energy that can heat a working fluid. A number
of different concepts have been studied. To date none have been tested and many concepts are not yet
feasible or practical. Concerns about an accident with the inadvertent spreading of radioactive materials
in the earth environment and the high cost of development programs have to date prevented a renewed
experimental development of a large nuclear rocket engine.
Figure 5.5 Elements Of An Air-Launched Missile With Integral Rocket-Ramjet Propulsion.

After the solid propellant has been consumed in boosting the vehicle to flight speed, the rocket
combustion chamber becomes the ramjet combustion chamber with air burning the ramjet liquid fuel.
5.7 CHEMICAL ROCKET PROPULSION: The energy from a high-pressure combustion reaction
of propellant chemicals, usually a fuel and an oxidizing chemical, permits the heating of reaction
product gases to very high temperatures (2500 to 4100°C or 4500 to 7400°F). These gases subsequently
are expanded in a nozzle and accelerated to high velocities (1800 to 4300 m/sec or 5900 to 14,100
ft/sec). Since these gas temperatures are about twice the melting point of steel, it is necessary to cool or
insulate all the surfaces that are exposed to the hot gases. According to the physical state of the
propellant, there are several different classes of chemical rocket propulsion devices.
Liquid propellant rocket engines use liquid propellants that are fed under pressure from tanks into a
thrust chamber.* A typical pressure-fed liquid propellant rocket engine system is schematically shown
in Fig. 1-3. The liquid bipropellant consists of a liquid oxidizer (e.g., liquid oxygen) and a liquid fuel
(e.g., kerosene). A monopropellant is a single liquid that contains both oxidizing and fuel species; it
decomposes into hot gas when properly catalyzed. A large turbopump-fed liquid propellant rocket
engine is shown in Fig. below. Gas pressure feed systems are used mostly on low thrust, low total
energy propulsion systems, such as those used for attitude control of flying vehicles, often with more
than one thrust chamber per engine. Pump-fed liquid rocket systems are used typically in applications
with larger amounts of propellants and higher thrusts, such as in space launch vehicles. In the thrust
chamber the propellants react to form hot gases, which in turn are accelerated and ejected at a high
velocity through a supersonic nozzle, thereby imparting momentum to the vehicle. A nozzle has a
converging section, a constriction or throat, and a conical or bell-shaped diverging section as further
described in the next two chapters.
Some liquid rocket engines permit repetitive operation and can be started and shut off at will. If the
thrust chamber is provided with adequate cooling capacity, it is possible to run liquid rockets for periods
exceeding 1 hour, dependent only on the propellant supply. A liquid rocket propulsion system requires
several precision valves and a complex feed mechanism which includes propellant pumps, turbines, or
a propellant-pressurizing device, and a relatively intricate combustion or thrust chamber.
In solid propellant rocket motors* the propellant to be burned is contained within the combustion
chamber or case. The solid propellant charge is called the grain and it contains all the chemical elements
for complete burning. Once ignited, it usually burns smoothly at a predetermined rate on all the exposed
internal surfaces of the grain. Initial burning takes place at the internal surfaces of the cylinder
perforation and the four slots. The internal cavity grows as propellant is burned and consumed. The
resulting hot gas flows through the
Supersonic nozzle to impart thrust. Once ignited, the motor combustion proceeds in an orderly manner
until essentially all the propellant has been consumed. There are no feed systems or valves

Figure 5.6 Schematic flow diagram of a liquid propellant rocket engine with a gas pressure feed
system.

Figure5.7 Simplified schematic diagram of one type of liquid propellant rocket engine with a turbopump
feed system and a separate gas generator, which generates warm gas for driving the turbine.
Hybrid propellant rocket propulsion systems use both a liquid and a solid propellant. For example, if a
liquid oxidizing agent is injected into a combustion chamber filled with solid carbonaceous fuel grain,
the chemical reaction produces hot combustion gases .
There are also chemical rocket propulsion combination systems that have both solid and liquid
propellants. One example is a pressurized liquid propellant system that uses a solid propellant to

generate hot gases for tank pressurization; flexible diaphragms are necessary to separate the hot gas and
the reactive liquid propellant in the tank.
Figure 5.8 Simplified perspective three-quarter section of a typical solid propellant rocket motor with
the propellant grain bonded
5.8 APPLICATIONS OF ROCKET PROPULSION: Because the rocket can reach a performance
unequaled by other prime movers, it has its own fields of application and does not usually compete with
other propulsion devices.
Examples
Space Launch Vehicles:
Between the first space launch in 1957 and the end of 1998 approximately 4102 space launch attempts
have taken place in the world and all but about 129 were successful .Space launch vehicles or space
boosters can be classified broadly as expendable or recoverable/reusable. Other bases of classification
are the type of propellant (storable or cryogenic liquid or solid propellants), number of stages (single-
stage, two-stage, etc.), size/mass of payloads or vehicles, and manned or unmanned.
Space launch vehicle, one member of the Titan family of storable propellant space launch vehicles,
which is used extensively for boosting satellites into synchronous earth orbit or into escape trajectories
for planetary travel. This heavy-duty launch vehicle consists of the basic 2-stage Titan III standard
launch vehicle (liquid propellant rockets) supplemented by two solid propellant "strap-on motors." A
fourth stage, known as the transtage, permits a wide variety of manoeuvres, orbit changes, and trajectory
transfers to be accomplished with the payload, which can be one or more satellites or spacecraft.
Each space launch vehicle has a specific space flight objective, such as an earth orbit or a moon landing.
It uses between two and five stages, each with its own propulsion system, and each is usually fired
sequentially after the lower stage is expended. The number of stages depends on the specific space
trajectory, the number and types of manoeuvres, the energy content of a unit mass of the propellant, and
other factors. The initial stage, usually called the booster stage, is the largest and it is

operated first; this stage is then separated from the ascending vehicle before the second-stage rocket
propulsion system is ignited and operated. Adding an extra stage permits a significant increase in the
payload (such as more scientific instruments or more communications gear).
Each stage of a multistage launch vehicle is essentially a complete vehicle in itself and carries its own
propellant, its own rocket propulsion system or systems, and its own control system. Once the propellant
of a given stage is expended, the dead mass of that stage (including empty tanks, cases, instruments,
etc.) is no longer useful in providing additional kinetic energy to the succeeding stages. By dropping
off this useless mass it is possible to accelerate the final stage with its useful payload to a higher terminal
velocity than would be attained if multiple staging were not used. Both solid propellant and liquid
propellant rocket propulsion systems have been used for low earth orbits.
A single stage to orbit vehicle, attractive because it avoids the costs and complexities of staging, is
expected to have improved reliability (simple structures, fewer components), and some versions may
be recoverable and reusable. However, its payload is relatively very small. A low earth orbit (say 100
miles altitude) can only be achieved with such a vehicle if the propellant performance is very high and
the structure is efficient and low in mass.
Liquid propellants such as liquid hydrogen with liquid oxygen are usually chosen. The missions and
payloads for space launch vehicles are many, such as military (reconnaissance satellites, command and
control satellites), non-military government (weather observation satellites, GPS or geopositioning
satellites), space exploration (space environment, planetary missions), or commercial (communication
satellites). Forecasts indicate that a large number of future commercial communications satellites will
be needed.


RSP Notes

Uploaded by

RSP Notes

Uploaded by

VelTech Rangarajan Dr.

Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL& CONSTRUCTION

1151AE111/ ROCKET AND SPACE PROPULSION

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Principles of rocket propulsion

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1.1.2 OTHER NATIONAL PROGRAMMES: Before turning to the United States’

Below we describe several types of orbits and the advantages of each:

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where vsin is the transverse component of v. Multiplying through by r, we have

or, for two points P1 and P2 on the orbital path

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From equations (4) and (5) we obtain

Rearranging terms we get

The eccentricity e of an orbit is given by

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1.6 GRAVITATIONAL ASSIST: In planning certain types of trajectories of spacecraft within

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The following conditions are assumed:

 Orbits of planet and spacecraft are coplanar.

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Figure 2.3 Simple Diagrams Of Mounting Options For Igniters.

1.5.2 surface-bonded or grain-mounted igniter: A special form of pyrotechnic igniter is the

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1.7 ROCKET NOZZLE CLASSIFICATION:

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1.7.1 NOZZLE CONFIGURATIONS

1.8 TSIOLKOVSKY’S ROCKET EQUATION:

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System at t System (Rocket + Expelled Mass) at t + dt

Figure 2.5 Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion

Time Mass Velocity Momentum

Rocket Only t + dt Mv - dm V + dV (Mv - dm)(V

Expelled Mass t + dt dm V + dV - Ve dm(V + dV -

Table 1: Summary of Initial and Final System Momentum in Inertial Frame

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momentum M  dm V  dV   dm V  dV  V e 

Equation 1 can now be rewritten as:

Case 1: No external surface or body forces acting on the rocket vehicle

Putting this expression into equation 8, gives:

M V dV  V e dm   Pe  Pa  Ae  D  M V g cos  dt ----14

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M V dV   Pe  Pa  A e  m V e  D  M V g cos  dt ----15

Integrating we arrive at:

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Figure 2.3 Tsiolkovsky’s rocket equation

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1.10 TEST FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS TES TEST FACILITIES AND

1.10.2 INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT:

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2.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF SOLID PROPELLANTS:

Figure 3.1 propellant selection and tailoring in design criteria

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2.3 ESTIMATION OF SOLID PROPELLANT ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE:

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mass is . The relation between the enthalpy changes in Process (1) is

where is the ``heat of reaction.''

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2.4 PROPELLANT GRAIN DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

Aside from the propellant formulation and propellant manufacturing process,

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Fig. 3.4 Simplified schematic diagrams of a free-standing (or cartridge-loaded)

2.5 EROSIVE BURNING IN SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS

Definitions and terminology important to grains include:

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Figure3.5 classification of grain according to their pressure -time

A grain has to satisfy several interrelated requirements: