Republic of Namibia

Ministry of Health and Social Services

CENTRAL STERILE SERVICES

DEPARTMENT
GUIDELINES

FIRST EDITION
2015
 Ministry of Health and Social Services

CENTRAL STERILE SERVICES

DEPARTMENT
GUIDELINES

FIRST EDITION
2015
Division: Quality Assurance

Private Bag: 13198, Windhoek

Telephone: +264 61 2032523/2097

Facsimile: +264 61 224051

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PREFACE
Surgery has become an integral part of global health care, with an estimated 234
million operations performed yearly. Surgical complications are common and often
preventable (New England Journal of Medicine). A major risk of all such procedures
is the introduction of pathogens that can lead to infection. Failure to properly disinfect
or sterilize equipment carries not only risk associated with breach of host barriers,
but also risk for person-to-person transmission (e.g. hepatitis B virus) and
transmission of environmental pathogens (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa).

The Central Sterile Services Department’s major function is to provide surgical

instruments and medical equipment that have been thoroughly decontaminated, to
render them bacteria free and safe to use during patient’s operation or medical
procedure. Disinfection and sterilization are essential for ensuring that medical and
surgical instruments do not transmit infectious pathogens to patients. Because
sterilization of all patient-care items is not necessary, health-care policies must
identify, primarily on the basis of the items' intended use, whether cleaning,
disinfection, or sterilization is indicated. The choice of disinfectant, concentration,
and exposure time is based on the risk for infection associated with use of the
equipment and other factors discussed in this guideline.

Multiple studies in many countries have documented lack of compliance with

established guidelines for disinfection and sterilization leading to numerous
outbreaks. This guideline presents a pragmatic approach to the judicious selection of
the preferred methods for cleaning, disinfection and sterilization of patient-care
medical devices and for cleaning and disinfecting the healthcare environment.

I would like to congratulate all who were involved in development of these guidelines.
All healthcare workers involved in preparing, processing, and distributing medical
and surgical supplies and equipment required for patient diagnosis, treatment and
ongoing care, are mandated to use these guidelines.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
These guidelines were developed through a widely consultative process and made
possible by the support, participation and valuable inputs given by individuals from
both the public and private health sectors and offices.

Special thanks go to the following persons and institutions:

 Ms. C.S. Gordon and Dr. A. Basenero from Division Quality Assurance in the
Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS) head office who worked
tirelessly to develop the first draft document.

 Representatives from the Operation Theatres and Central Sterile Service

Department who took part in the September 2012 workshop at Otjiwarongo to
review and update the draft document.

 All healthcare managers who reviewed the document during a workshop that was
held at Ongwediva in October 2013.

 Ms E.L. Bampton; University Of Namibia, Faculty of Health Sciences: School Of

Nursing and Public Health, who provided technical expertise.

 Prof Shaheen Mehtar who supported the revision of these guidelines based on
technical expertise and evidence.

 All health care workers and operating theatre managers from both the private and
public sectors who provided critical technical inputs during the finalization phase
of the guidelines at the workshop held in May 2014 in Windhoek.

 Regional Health Directorates, Intermediate Hospital Katutura, Windhoek Central

Hospital, World Health Organization (WHO), and Centres for Disease Control
(CDC)

 Ms D. Witbooi and Ms L. Nisbet from Daab Consulting for technical inputs, final
editing and designing the printing layout of the final Manual.

 United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through

Management Sciences for Health (MSH) for the technical and financial
assistance in finalising and printing the Operation theatre manual. Special thanks
go to Mr. Wolde Alemayehu Senior Technical Advisor MSH/SCMS for his
continuous follow up and participation in the review process.

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Table of Contents
PREFACE ....................................................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................. v
DEFINITION OF TERMS ................................................................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose of the Guidelines ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives of the Guidelines ................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF THE CENTRAL .................................................................................................... 2
STERILE SERVICES DEPARTMENT .................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Scope of Work of CSSD.......................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Establishing a CSSD ............................................................................................................... 2
2.2.1 Essential Requirements of a CSSD Worker................................................................... 3
2.3 The Design of CSSD ................................................................................................................ 4
2.4 Preparing an Area for Processing Instruments and Other Items ................................ 5
2.4.1 Hand Washing Sinks.......................................................................................................... 5
2.4.2 Jet guns ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Storage of Sterile Items .......................................................................................................... 6
2.6 Commercially Prepared Items .............................................................................................. 7
2.7 Release of Sterile Items .......................................................................................................... 7
2.8 Transportation of Contaminated Equipment and Sterile Supplies ............................. 7
2.8.1 General Design Features for Trolleys and Transport Containers ............................... 7
2.8.2 Transport of Sterile Supplies ............................................................................................ 8
2.9 Waste Management at CSSD ................................................................................................ 8
2.10 Quality Assurance and Monitoring...................................................................................... 9
2.10.1 Proper Care of Surgical Instruments ............................................................................... 9
2.10.2 Proper Care for CSSD Packs ........................................................................................... 9
2.11 Risk Management................................................................................................................... 10
2.12 Auditing and Validation ........................................................................................................ 10
CHAPTER 3: STANDARD PRECAUTIONS ...................................................................................................... 11
3.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .............................................................................. 11
3.2 The Role of Infection Control Teams ................................................................................ 11
3.3 Adverse Events....................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 4: RISK OF INFECTION FROM MEDICAL EQUIPMENT ................................................................ 13
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 4.1 Classification of the Risk from Medical Equipment ...................................................... 13
4.1.1 Low Risk (Noncritical Items) ........................................................................................... 13
4.1.2 Intermediate Risk (Semi-critical Items) ......................................................................... 14
4.1.3 High Risk (Critical Items) ................................................................................................. 14
4.1.4 Single Use Items .............................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 5: INSTRUMENT PROCESSING ............................................................................................... 16
5.1 Cleaning Process ................................................................................................................... 16
5.1.1 Manual Cleaning ............................................................................................................... 17
5.1.2 Mechanical Cleaning........................................................................................................ 19
5.1.3 Proper Care of Surgical Instruments ............................................................................. 19
CHAPTER 6: DISINFECTION PROCESS .......................................................................................................... 21
6.1 High Level Disinfection (HLD) - Semi-critical Items ...................................................... 21
6.1.1 HLD by Boiling .................................................................................................................. 21
6.1.2 HLD by Mechanical - Thermal Disinfection .................................................................. 22
6.1.3 Chemical HLD ................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 7: STERILIZATION PROCESS ......................................................................................................... 25
7.1 Pressure Steam Sterilization (Autoclaving) .................................................................... 25
7.1.1 Types of Steam Sterilizers .............................................................................................. 26
7.1.2 Sterilization Times ............................................................................................................ 27
7.1.3 Wrapping Instruments and Other Items for Autoclaving ............................................ 27
7.1.4 Steps for Pressure Steam Sterilization (Autoclaving) ................................................. 29
7.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Sterilization ............................................. 31
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING EFFECTIVENESS OF STERILIZATION AND AUTOCLAVE MAINTENANCE ...... 33
8.1 Monitoring the Effectiveness of Sterilization ................................................................. 33
8.1.1 Mechanical Indicators (Physical) ................................................................................... 33
8.1.2 Chemical Indicators.......................................................................................................... 33
8.1.3 Biological Indicators ......................................................................................................... 33
8.1.4 Recommended Ideal Monitoring System...................................................................... 34
8.1.5 Correcting Sterilization Failure ....................................................................................... 34
8.2 Contaminated Supplies ........................................................................................................ 35
8.3 Autoclave Maintenance ........................................................................................................ 35
8.3.1 Cleaning of the autoclave................................................................................................ 36
8.4 Record Keeping ...................................................................................................................... 36

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 8.4.1 Types of Records ............................................................................................................. 36
CHAPTER 9: ENDOSCOPE CLEANING/ DISINFECTION AND MONITORING REPROCESSING ........................ 38
9.1 Endoscope Cleaning ............................................................................................................. 38
9.1.1 Cleaning and Disinfection of Flexible Endoscopes ..................................................... 39
9.1.2 Cleaning of Rigid Endoscopes ....................................................................................... 40
9.2 Endoscope Disinfection ....................................................................................................... 40
9.2.1 Disinfection of Flexible Endoscopes.............................................................................. 41
9.2.2 Disinfection of Rigid Endoscopes .................................................................................. 42
9.2.3 Post Disinfection Rinsing ................................................................................................ 42
9.3 Decontamination and Disinfection of Endoscopes ...................................................... 42
9.3.1 Decontamination of Flexible Endoscopes .................................................................... 42
9.3.2 Sterilization of Rigid Endoscopes .................................................................................. 42
9.4 Storage of Endoscopes ........................................................................................................ 43
9.4.1 Storage of Flexible Endoscopes .................................................................................... 43
9.4.2 Storage of Rigid Endoscopes ......................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 10: LINKAGE WITH OTHER .......................................................................................................... 44
DEPARTMENTS ............................................................................................................................................ 44
10.1 Laundry Services ................................................................................................................... 44
10.1.1 Laundering Standards ..................................................................................................... 44
10.1.2 Cleaning and Sterilization of Theatre Linen ................................................................. 44
CHAPTER 11: DISASTER MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................... 46
11.1 Purpose..................................................................................................................................... 46
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 50

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Table of Figures

Figure 1: Work flow diagram for reprocessing of medical devices............................................................... 3

Figure 2: Summary of Decontamination Process........................................................................................ 15
Figure 3: Shows the Decontamination Steps .............................................................................................. 16
Figure 4: Steps for wrapping instruments and other items ........................................................................ 28

Table of Tables
Table 1: Spaulding's Classification of Medical Equipment/Devices and Required level of Processing ...... 13
Table 2: Steps to follow during the Cleaning Process ................................................................................. 18
Table 3: Different Types of Disinfectants, their Actions and Limitations ................................................... 24
Table 4: The Sterilization Times for the Different Types of Sterilizers ....................................................... 27

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ABBREVIATIONS

CSSD Central Sterile Services Department

HLD High Level Disinfection
IAP Inspection, Assembly and Packaging
IPC Infection Prevention and Control
MoHSS Ministry of Health and Social Services
OPA Ortho-Phthalaldehyde
OT Operation Theatre
PEP Post Exposure Prophylaxis
PPE Personal Protective Clothing
SOPs Standard Operating Procedures

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Sterilization describes a process that destroys or eliminates all forms of microbial

life and is carried out in health-care facilities by physical or chemical methods. Steam
under pressure, dry heat, ETO gas, hydrogen peroxide gas plasma, and liquid
chemicals are the principal sterilizing agents used in health-care facilities.
Sterilization is intended to convey an absolute meaning; unfortunately, however,
some health professionals and the technical and commercial literature refer to
“disinfection” as “sterilization” and items as “partially sterile.” When chemicals are
used to destroy all forms of microbiologic life, they can be called chemical sterilants.
These same germicides used for shorter exposure periods also can be part of the
disinfection process (i.e., high-level disinfection).

Disinfection describes a process that eliminates many or all pathogenic

microorganisms, except bacterial spores, on inanimate objects. In health-care
settings, objects usually are disinfected by liquid chemicals or wet pasteurization.
Each of the various factors that affect the efficacy of disinfection can nullify or limit
the efficacy of the process. Factors that affect the efficacy of both disinfection and
sterilization include prior cleaning of the object; organic and inorganic load present;
type and level of microbial contamination; concentration of and exposure time to the
germicide; physical nature of the object (e.g., crevices, hinges, and lumens);
presence of biofilms; temperature and pH of the disinfection process; and in some
cases, relative humidity of the sterilization process (e.g., ethylene oxide). Unlike
sterilization, disinfection is not sporicidal.

Cleaning is the removal of visible soil (e.g. organic and inorganic material) from
objects and surfaces and normally is accomplished manually or mechanically using
water with detergents or enzymatic products. Thorough cleaning is essential before
high-level disinfection and sterilization because inorganic and organic materials that
remain on the surfaces of instruments interfere with the effectiveness of these
processes.

Decontamination removes pathogenic microorganisms from objects so they are

safe to handle, use, or discard. Terms with the suffix ‘cide’ or ‘cidal’ for killing action
also are commonly used. For example, a germicide is an agent that can kill
microorganisms, particularly pathogenic organisms (“germs”). The term germicide
includes both antiseptics and disinfectants. Antiseptics are germicides applied to
living tissue and skin; disinfectants are antimicrobials applied only to inanimate
objects. In general, antiseptics are used only on the skin and not for surface
disinfection, and disinfectants are not used for skin antisepsis because they can
injure skin and other tissues. Virucide, fungicide, bactericide, sporicide, and
tuberculocide can kill the type of microorganism identified by the prefix. For example,
a bactericide is an agent that kills bacteria.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The Central Sterile Services Department (CSSD) is responsible for preparing,
processing, and distributing safe sterile medical and surgical supplies and equipment
required for patient diagnosis, treatment and ongoing care.

Some medical equipment and surgical instruments are typically designed for reuse
and therefore can transmit infections including hepatitis B, C and HIV, if any of the
steps involved in reprocessing, cleaning, disinfection, or sterilization are inadequate
or experience failures. It is therefore essential that all CSSD staff is trained in all
aspects related to CSSD, to ensure that they have an in-depth knowledge regarding
sterile medical supplies.

The effective use of disinfection and sterilization procedures is important in

preventing healthcare associated infections. Therefore proper CSSD services are
vital for an effective Infection Control and Prevention program.

Having this guideline in place, will guide staff to decide what decontamination
process (i.e. cleaning/disinfection/sterilization), should be used for which items or
equipment.

1.1 Purpose of the Guidelines

These guidelines cover a number of the key issues related to cleaning, inspection,
disinfection, sterilization, storage and transportation of instruments and equipment in
a variety of healthcare settings. It also covers universal precautions and the general
set up of the CSSD plus linkages with other departments.

1.2 Objectives of the Guidelines

The objectives of these guidelines are to ensure:
 Reusable medical devices are processed to the level intended for their use
(Spaulding Classification)
 The process of sterilization, storage and transport meets the required standards
 Only health facilities or services that meet the minimum requirements (for
cleaning, disinfection and sterilization) are permitted to provide these services
 Continuous education, training and written instructions on reusable medical
equipment processing are provided to CSSD staff

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CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF THE CENTRAL
STERILE SERVICES DEPARTMENT
The Central Sterile Services Department (CSSD) is the area in the hospital where
medical devices and equipment both sterile and non-sterile, are cleaned, prepared,
processed, stored and issued for patient care.

The CSSD is vital for an effective Infection Control and Prevention program. The
expertise and knowledge of CSSD personnel is important to ensure high standards
of decontamination and reprocessing of medical devices. In the hospital or clinic, it is
important that all equipment and materials used for treating patients are safe for use.

2.1 Scope of Work of CSSD

Though CSSD services extend beyond the hospital walls, the Operating Theatre
(OT) services is a major stakeholder. To ensure continuity of service delivery, there
must be direct links between sterilizing and OT services. In instances whereby both
units are onsite is it preferable that they are situated close to each other but in
separate complexes, to assist in communication and the transfer of dirty, clean and
sterile equipment and instruments. It is however preferred to have different
managers responsible for CSSD and OT.

It is essential that Sterilizing Services are included/ but not limited to being
consulted in the following instances:

 OT scheduling
 Procurement of reusable instruments and equipment
 OT management meetings
 Peri-operative education and training
 Changes in models of care and processes across Peri-operative services
 Plans for the redevelopment, refurbishment and/or redesign and commissioning
of new OT and sterilizing services

2.2 Establishing a CSSD

Systems should be put in place where all soiled, used, and recyclable equipment is
collected from the wards and OT and transferred to the CSSD. The equipment is
washed, inspected, disinfected or packaged, sterilized, and dispatched back to the
wards.

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 Figure 1: Work flow diagram for reprocessing of medical devices

Note: when dirty items are received, they should be counted and recorded in a logbook – the same
applies to dispatch.

2.2.1 Essential Requirements of a CSSD Worker

The level of education for those working in Sterile Services should be at least a high
school leaving certificate, the person should be able to read and write and follow
simple instruction.

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The supervisor should have had a minimum of two years’ experience in Sterile
Services, and should have attended at least one training course where the basic
principles of decontamination and sterilization are explained and practically applied
to the place of work. It is best if the supervisors go towards a 6 month’s course in
sterile services so that they may be able to carry out their duties diligently.

The Manager should have a higher qualification in health and should have had at
least 5 years or more, experience in Sterile Services. They should have attended an
Advanced Course in Sterile Services, with skills in managing the CSSD, including
knowledge on financial, administrative and procurement. Further they should know
how to control flows of medical devices through the CSSD, know basics of the
processing equipment and how it works and most importantly, understand and apply
validation.

CSSD workers should:

 Protect the patient from harm- understand Duty of Care

 Understand the setup of each section of CSSD
 Operate the machinery effectively after training
 Protect oneself and colleagues
 Undergo continuous training and attain new knowledge
 Have a basic English knowledge
 Have basic reading and writing skills
 Have basic calculating skills
 Have knowledge of the principles of infection control
 Have knowledge of the principles of disinfection and sterilization

2.3 The Design of CSSD

When designing or redeveloping sterilizing services, planning and design should
include input from relevant experts including those involved in the processing of
reusable medical items, engineering and infection control. The location of the CSSD
and sterile supply area should be away from the main traffic pattern. The ideal
location should be close to the OT with a dedicated passage or lift from OT into the
decontamination area.

Ideally, the design of the CSSD must have physical barriers which separate dirty and
clean areas in the reprocessing room. However, if this is not possible, the same
room can be used, provided that:

 There is clear demarcation of clean and dirty areas

 The air moves from the clean area to the dirty area (positive pressure in the clean
side and negative pressure in the decontamination area)
 Clean and dirty areas have separate storage facilities
 There are adequate hand hygiene facilities (disinfection and washing)

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 Soiled objects never cross paths with clean, sterilized, or high-level disinfected
instruments and other items
 The doors are kept closed in the reprocessing rooms in order to minimize dust
contamination and to eliminate flies
 There is separate reprocessing equipment for each area
 The staff at CSSD should work in either clean or dirty areas and never in both

Note: In some Health Service Districts, the potential exists for centralizing the provision of
sterilizing services through one facility with a properly designed and equipped sterilizing
unit that is able to meet the sterilizing needs of a number of other facilities.

2.4 Preparing an Area for Processing Instruments and Other

Items
One goal of a comprehensive infection control program is to minimize the level of
contamination in areas in which “clean” activities take place e.g. working areas for
sterilizing (inspection, loading, packing, and off-loading and storage areas).

The following is recommended for the small reprocessing areas (CSSD):

 It is ideal to have separate rooms – one for receiving and cleaning medical
devices (the Wash room) and another for Inspection, Assembly and Packaging
(IAP) and for final processing (sterilization or high-level disinfection) followed by
a storage and dispatch area
 When only one room is available, it should be arranged so that activities and
objects flow in an organized way with physical barriers to stop dirty and clean
medical devices from crossing over
 Adequate counter top space for receiving dirty items and for drying and
packaging clean items
 There must be at least one sink (two or more are preferable) and should be
deep enough to allow soaking of the medical devices
 It is important to have good space for separation between soiled handling area
and the clean, packaging area
 The high-level disinfection area has to be separated from the sterile area, must
preferably be in a separate room

2.4.1 Hand Washing Sinks

A proper hand basin should be located at the entry of the cleaning area. The location
of a hand basin for the packaging and storage areas must take into consideration the
risk of sink splash, contacting preparation areas and sterile consumables or packs
(linen wrapped). If a hand basin is unable to be located in this area, it should be
located outside the room in close proximity to the entry. Consideration may also be

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given to the use of alcoholic hand gel in consultation with the Infection Control
coordinator.

2.4.2 Jet guns

There should be one air and one water high pressure jet gun. The water pressure jet
is used to clean out narrow lumen tubing such as suction tubing or similar. The air
gun is used to dry the interior of the tubing before hanging it to dry further.

2.5 Storage of Sterile Items

Sterile items should be stored and handled in a manner that maintains the integrity of
packs and prevents contamination from any source.

The following storage conditions are recommended:

 Sterile storage areas should be clearly indicated and controlled to prevent

contamination of sterile stock
 Storage areas must be dedicated for that purpose only
 The storage area must be kept clean and free of dust, insects and pests
 Store items in an open rack shelving with moderate temperature ranging from
18oC to 22oC, with a relative humidity of 35% to 68%, in an area without heavy
traffic
 Cardboard boxes should not be used as they are porous, cannot be cleaned and
they may harbor organisms
 All items should be stored at least 250 mm from the floor level, and at least 440
mm from the ceiling and protected from direct sunlight
 Wrapped items: The length of time (shelf life) that a wrapped, sterile item is
considered sterile depends on whether or not a contaminating event occurs not
necessarily on how long an item has been stored.
 The shelf life depends on: handling after sterilization; storage conditions;
transport conditions; and amount of handling. A wrapped pack can be considered
sterile as long as it remains intact and dry for no more than three months from
date of processing, and from supplier should be stored as per the supplier expiry
date
 Label accurately with contents, date of processing and expiration date and store
wrapped materials in the open rack shelving area
 When in doubt about the sterility of a pack, consider it contaminated and re-
sterilize the items
 Do not store instruments or other items such as scalpel blades and suture
needles in solutions. Always store them in a dry container. Microorganisms can
live and multiply in both antiseptic and disinfectant solutions which can
contaminate instruments and other items and which can lead to infections
 Collection should be regular and there should be a written record of receipt and
delivery. This helps to monitor the use and the loss of instruments
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 Note: For health care facility ward storage areas, the dedicated area which may be
racks should be clearly marked to ensure all staff is aware of the nature of the
product being stored.

2.6 Commercially Prepared Items

 Grossly soiled or damaged stock should not be accepted as contents may be
compromised
 Dust must be wiped from store pack before opening to prevent contamination of
inner items
 Remove sterile items from the store pack before bringing them into the clean
area
 Inspect unit packs or their contents for cleanliness or damage before use
 If the package is intact the expiring date should be considered valid

2.7 Release of Sterile Items

Sterile items should be released by educated and authorized staff. The following
requirements should be met before releasing the item:

- All sterilization parameters should be met, i.e. temperature, pressure, time based
on the batch documentation
- Evaluation of the chemical batch control
- Visual inspection of the integrity of packaging. Look for the following: holes or
tears, wetness or stains, broken seals, dust, evidence of crushing, labeling, and
indicators
- DO NOT release items where the indicator is missing or has not changed colour

2.8 Transportation of Contaminated Equipment and Sterile

Supplies
Transportation of sterile supplies must be in a clean and dry trolley which is closed to
outside contamination.

2.8.1 General Design Features for Trolleys and Transport Containers

Equipment must be dedicated for this purpose, i.e. separate equipment for the
transportation of contaminated and sterile items. The trolleys should have the
following characteristics:

 Should be covered or closed with a solid bottom shelf

 Can be cleaned, dried and disinfected
 Should be in a good working condition
 Should be easily maneuvered and fitted with brakes if possible

The Transport containers should be:

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 Puncture-resistant
 Leak-proof
 Made of either plastic or metal, with a lid or liner that can be closed and cleaned
and disinfected

2.8.2 Transport of Sterile Supplies

The maintenance of sterility depends primarily on the conditions of storage and the
frequency of handling. All items transported should be delivered in a clean container
and trolley dedicated for that purpose.

To guarantee sterility of items transported the following procedures should be

followed:

 Containers and trolleys used for the transportation of sterile goods should be
dedicated and must not be used for non-sterile goods, e.g. transportation of food
or garbage
 Transport containers/systems must allow articles to be handled with care and be
inspected as necessary
 Boxes or bags used should not be overloaded
 All transportation equipment should be maintained in a clean, dry condition and
must be in good working order
 All sterile items for distribution outside the health care facility must be securely
packed and protected against damage and contamination during transportation
 There must be a regular cleaning program for all sterile storage areas, including
all containers and trolleys

2.9 Waste Management at CSSD

Anyone responsible for generating waste has a responsibility to dispose it off safely.
When hazardous waste is not handled properly and is disposed off in landfill sites, it
can expose the community, environment and animals to highly contagious infections.

During the decontamination cycle at CSSD, a wide range of waste may be produced.
The clinical waste commonly produced at CSSD will be in form of packaging from
returned medical devices and personal protective equipment (PPE).

Examples of the waste include; wrapping papers, gloves, aprons, masks, blood or
body fluids, used swabs, drugs and other pharmaceutical products, sharps like
needles and blades, and human tissue may also be present.

Refer to the MoHSS Infection Prevention Control Guidelines Chapter 5, 2nd

Edition 2015, and Integrated Health Care Waste Management Plan 2012 for
detailed guidance.

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Responsibility of CSSD staff in waste management:

 Segregation of waste: waste should be segregated properly in the different colour

coded bags to ensure that it ends up where it is supposed to be. The key to
effective management of waste is to separate it at the source where it is
generated
 Clearly mark the waste bags with labels
 Handling, storage, transport and dispose of waste should be done correctly,
according to the facility set procedures and MoHSS IPC and Medical Waste
Management Guidelines

2.10 Quality Assurance and Monitoring

It is important to have an effective management control system in place at the CSSD
to cover all aspects of decontamination.

The quality management system should ensure the following:

i. Monitoring is carried out to ensure all systems are performing to the required
standards
ii. Records are produced and maintained to demonstrate that activities comply
with the stated requirements
iii. The correct protocols are in use
iv. The protocols are adhered to and there is documented evidence of adherence
v. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are in place for the different activities
of CSSD
vi. Adequate supplies of satisfactory quality are available at all times

2.10.1 Proper Care of Surgical Instruments

 Inspect each instrument for proper function and condition
 Make sure that scissor blades glide smoothly all the way (blades must not be
loose when in closed position)
 Check that forceps tips are properly aligned
 Make sure that the hemostats and needle holders do not show light between
the jaws, that they lock and unlock easily, and that the joints are not too loose
 Check needle holder jaws for wear and tear
 Examine cutting instruments and knives to be sure their blades are sharp and
undamaged
 Use lubricant and silicone sprays when appropriate

2.10.2 Proper Care for CSSD Packs

 Basins and Bowls: Check for sharp edges and cracks
 Baskets and Trays: Check for sharp edges, damaged corners and open ends
 Linen, Towels and Gowns: Check for tears and holes in the material

9
  Table surfaces: Check for rough, sharp edges

All these factors could tear the sterilization paper and therefore compromise
the sterility of the packs. In case of damages, report to the supervisors for the
necessary repairs and replacement.

2.11 Risk Management

 Refer to MoHSS Post Exposure Prophylaxis & Integrated Health Care Waste
Management Plan, 2012 (pg. 71)
 Orientation of new staff on hazards e.g. fire, different chemicals etc. is
important
 Provide regular refresher trainings to the staff in the unit

2.12 Auditing and Validation

 Ensure regular Stock taking
 Identify instruments that need replacement
 Availability of Inventory registers

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CHAPTER 3: STANDARD PRECAUTIONS
Standard precautions are safe work practices required to minimize the risk of
infection to both patients and staff. They include good hygiene practices, particularly
hand hygiene, the use of, appropriate handling and disposal of waste, adherence to
the principles of asepsis and maintenance of a clean environment. Refer to the
MOHSS Infection Prevention Control Guidelines 2nd Edition 2015 (Chapter 4)
for more details.

3.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Protective clothing should be worn during equipment processing to protect the health
care worker from contact with blood and body fluids. It is also worn in this setting to
avoid contributing to the bio-burden on articles during their preparation for
sterilization or subsequent storage.

Protective attire worn during cleaning of used equipment includes:

 Waterproof outer wear (gown or apron with impermeable arm protection)

 Heavy-duty gloves
 Safety glasses and masks, or face shields if manual cleaning is undertaken
 Staff should wear closed shoes with non-slip soles, strong enough to protect
against injury if articles are dropped accidentally
 Consideration may be given to staff wearing ear protection but this will be
dependent on the noise levels within the area

3.2 The Role of Infection Control Teams

The role of infection control team is primarily to prevent healthcare associated
infections. This necessitates a close working relationship of CSSD staff and Infection
Control Coordinators.

The establishment of committee structures, e.g. Theatre Users Committee, IPC

Committee and other means of formal and informal communication between
infection control and sterilizing services staff will ensure the adequate and timely
provision of properly processed equipment in health care facilities.

Ensure that the sterilizing service department is aware of local and nationwide
infection control policies that may affect the service they provide.

The CSSD should have a responsibility for achieving consistent production and
management standards in the reprocessing of reusable instruments and equipment.

11
The following infection control measures should be observed by all CSSD
staff:

 Change out of street clothes into CSSD uniform (theatre scrubs)

 Staff should always wash their hands after glove removal
 All cuts and skin abrasions are to be covered with a waterproof dressing
 Hair and beards should be covered with face mask at all times
 Wearing of jewelry, artificial nails and nail polish should be discouraged. Rings
and watches when on duty should be removed
 All staff members working in the CSSD should be immunized against Hepatitis B.
 Post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) guidelines should be readily available at the
CSSD and staff should know the steps to follow in case of accidental injuries

For more details on infection transmission and management refer to the

MOHSS IPC Guidelines 2nd Edition 2015 (Chapter 1).

3.3 Adverse Events

Strong detergents and disinfectants may have adverse effects on the skin. Any skin
contamination should be washed off immediately and managed as per the Material
Safety Data Sheet instructions.

Events including sharp injuries should be managed according to the

recommendations in the MoHSS National Guidelines on PEP for HIV, HBV and
Tetanus 2010 (page. 19).

12
CHAPTER 4: RISK OF INFECTION FROM
MEDICAL EQUIPMENT
4.1 Classification of the Risk from Medical Equipment
The classification system developed by Spaulding1 divides medical
equipment/devices into three categories based on the potential risk of infection
involved in their use:

Table 1 : Spaulding's Classification of Medical Equipment/Devices and Required level of

Processing

Classification Definition Level of

Processing/Reprocessing

Critical (High Risk) Equipment/device that enters sterile Cleaning followed by

Equipment/device tissues, including the vascular system. sterilization

Semi-critical Equipment/device that comes in contact Cleaning followed by high

(Intermediate Risk) with non-intact skin or mucous level
Equipment/device membranes but do not penetrate them. disinfection or sterilization if
indicated

Non critical (Low Equipment/device that touches only intact Cleaning followed by low
risk) skin and not mucous membranes, or does level
Equipment/device not directly touch the client / patient / disinfection (in some cases,
resident. cleaning alone is acceptable)

Placing instruments and equipment into one of the above categories can be helpful
in choosing the proper level of disinfection or sterilization needed in order to protect
the patients and the health care personnel.

4.1.1 Low Risk (Noncritical Items)

Low risk (noncritical) items are items that come into contact with intact skin but not
mucous membranes, examples of these include: stethoscopes, BP cuffs, crutches
and thermometers.

1
Spaulding EH.: The Role of chemical disinfection in the prevention of nosocomial infections. In: PS Brachman and TC
Eickof (Ed):. Proceedings of International Conference on Nosocomial Infections, 1970. Chicago, IL: American Hospital
Association: 1971: 254-274.

13
Cleaning with a detergent and drying is usually adequate. Stethoscopes are usually
cleaned and in rare cases they should be disinfected if used on an infectious patient
or highly susceptible patient.

After cleaning, they should be stored in a clean and dry place.

4.1.2 Intermediate Risk (Semi-critical Items)

Intermediate (Semi-critical) items are items that make contact directly or indirectly
with intact mucous membranes or non-intact skin. Examples include: endoscopes,
laryngoscopes, specula and endotracheal tubes.

Cleaning followed by high level disinfection (HLD) is usually adequate. They should
be well stored to protect from environmental contamination and stored for only up to
one week.

4.1.3 High Risk (Critical Items)

High risk (critical items) items are items entering sterile tissue, the body cavity, the
vascular system and non-intact mucous membranes. Examples include: surgical
instruments, intra-uterine devices, vascular catheters and implants. These items are
called critical items because of the high risk of infection if such an item is
contaminated with any microorganism before penetrating the tissue.

Cleaning followed by sterilization, preferably heat, is required.

4.1.4 Single Use Items

These items may be used in critical, semi-critical, or noncritical areas. However, they
are single use items that are prepackaged with the appropriate level of disinfection or
sterilization and are disposed of after a single use. Examples include gloves,
needles, syringes, and tongue depressors.

Re-sterilization of single use items should be avoided and discouraged - it is

illegal. If such as process has to be undertaken for cost reasons, very clear
direction from a well experienced group of experts should advice on how to
undertake the reprocessing safely and how many times a medical device can
be reprocessed without jeopardizing its integrity or function.

14
Figure 2: Summary of Decontamination Process

Disposable Semi-critical
Non-critical Critical
Items: e.g. Items: e.g. Items: e.g. Items: e.g.
gloves, stethoscopes, endoscopes, surgical
needles, BP cuff, laryngoscope instruments
syringes. thermometer
s ants.
s

Dispose Clean Clean Clean

Dry and High Level Sterilization

Store Disinfection
or
Sterilization

Dry and
Dry and Store
Store

15
CHAPTER 5: INSTRUMENT PROCESSING
(CLEANING PROCESS)
There are several steps when reprocessing medical devices that are used during
clinical and surgical procedures which are summarized here (Fig. 3) of which
cleaning is the most important one. Once a medical device is thoroughly cleaned, it
can either be disinfected or sterilized depending on its resistance to heat.

Figure 3: Shows the Decontamination Steps

5.1 Cleaning Process

Cleaning is the removal of all foreign material (dirt and organic matter) from the
object being reprocessed. This is the first and the most important step.

No disinfection or sterilization should be done without thorough cleaning.

Two key components of cleaning are:

- Rubbing or brushing to remove foreign matter

- Use of fluids to remove or rinse away contamination

Cleaning is essential for penetration of disinfectants or steam and therefore must

precede all reprocessing.

16
 If instruments and other items have not been cleaned, sterilization and disinfection
may not be effective because microorganisms trapped in organic material may
survive sterilization or disinfection.

Cleaning is normally accomplished by the use of water, detergents and mechanical

actions. Detergent is essential to dissolve proteins and oil that can reside on
instruments and equipment after use.

Studies have shown that thorough cleaning alone can provide a major reduction in
contaminant microbes from endoscopes. Cleaning can be very effective in removing
microbial contaminants from surgical devices.

Cleaning may be carried out by the following means:

i. Manual
ii. Mechanical

5.1.1 Manual Cleaning

Manual cleaning is necessary when:

 Mechanical cleaning facilities are not available

 Delicate instruments have to be cleaned
 Complex instruments need to be taken apart to be cleaned
 When Items with narrow lumens need to be cleaned (endoscopes)

Manual cleaning must be done with extreme caution.

The staff should follow these set procedures:

i. All items requiring disinfection or sterilization should be taken apart before

cleaning.
ii. Cold (Luke warm temperature, not above 45 degrees) water is preferred; it will
remove most of the protein materials (blood, sputum, etc.) that would be
coagulated by heat and would subsequently be difficult to remove
iii. The most simple, cost-effective method is to thoroughly brush the item while
keeping the brush below the surface of the water in order to prevent the release
of aerosols. The brush should be decontaminated after use and should be dried
iv. Items should be rinsed in clean water and then should be dried. Items are then
ready for use (noncritical items) or for disinfection (semi-critical items) or for
sterilization (critical items)

17
 Table 2 Steps to follow during the Cleaning Process

1. Wear heavy-duty rubber gloves, a

plastic apron, eye protection, mask
and closed shoes during cleaning.
2. Disassemble instruments and
other items with multiple parts, and
be sure to brush in the grooves,
teeth, and joints to items where
organic materials can collect and
stick.
3. Soak the instruments in normal tap
water containing a detergent and
diluted according to manufacturer’s
guidelines.

4. Scrub instruments and other items

vigorously to completely remove all
foreign material using a soft brush,
detergent, and water.

Hold items under the surface of the

water while scrubbing and cleaning
to avoid splashing.

5. Flush through lumens with an

adapted water jet.
6. Rinse items thoroughly with clean
water to remove all detergent.
Any detergent left on the items can
be toxic and can reduce the
effectiveness of further processing.

7. Inspect items to confirm that they

are clean.
8. Allow items to air dry or dry them
with a clean towel. This is to avoid
diluting the chemical solutions
used after cleaning and as
preparation for storage or
sterilization.

18
Things to remember when cleaning:

 Do not use hand soap to clean instruments because fatty acids in the soap react
with hard water to leave a soap scum on the instruments. Only use a
recommended detergent for cleaning
 Always wear utility gloves, a mask, eye protection and closed shoes when
cleaning instruments
 Do not use abrasive materials that scratch or pit instruments. Scratches, pits, or
grooves can harbor microorganisms and promote corrosion (Don’t use metal
brushes)
 Automatic washing machines are preferable to washing by hand

5.1.1.1 Soaking of Instruments Prior to Cleaning

Sometimes the level of contamination of the instrument makes it necessary to soak
items prior to cleaning. A deep container, e.g. a bucket, containing a wire-mesh
basket can be filled with water and detergent only. The instruments are placed in
the wire basket and soaked for 3-5 minutes, and then lifted out. Instruments still
need proper cleaning prior to drying, inspection, packing and sterilizing.

NEVER SOAK MEDICAL DEVICES IN DISINFECTANTS PRIOR TO CLEANING!

5.1.2 Mechanical Cleaning

Most modern sterilization units are automated and there is minimal handling of dirty
equipment by staff. The equipment is placed in trays ready for washing:

 Washing machine: The washing machine gives a cold rinse followed by a hot
wash at ≥55°C. This is followed by a 10-second hot water rinse at 80-90°C and
then by drying at 50-75°C.
 Washer/disinfector: The washer/disinfector is used for anesthetic equipment. It
runs a 45-minute cycle of washing with a detergent solution and cleaning plus a
2-minutes disinfection cycle with water at 80-100°C.
 Ultrasonicator: the ultrasonicator is a sophisticated and expensive but extremely
efficient piece of equipment. It uses high-power output of 0.44 W/cm3 and
dislodges all organic matter on metallic surfaces. Do not use it on plastic items.

5.1.3 Proper Care of Surgical Instruments

After the cleaning process the instruments should be checked for the
following:

 Inspect each instrument for proper function and condition

 Make sure that scissor blades glide smoothly all the way (blades must not be
loose when in closed position)
19
 Check that forceps tips are properly aligned
 Make sure that the hemostats and needle holders do not show light between
the jaws, that they lock and unlock easily, and that the joints are not too loose
 Check needle holder jaws for wear and tear
 Examine cutting instruments and knives to be sure their blades are sharp and
undamaged

20
CHAPTER 6: DISINFECTION PROCESS
Disinfection refers to inactivation of vegetative (non-sporing) organisms using either
heat or water (thermal) or by chemical means like glutaraldehyde 2%.

Thermal disinfection is preferred whenever possible because of the following:

 It is generally more reliable than chemical processes

 Leaves no residues
 More easily controlled
 Non-toxic

Heat sensitive items have to be reprocessed with a chemical disinfectant.

Organic matter (serum, blood, pus or fecal material) interferes with the antimicrobial
efficiency of the disinfectant. The larger the number of microbes present, the longer it
takes to disinfect. Thus thorough cleaning before disinfection is of greatest
importance.

6.1 High Level Disinfection (HLD) - Semi-critical Items

There are two methods of HLD:

1. Use of moist heat at 70-100°C

2. Chemical disinfection

When sterilization is not available, HLD is the only acceptable alternative for
instruments and other items that will come into contact with the bloodstream or
tissues under the skin. Flaming is not an effective method of HLD because it does
not effectively kill all microorganisms.

6.1.1 HLD by Boiling

High-level disinfection is best achieved by moist heat such as boiling in water (100°C
for 10 minutes holding time), which kills all organisms except for a few bacterial
spores. However it cannot be adequately controlled and should not be used
instead of controlled validated sterilization.

It is important to note that boiling equipment items in water will not achieve
sterilization.

21
Guidelines to follow during HLD by boiling:

 Instruments and other items must be completely covered with water.

Disassemble items with multiple parts
 Always boil for 10 minutes. Start counting the one minute when the water
reaches a continuous boiling. If you forget to start timing the HLD procedure, start
timing at the point at which you realize that you did not begin timing
 Do not add anything to or remove anything from the pot/boiler once boiling
begins.
 A white, scaly deposit may be left on instruments and other items that have been
boiled frequently and on the pot/boiler itself. These are lime deposits caused by
lime salts in the water
 To minimize lime deposits: Add some vinegar to the water to remove deposits
from instruments, other items, and the inside of the pot/boiler
 Boil the water for 10 minutes at the beginning of each day that the pot/boiler is
used; this will precipitate the lime (make it come out of the water and settle on the
bottom or sides of the pot/boiler instead of on the instruments or other items)
before the instruments or other items are added
 Use the same water throughout the day, adding only enough to keep the
instruments and other items below the surface
 Drain and clean out the pot/boiler at the end of each day that it is used. Dry and
store in a manner that protects them

6.1.2 HLD by Mechanical - Thermal Disinfection

Disinfection by hot water can also be performed in specially constructed washing

machines in which the processes of cleaning, of hot water disinfection, and of drying
are combined in a very effective procedure, providing some items ready for use (e.g.,
respiratory circuits) or safe to handle (e.g. surgical instruments).

The thorough initial rinsing and washing removes most of the microorganisms and
shortens disinfection times.

If machines are used they should be regularly maintained and checked for efficacy.
Low to high-level disinfection is achieved depending on the type of machine and the
complexity of the items.

6.1.3 Chemical HLD

Before deciding to use a chemical disinfectant, consider whether a more appropriate

method is available.

Chemical disinfection is used most commonly for heat-labile equipment (e.g.

endoscopes) where single use is not cost effective.

22
A limited number of disinfectants can be used for this purpose. These include:

a. Glutaraldehyde 2% for 10 minutes to half an hour

b. Hydrogen peroxide 6% - 7.5% for 20 – 30 min
c. Peracetic acid 0.2-0.35% for 5 min
d. Ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) for 5-12 min

The following procedures should be followed:

- The object must be thoroughly rinsed with sterile water after disinfection
- If sterile water is not available, freshly boiled water can be used
- After rinsing, items must be dried thoroughly and stored properly

Steps to be followed during use of chemical HLD:

1. Clean and dry all items to be high-level disinfected. Water from wet instruments
and from other items dilutes the chemical solution, thereby reducing its
effectiveness
2. Fresh solution should be made each day (or sooner, if the solution becomes
cloudy).Follow the manufacturer’s instructions
3. If using a previously prepared solution, use an indicator strip to determine if the
solution is still effective. If preparing a new solution, put it in a clean container
with a lid and mark the container with the preparation date and expiration date
4. Disassemble items with multiple parts; the solution must contact all surfaces in
order for HLD to be achieved
5. Place all items in the solution so that they are completely submerged. Place
bowls and containers upright, not upside-down, so that they fill with the solution
6. Cover the container and allow items to soak for 20 minutes. During this period, do
not add or remove any items from the container. Monitor the time
7. Remove the items from the container using, dry, high-level disinfected pickups
(e.g. forceps)
8. Rinse thoroughly with boiled water to remove the chemical residue that is left on
items. This residue is toxic to skin and to tissues
9. Place items to air-dry on a high-level disinfected tray or in a high-level disinfected
container before use or storage. Use instruments and other items immediately or
keep them in a covered, dry, high-level disinfected container and use within one
week based on the manufacturer’s guidelines

6.1.3.1 Notes on Disinfectants:

The use of disinfectants is covered in the Disinfectant Policy in the IPC Manual and
is summarized here.

To be acceptable in the hospital environment, the disinfectant must be:

 Easy to use
 Non-volatile (does not evaporate rapidly)

23
 Not harmful to equipment, staff or patients
 Free from unpleasant smells
 Effective within a relatively short time

In using a disinfectant, manufacturer’s recommendations must always be followed.

Disinfectants should always be stored in a cool, dark place. They should never be
stored in direct light or excessive heat.
Table 3 Different Types of Disinfectants, their Actions and Limitations

Disinfectant Actions Limits

Glutaraldehyde 2% Broad range of microbial activity. Dangerous, toxic and irritant.

Easily kills bacteria, fungi and Maximum exposure time
viruses but it is slow in killing needed.
spores.

Peracetic acid 0.2 to Broad range of microbial activity. May be slightly corrosive or
o.35% Generally rapid acting including damaging.
mycobacterium and spores.

Alcohol 70% isopropyl Rapidly acting against most Since alcohol is flammable, it
alcohol or 60 to 80% bacteria and viruses. Main use is cannot be used in large
ethyl alcohol (ethanol) for rapidly disinfecting clean amounts. Soil prevents
surfaces. The alcohol penetration.
evaporates quickly to leave Not sporicidal and has poor
surfaces dry. penetration.

Hydrogen peroxide Fast virucidal and bactericidal Corrosive to some metals.

solution but slow sporicidal and
fungicidal. It is non-irritant when
mixed and user friendly.

Chlorine releasing Rapid and broad range of Hypochlorite can damage

agents. Commonly used antimicrobial activity. Useful in and bleach many fabrics and
is sodium hypochlorite decontaminating blood and body causes pitting of metal. High
(Bleach) fluid spills and have a wide concentrations are required
range of environmental for direct application to spills
applications, e.g. disinfecting as it is readily inactivated by
worktops, baths, toilets and dirt.
sinks.

Ortho-phthalaldehyde Broad range of microbial activity, Expensive.

(OPA) poor sporicidal agent. Skin irritant.
Generally rapid.
High Level Disinfectant (HLD).
No odour.

24
CHAPTER 7: STERILIZATION PROCESS
Sterilization is a process which achieves the complete elimination or destruction of
all microorganisms, including bacterial spores.

Sterilization is principally accomplished by:

 Steam under pressure (Autoclaving)

 Dry heat (Hot Air Oven)
 The use of chemicals such as ethylene oxide gas (which is mainly used in the
industry) or other low temperature methods (e.g. hydrogen peroxide gas plasma).

Note:

- Boiling and flaming are not effective sterilization techniques because they do not
effectively kill all microorganisms.
- Large health care facilities should have more than one type of sterilization system in
case of power outage, equipment failure or shortage of supplies.

7.1 Pressure Steam Sterilization (Autoclaving)

Steam sterilization is the most common and most preferred method employed for
sterilization of all items that penetrate the skin and mucosa if they are heat stable.

Autoclaves use steam as a carrier of thermal energy or heat. Steam is a much more
efficient carrier of heat than air. The steam softens the outer layer of
microorganisms, which permits the thermal energy or heat to enter the organism and
come in contact with the proteins in the organisms. The proteins are then denatured
thus become unable to do their normal function in the cell leading to cell death.

Steam sterilization is dependable, non-toxic, inexpensive, sporicidal, and has rapid

heating and good in the penetration of fabrics.

The autoclave cycle involves the following:

 Removing all air from the autoclave

 Introducing steam at a required pressure
 Achieving required temperature
 Maintaining the temperature for the required time
 Removing condensation/water
 Introducing warm filtered air
 Drying the instruments

25
 7.1.1 Types of Steam Sterilizers

a) Small table-top sterilizers

- Sometimes used in physicians and dentists’ offices and clinics
- Are essentially horizontal pressure cookers
- Holding temperature for unwrapped items: 121°C for 20 minutes or 134°C
for 3-4 minutes
- Not suitable for surgical packs and wrapped instruments

b) Portable steam sterilizer:

- These can be adapted for processing critical devices in low resource settings
- In addition, pressure cookers can provide adequate steam sterilization in
situations where conditions and resources are severely limited
- Not recommended for surgical packs and wrapped instruments
- Dental equipment and open trays only

c) Gravity downward-displacement sterilizers:

- Larger than tabletop sterilizers with addition of more automatic controls
- The chamber fills with steam, displacing the air downward and forcing it out of
the drain valve
- Holding temperature for unwrapped items: 121°C for 15 minutes or 134 °C for
3-4 minutes
- Cannot be controlled or properly validated. Not recommended

d) Emergency (flash) sterilizers (these are a form of gravity-displacement sterilizer):

- Normally located in operating room suite
- Quick sterilization cycle at 134°C for 3-4minutes
- Should be used only when there is insufficient time to sterilize an item by the
preferred prepackaged method
- Only for unwrapped items
- It should NEVER be used for sterilization of surgical trays or packs

e) High-speed pre-vacuum vacuum sterilizers (Porous load autoclaves)

- Similar to downward-displacement sterilizers, with the addition of a vacuum
pump system
- Vacuum pump removes the air from the chamber before the steam is
admitted, reducing the penetration time and total cycle time
- Holding temperature 134ºC for 3-4 minutes for wrapped items
- Ideally used for wrapped items and porous loads (fabrics, swabs, instruments
with lumens)
-

26
 7.1.2 Sterilization Times

Table 4: The Sterilization Times for the Different Types of Sterilizers

Type of Instruments to be Sterilized Sterilization Time (Holding

Time)

Gravity Sterilizer
Unwrapped 121 ºC (1.036 Bar) 15 minutes

Unwrapped: 134 ºC (2.026 Bar) 3 minutes

(metal and glass only)

Unwrapped: 134 ºC (2.026 Bar) (e.g., rubber) 10 minutes

Wrapped 121 ºC (1.036 Bar) 30 minutes

Wrapped 134 ºC (2.026 Bar) 15 minutes

High-speed Vacuum Sterilizer

Wrapped: 134 ºC (2.026 Bar) 4 minutes

Note:

 Sterilization time does not include the time it takes to reach the required temperature
or the time for exhaust and drying; therefore, it is shorter than the total cycle time.
 The temperatures required for steam sterilization are lower than those for dry heat
sterilization because moist heat under pressure allows for more efficient destruction of
microorganisms.

7.1.3 Wrapping Instruments and Other Items for Autoclaving

Wrapping instruments and other items before steam sterilization helps to decrease
the likelihood that, after sterilization, they will be contaminated before use.

To wrap instruments and other items for steam sterilization, use two layers of
material such as paper or cotton fabric however paper is preferred to allow
steam penetration.

Make points in the wrapping material while wrapping the instruments and other items
so that the packs can be easily opened without contaminating their contents (see
Fig. 3 below).

27
The wrapping systems for sterile items should meet the following criteria:

 Should provide an adequate barrier to particulate matter

 Withstand physical conditions of the sterilization process
 Provide an adequate barrier to fluids
 Permit adequate air removal
 Allow penetration and removal of the sterilants
 Protect package content from physical damage, resist tears and punctures
 Be free of holes and free of toxic ingredients
 Have a low lint content
 Be used according to the manufacturers’ written instructions
 Be dated

Figure 4 Steps for wrapping instruments and other items

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Place the instrument or Fold the bottom Fold the left section Fold the right
other item in the center of section of the top to the center, and section to the
the top wrapper. Items wrapper to the fold back the point. center, and fold
should be positioned so center, and fold back the point.
that the points and not the back the point.
flat edges are at the top,
bottom, and sides.

Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Step 8

Fold the top section to the Fold the bottom Fold the left section Fold the right
center, and fold back the section of the to the center, and section to the
point. bottom wrapper to fold back the point. center, and fold
the center, and fold back the point.
back the point.

28
Step 9 Step 10 Step 11

Fold the top section to the Tuck the point under the right left Fasten the folds
center, and fold back the sections. securely, using
point. autoclave tape, if
available.

Storage of sterile items should be according to these guidelines as in Chapter

2 section 2.5.

7.1.3.1 Preparation of Other Items e.g. Cotton Swabs, Gauzes for

Sterilization
The preparation is done according to the health facilities standard operating
procedures as determined by the CSSD.

7.1.4 Steps for Pressure Steam Sterilization (Autoclaving)

1. Correct loading of the autoclave:

o Items should be loaded within the boundaries of the loading tray so that they
do not touch the chamber walls or fall off when the load tray is in transit
o Ensure there is sufficient room between items to allow circulation of steam
o Do not overload the chamber
o Racks may be used to allow for adequate separation of packaged instruments

29
 o Packs of hollow-ware and trays of instruments should not be placed above
textile packs or soft goods in order to avoid wetting caused by condensation
from items above
o Do not load the heavier packs on the top shelf as it is easier to unload the
packs from the bottom shelf without dragging it

2. Follow the manufacturer’s instruction for operating the autoclave. Adjust

time, temperature and pressure according to Table 4. It is best to use a timer,
which helps ensure that the appropriate timing is achieved.
3. Do not begin timing until the autoclave reaches the desired temperature and
pressure:
- If the timing process is forgotten, start the cycle again
- If the autoclave is automatic, the heat will shut off and the pressure will begin
to fall off once the sterilization cycle is complete
- If the autoclave is not automatic, turn off the autoclave after achieving the
required time

4. Wait until the pressure gauge reads “0” to open the autoclave. Open the lid or
door to allow remaining steam to escape. Leave all items in the autoclave until
they dry completely. It may take up to 30 minutes.

5. Unloading of the Autoclave:

o Remove packs, drums, or unwrapped items from the autoclave using sterile
pick-ups to handle unwrapped items
o The operator should wear heat resistant gloves to prevent burning as the
packs come out of the autoclave hot
o The packs of equipment should come out of the autoclave dry. Wet packs
must be considered non-sterile
o On removal of the load, the operator should check the print-out or fill in details
about the cycle on the record sheet to indicate the required parameters have
been met
o Cooling items will not be placed on solid surfaces as condensation from vapor
(still within the pack) may result. They should be placed on the cooling rack
o Do not drag the packs along surfaces as this may result in tears in the packs
and compromise the sterility of the pack
o Do not store packs, drums or unwrapped items until they cool to room
temperature. This may take several hours
o Sterile items should be stored and handled in a manner that maintains the
integrity of packs and prevents contamination from any source as described in
section 2.5

30
 Things to remember:

 Clean all items to be sterilized

 Instruments may be autoclaved individually or in sets
 Unlock all instruments and sterilize them in open position
 Place heavy instruments on bottom of set
 Never lock instruments during autoclaving. This will prevent the steam from
reaching and sterilizing the metal-to-metal surfaces. Furthermore heat
expansion during autoclaving can cause cracks in hinge areas
 Sterilized packs should always have the date of sterilization as well as the
expiry date clearly written

7.1.4.1 Shelf Life and Rotation of Stock

 Unwrapped items: use immediately after removal from the autoclave or keep
them in a covered, dry, sterile container for up to one week.
 Wrapped items: The length of time (shelf life) that a wrapped, sterile item is
considered sterile depends on whether or not a contaminating event occurs, not
necessarily on how long an item has been stored. The shelf life depends on:
o Handling after sterilization
o Storage conditions
o Transport conditions and
o Amount of handling
A wrapped pack can be considered sterile as long as it remains intact and dry. It
is however recommended that items entering sterile organs should be stored for
a maximum of 3 months.
 Instruments packed in steri-pouches remain sterile for up to a year as long as
these are not punctured.

Rotation of stock should be done on a regular basis by rotating your packs

from top to bottom, back to front and left to right.

7.1.4.2 Determination of sterility of a set:

1) Set must be dry
2) Wrapping should be intact i.e. not torn
3) Properly wrapped
4) Expiry date checked: sets expire after 3 months
5) Indicator strips showing that sterility was achieved

7.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Sterilization

Advantages:
- Highly effective
- Rapid heating and rapid penetration of instruments
- Nontoxic
- Inexpensive
- Can be used to sterilize liquids
31
Disadvantages:
- Items must be heat and moisture resistant
- Will not sterilize powders, ointments or oils
- Needs good maintenance

32
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING EFFECTIVENESS
OF STERILIZATION AND
AUTOCLAVE MAINTENANCE
8.1 Monitoring the Effectiveness of Sterilization
To ensure that sterilization has been successful, the process of sterilization (and not
the end product) is tested. Indicators have been developed to monitor the
effectiveness of sterilization by measuring various aspects of the process through
different indicators. These include mechanical, chemical and biological indicators.

8.1.1 Mechanical Indicators (Physical)

These indicators, which are part of the autoclave or dry-heat oven itself, record and
allow you to observe time, temperature, and/or pressure readings during the
sterilization cycle.

8.1.2 Chemical Indicators

 Tape with lines that change color when the intended temperature has been
reached.
 Pellets in glass tubes that melt, indicating that the intended temperature and time
have been reached
 Indicator strips that show that the intended combination of temperature, time and
pressure has been achieved
 Indicator strips that show that the chemicals and/or gas are still effective

The advantage is that chemical indicators are visible to the user. The
disadvantage is that some chemical indicators can change without going through a
complete sterilization process.

8.1.3 Biological Indicators

 These indicators use heat-resistant bacterial endospores to demonstrate whether
or not sterilization has been achieved
 If the bacterial endospores have been killed after sterilization, you can assume
that all microorganisms have been killed as well
 After the sterilization process the strips are placed in a broth that supports
aerobic growth and incubated for 7 days

The advantage of this method is that it directly measures the effectiveness of

sterilization.

33
The disadvantage is that this indicator is not immediate, as are mechanical and
chemical indicators. Bacterial culture results are needed before sterilization
effectiveness can be determined.

8.1.4 Recommended Ideal Monitoring System

Perform the following monitoring activities whenever possible.

For steam sterilization:

 If the autoclave has recording chart, review it after each load. If not, record the
temperature, time and pressure information in a log book that is reviewed after
each load
 Perform the Bowie Dick test for air removal each day before starting the
sterilization cycle
 Place heat-and steam-sensitive chemical indicators, on the outside of each pack.
 Perform testing with biological indicators daily or weekly if used
 Indicators should be in the middle of the item reprocessed (the most difficult part
of the load)
 A thermocouple could be put in the most difficult part of the load where air
removal is hard and is usually performed by the engineers

For dry-heat sterilization:

 If the oven has a recording chart, review it after each load. If not, record the
temperature and time information in a log that is reviewed after each load
 Place heat-sensitive chemical indicators, if available, on the outside of each pack
 Perform testing with biological indicators weekly (or monthly, if testing weekly is
not possible). Thermocouples are only used if the sterilizer has been serviced or
is faulty

For chemical sterilization:

 Record the time information in a log that is reviewed after each load
 Use an indicator strip, if available, to determine if the solution is still effective

8.1.5 Correcting Sterilization Failure

If monitoring indicates a failure in sterilization, attempt to determine the cause of the

failure and arrange for corrective steps, as follows:
 Immediately check that the autoclave or dry-heat oven is being used correctly
 If correct use of the unit has been documented and monitoring still indicates
failure in sterilization, discontinue using the unit and have it serviced
 Any instruments or other items that have been processed in the faulty autoclave
or dry-heat oven must be considered non-sterile and must be processed again
with the unit that is functioning properly

34
8.2 Contaminated Supplies
Contaminated supplies are totally unsuitable for use. Items should be closely
monitored by visual inspection looking for contamination as part of a quality
management program.

Any contaminated or opened packaging should be considered unfit for use and
discarded or decontaminated if they are re-usable items.

Items are considered contaminated when:

- They are wrapped incorrectly or inadequately
- Packaging is damaged or opened
- Comes in contact with a wet surface
- An item is placed or dropped on a dirty surface like floor or sink
- Has no indication of having been through a sterilizing process for example the
chemical indicator has not changed colour (see chapter 6)
- Incorrect or inadequate cleaning procedures in the storage area
- Stored at incorrect temperature
- Excessive exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet light
- Evidence of pests and insects
- Evidence of incorrect handling when transporting items

8.3 Autoclave Maintenance

The autoclave should be checked by the operator or supervisor each time it is used
in order to make sure that it is functioning properly. An equipment log should be used
to monitor performance including temperature, timing, and cycle. If there is a fault,
report it to the supervisor or manager and call out the engineer to correct the fault. A
fault log must be recorded and kept for medico legal reasons.

The autoclave is not working correctly if:

- Steam comes out of the safety valve instead of the pressure valve. In such a
case, the pressure valve must be cleaned and replaced
- Steam comes out from under the lid or around the door. If this happens, the
gasket must be cleaned and dried or replaced
- Items emerge wet - the steam is incorrectly delivered. There is condensation
along the chamber walls
- Items emerge dry and crisp - steam is over heated
- Water marks on the packs - poor water quality
- Indicators fail - poor air removal, leaks or incorrect processes.

35
To ensure that the autoclave is properly maintained, ensure the following:

- Regular maintenance must be performed and documented according to the

manual.

8.3.1 Cleaning of the autoclave

Cleaning of the autoclave should be done according to the manufactures
recommendation.

8.4 Record Keeping

Record keeping helps in tracking what happens during any particular process. In
case a problem arises during decontamination process or after, records can help to
analyze what caused the problem.

The following are some of the importance of record keeping:

- Helps to check if sterilization cycle parameters have been met for every cycle. If a
problem is identified, any unsterile packs can be stopped from going out to the
theatre and wards
- Helps monitoring processes in the CSSD while they are occurring and if
something goes wrong, it can be corrected immediately
- If a problem is picked up after the packs have been issued, the use of load
identification numbers will help to identify which packs are faulty
- Sterilization records help staff to determine whether reprocessing must be
repeated and the extent, if, any to which a recall is needed
- Properly maintained records help to verify that the department has met or
exceeded quality goals

8.4.1 Types of Records

Regardless of the type of sterilization methods used, several basic records must be
maintained for each sterilization cycle that is performed. These records will allow the
tracking of sterilized items to the patient.

a) Load control number: must be attached to any item intended for use as a
sterile product. It must identify the sterilization date, sterilizer equipment used;
cycle number and expiration date if applicable
b) General contents of the load in each sterilization cycle
c) Biological and chemical indicator test results
d) Exposure time and temperature and pressure (if applicable) of the sterilization
process
e) Name or initials of the sterilizer operator

36
The following autoclave maintenance records must be maintained for all
sterilization:
- Date of service
- Model and serial number
- Reason for maintenance
- Location
- Descriptions of replaced parts
- Biological testing records
- Name and signature of controller
- Scheduled date for re-testing
- Re-testing results

Follow the manufacturer’s instructions whenever possible since autoclave

maintenance varies depending on the type of autoclave.

37
CHAPTER 9: ENDOSCOPE CLEANING/
DISINFECTION AND
MONITORING REPROCESSING
Endoscopes are medical devices used to examine the inside of the body. They are
made of a long thin tube that is passed into the body and are widely used in a
number of surgical specialties. There are two types, i.e. flexible and rigid
endoscopes.

They are problematic to clean, disinfect and sterilize because of the complexity of
their design (long narrow channels, complex internal design, etc.). They are also
expensive and easily damaged.

Processing of Endoscopes

The complete cycle of endoscope processing includes several stages:

- Cleaning
- Rinsing
- Disinfection or sterilization
- Rinsing if only disinfection was done
- Drying

9.1 Endoscope Cleaning

Preparations for endoscopes cleaning and disinfection:

Ensure the following items are in place:

- PPE
- 4 basins each containing the following:
o Endozyme solution
o Distilled or sterile water
o Ortho-phthalaldehyde – OPA (Cidex)
o Distilled or sterile water
- Endoscope cleaning brushes
- Syringe 50ml
- Drying / wiping sterile cloths (lint free) according to the manufactures
instructions
- 70% - 90% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol
- Lubricating oil
- Leakage test device
- Flushing valves

38
 9.1.1 Cleaning and Disinfection of Flexible Endoscopes
The following is recommended:

 Immediately on removal of the instrument from the patient, the endoscope should
be wiped from control head to distal tip using a clean cloth soaked in clean water
and enzymatic cleaning solution (diluted as per manufacturers’ instructions). It is
impossible to adequately disinfect or sterilize an endoscope when organic
material has been allowed to dry on the endoscope
 The internal suction channel should be aspirated with enzymatic solution,
depressing and releasing suction button to promote debris dislodgement.
 Depress and release air/water buttons to flush water through water channel and
air through air channel (where applicable use air/water cleaning adaptors as per
manufacturers’ instructions)
 Prior to disassembly and further cleaning of the endoscope the leak test should
be performed as per manufacturer’s instructions. In the case of video
endoscopes the protective cap should be applied prior to leak test
 The flexible endoscope and all reusable accessory items should be disassembled
as far as practicable
 The components should be cleaned with an enzymatic solution (diluted as per
manufacturers’ instructions)
 Any taps should be opened and the channels/lumens of the endoscope should be
brushed to remove any adherent debris
 If the cleaning brush has obvious debris, it should be washed prior to being
withdrawn through the channel
 Sites such as nozzles, flaps, hinges, crevices and joints of accessory items
should be cleaned with a soft brush to remove any adherent debris. This cleaning
process should continue until the endoscope, its channels, buttons and valves
and accessory equipment are completely clean
 Accessory items, including buttons should be placed in an ultrasonic washer
according to manufacturers’ instructions. It is mandatory for spiral coiled
accessory equipment to be thoroughly cleaned in the ultrasonic washer
 Thorough flush rinsing should be carried out to remove any traces of
enzyme/detergent from all channels
 All channels should then be purged with medical air to expel as much water as
possible, and the external surface is dried with a lint free cloth prior to
disinfection.
 Brushes used in the cleaning process for each endoscope shall be cleaned and
thermally disinfected after each use

39
 Note: Fibre optic endoscopes should only be subjected to ultrasonic cleaning in
accordance with manufacturers’ instructions. Some accessory instruments have
extremely small lumens or are too fine or difficult to dismantle for cleaning. In these
situations it is impossible to ensure thorough cleaning and decontamination has occurred,
in which case consideration should be given to using a single-use accessory.

Important things to remember when cleaning ENDOSCOPES:

1) Rinse scope through with soap water
2) Soak scope with endozyme solution for 3-5 minutes
3) Brush scope and dissembled parts
4) Rinse scope with soap water, brush, flush
5) Rinse scope in sterile water, flush through with sterile water. Flush with air,
because water will dilute CIDEX, and will therefore make it ineffective
6) Flush CIDEX through scope and immerse scope in it for 5 minutes
7) Rinse with sterile water, flush scope with water, then air. Wipe dry with towel
and hang on stand to dry
8) Discard solutions after 24 hours or when there are too many visible particles

9.1.2 Cleaning of Rigid Endoscopes

The cleaning steps as for the flexible endoscope above should be followed.
The following should however be noted:

 Rigid endoscopes and accessories, which do not have any fibre-optic light
carriers or cables, may be dried in a drying cabinet
 On completion of the cleaning, rinsing and drying process, the rigid endoscope
and associated instruments should be reassembled, inspected and checked to
ensure they are not damaged and are in working order, and then disassembled
prior to sterilization

9.2 Endoscope Disinfection

Glutaraldehyde/OPA disinfectant has a wide range of antimicrobial activity and is
effective against viruses including HIV, Hepatitis B and C and the majority of
bacteria, although spores and mycobacteria species are relatively more resistant.

Factors affecting the efficiency of a disinfectant include:

- Water carried over from the washing and rinsing process reduces the
concentration of glutaraldehyde
- Organic matter may inactivate glutaraldehyde
- Repeated use of the disinfectant may also cause a reduction in the
concentration of the solution

The following is recommended during disinfection:

 Instruments soaked in the solution must be cleaned thoroughly and dried prior
to immersion

40
  Manufacturer's recommendations on the management of glutaraldehyde
should be followed. The solution is at a 2% concentration initially. It is
undesirable for this to fall below 1.5%
 Change of the glutaraldehyde solution will depend on usage
 Where endoscopy is being performed infrequently, the glutaraldehyde solution
should be disposed of at the end of the day
 Chemical indicators should be used to ascertain the concentration of
glutaraldehyde. These processes must be documented and monitored
 The methods for the soaking and rinsing of the endoscope must be conducted
in an aseptic manner

9.2.1 Disinfection of Flexible Endoscopes

The following steps should be followed:

 The flexible endoscope shall be leak tested, clean and dry prior to placement in
the liquid disinfectant solution
 Manual disinfection-totally immerse the endoscope, valves and buttons in the
disinfectant solution (diluted as per manufacturer’s instructions)
 Use a syringe to flush the disinfectant solution down all lumens and channels, to
remove airlocks and to ensure all internal surfaces are in contact with the
disinfectant
 The endoscope should be soaked as per recommended guidelines dependent on
the type of endoscope, strength and temperature of the solution
 Disinfectant solution should be monitored for concentration levels daily or
immediately prior to use
 Flexible endoscopes other than bronchoscopes should be totally immersed in 2%
glutaraldehyde/ ortho-Phthalaldehyde (OPA) for a minimum of 10 MINUTES
between cases and prior to and end of each list
 Bronchoscopes should be totally immersed in 2% glutaraldehyde for a minimum
of 20 MINUTES between cases and prior to and at the end of each list

Note: OPA is not to be used for processing of urological instruments due to a rare
risk of anaphylaxis noted in patients with a history of bladder cancer.

Automated flexible endoscope reprocessing units:

The endoscope is placed into and connected to the machine and the appropriate
disinfection cycle chosen in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions dependent
on the type of endoscope.

The reprocessing machine should be routinely monitored as per recommended

guidelines and manufacturer’s instructions.

41
 9.2.2 Disinfection of Rigid Endoscopes
Disinfection is not a sterilizing process and shall not be used to prepare items
intended for entry into sterile body cavities, or which penetrate the mucosal barrier.

Rigid endoscopes are critical items and shall only be steam sterilized prior to reuse.

9.2.3 Post Disinfection Rinsing

- Water for the final rinse of all gastrointestinal endoscopes should be of high
quality, filtered and free from microorganisms able to cause clinical disease
e.g. Pseudomonas
- Endoscopes processed in an automated reprocessing unit may not require
rinsing on completion of cycle, check manufacturer’s instructions and
description of cycle used

9.3 Decontamination and Disinfection of Endoscopes

9.3.1 Decontamination of Flexible Endoscopes
 Most flexible endoscopes (check manufacturer’s instructions) can withstand a
process capable of sterilization using low temperature (=<55°C)
 These processes include ethylene oxide, hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid.
 Accessory items capable of withstanding steam sterilization should be processed
by this method

9.3.2 Sterilization of Rigid Endoscopes

 A rigid scope with external detachable optics can and should be sterilized by
steam.
 Any scope that the manufacturer declares to be suitable for sterilization should
undergo steam or other appropriate sterilization method (e.g. ethylene oxide and
peracetic acid)
 Where sterilization is by a wrapped process, the packaging material or system
used shall be in accordance with the method of sterilization used (as per
manufacturers’ instructions)
 Consideration as to the ability of the endoscope to withstand steam/low
temperature sterilization should be given prior to purchase of rigid scopes

Note: If items used for surgery will not tolerate sterilization, consideration should be given
to the purchase of rigid scopes that can undergo a sterilization process, or single use
items.

42
9.4 Storage of Endoscopes
9.4.1 Storage of Flexible Endoscopes
 The endoscopes must be thoroughly dry before being stored. Sterile isopropyl
alcohol 70% or dry clean air should be used to assist forced air-drying of
channels. This reduces bacterial growth during storage
 Denatured alcohol, e.g. Methylated spirit should not be used for drying as it can
damage components of flexible endoscopes. Some manufacturers do not
recommend the use of alcohol, in which case it should not be used
 Endoscope storage is preferably, by hanging at full length with insertion tube as
straight as possible, on appropriate support structures, rather than coiled in a
case
 The storage conditions should be as recommended in (Chapter 1) for sterile
items
 After storage all endoscopes must be disinfected / sterilized prior to use

9.4.2 Storage of Rigid Endoscopes

Rigid endoscopes that have undergone sterilization as a wrapped item shall be
stored in accordance with Chapter 2 (storage of sterile items).

43
CHAPTER 10: LINKAGE WITH OTHER
DEPARTMENTS
10.1 Laundry Services
See the IPC Manual for more details - the laundry services for the CSSD are
summarized here.

Laundering of OT linen

Careful handling and reprocessing of soiled linens prevents the transmission of

infectious agents. Therefore, all reusable gowns and drapes must be washed,
disinfected and subsequently sterilized.

Where laundering of OT linen is on site, the CSSD is a significant stakeholder in the

standard being routinely attained by those laundry processes, despite the laundering
occurring ‘outside’ the CSSD. It follows that the CSSD needs to be able to refer to
the appropriate guidelines if available and the Namibian Standards governing these
laundry practices and ensure that all linen products meet the requirements.

10.1.1 Laundering Standards

- Wherever operating room linen is laundered on-site, effective liaison and
communication between the CSSD and laundry personnel will be of great
importance in achieving the necessary standards
- Written protocols for the day to day functioning of laundries which process
operating room linen need to be established
- Laundries should adopt thorough inspection procedures to ensure that
cleaned OT linen has minimum staining and textile damage prior to
sterilization
- Infection control principles should be followed when handling contaminated
linen

The following procedure in sorting linen should be followed:

- Follow standard precautions, use PPE

- Handle contaminated linen as little as possible with minimal agitation
- Soiled linen should be sorted before being loaded into washing machine units.
This will protect both the machine and linen from the effects of the objects that
may be present in the linen

10.1.2 Cleaning and Sterilization of Theatre Linen

 Soaps and detergents are used to loosen soil and remove dirt
 A prewash rinse of 15 minutes will remove gross soilage

44
 Hot water washing at a temperature of at least 71oC, for a minimum of 25 minutes
is recommended. This provides an effective means of destroying vegetative
forms of bacteria but not spores
 Addition of mild acid to neutralize any alkalinity in the water supply, soap or
detergent. This is the last action performed during the washing process. It helps
in decreasing skin irritation and further reduces the number of bacterial present
 Hot air drying or drying in sunlight will also reduce the number of bacteria
present, as will ironing with a hot iron
 Clean linen must be stored and transported in such a manner that cross
contamination is avoided
 Linen to be sterilized must be properly wrapped before being sent to the sterile
processing department.
 A function check of the sterilization machine must be performed before the
sterilization process
 A validated process must be used to determine when reusable textiles have to be
withdrawn from use.

Note:

- Low linting fabrics are preferred since lint may impair wound healing because of
reactions to foreign bodies. Therefore non-woven fabrics are recommended.

45
CHAPTER 11: DISASTER MANAGEMENT
11.1 Purpose
To provide an emergency plan for internal emergencies that will ensure the safety of
all staff, patients and visitors. All CSSD staff should be committed to a policy of
emergency preparedness for the benefit of all occupants and visitors.

Disaster Committee
All internal and external disasters will be coordinated by the Disaster Committee.

The committee will consist of the following people:

 Senior Medical Superintendent (SMS) / Senior Medical Officer (SMO)
 Senior Control Registered Nurse in charge
 Control Administrative Officer
 Community Health Representative
 Environmental Health Officer
 Transport Clerk
 Representative from the local Fire Brigade Department

a) In order to cope with a disaster all staff should:

i) Be aware of what is required of them
ii) Know who is in control
iii) Know the location of all emergency equipment
iv) Know the emergency exits and evacuation routes
v) Be constantly aware of hazards
vi) Do not panic
vii) Not make statements to the press
b) Internal disaster
i) Important safety rules:
 Keep all areas neat, especially storerooms.
 Discourage loafers and vagrants
 Control visitors
 Ensure that contractors conform to safety regulations
 Maintain equipment on a regular planned basis
 Train staff to be aware of dangers
ii) Control of fire
 It is important that every employee understands the dangers in the
hospital as well as the procedures to be followed should a fire break
out.
 All personnel, patients and visitors have a responsibility to ensure the
safety of others.
46
 Fire hazards within a hospital
o High technology equipment (explosions) – autoclaves,
computers
o Electrical equipment (electric fires) – polishers, medical
equipment
o Linen – foam rubber mattresses
o Building in general – ceilings, oxygen ports and lines, cylinders
o Dangerous substances – theatre gases, cleaning fluid, alcohol
 Techniques for extinguishing fires
o Smothering
A fire is smothered by reducing or cutting off the oxygen through
the use of blankets, sand, foam and dry powder fire
extinguishers.

o Starvation
A fire can be starved by either removing the source (material
burning) or by moving the fire to a safe area.

o Cooling
Burning material can be cooled to below its combustion point.
Water is a suitable coolant.

 Types of fire
o Class A
General fire of wood, paper, etc. and can be extinguished with
either water or foam.

o Class B
Burning, flammable liquid, that can be extinguished with dry
powder or foam.

o Class C
Fires where electricity is involved must be extinguished with dry
powder or foam.

NB: DO NOT USE WATER ON AN ELECTICAL FIRE

o Class D
Gas fires that include products that release gasses when
burning must be extinguished with dry powder or foam.

 Using a fire extinguisher

47
 All staff must be aware of the position of the nearest fire-
fighting equipment.

o Remove from the fixture

o Break the seal
o Remove the safety pin
o Press the trigger to test
o Aim at the base of the fire and press the trigger
o Move from left to right

Recommended distance form fire is 3 to 4 meters.

 Important aspects to remember when confronted by a fire

o Do not panic
o Do not run
o Do not turn your back on the fire
o Move as low as possible
o Contact the switchboard
o Close all windows and doors
o Attempt to control the fire
o Activate the fire alarm if available

iii) Evacuation procedure

 General guidelines
 An evacuation will follow as a result of a fire, flood, bomb or other
disaster that requires patients to be moved to a safer environment
 An evacuation will only take place on the instruction from the
Disaster Committee
 It must be done in an orderly fashion
 Be familiar with all the possible routes and exits
 All staff has to move to central points in their units
 The area manager will then allocate tasks
 All staff not allocated specific tasks must report to the assembly
area to await further instructions
 Patients are our responsibility and must be evacuated as a matter
of priority
 Do not panic

 Responsibilities of the Area Manager

 Ensure calm evacuation of the area
 Ensure safety of all patients
 Ensure compliance with procedures
 Ensure that all persons have left the building
48
  Ensure that the second in command is aware of his/her function in
the absence of the area manager

 Specific Departmental Tasks

 Pharmacy must remove important stock to the assembly area
 Emergency unit must set up a first aid post at the assembly area
 Laundry staff must take all available bedding to the assembly area
 Maintenance department must shut off power and gas supplies and
supply portable oxygen
 Financial officer must remove important financial documents
 Human resources officer must take the current staff list of all on
duty
 Administrative staff must assist with the moving of patients
 Kitchen staff must assist with the moving of patients
 OPD staff and theatre staff must assist with patients arriving from
the wards at the assembly point

49
REFERENCES
1. Integrated Health Care Waste Management Plan. Namibia, Ministry of Health
and Social Services, 2010.

2. National Guidelines on Infection Prevention and Control. Namibia, Ministry of

Health and Social Services, 2014.

3. National Guidelines on Post Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV, HBV and Tetanus
after Workplace exposures and Sexual Assault. Namibia, Ministry of Health
and Social Services, 2010.

4. Spaulding EH. The Role of chemical disinfection in the prevention of

nosocomial infections. In: PS Brachman and TC Eickof (ed). Proceedings of
International Conference on Nosocomial Infections, 1970. Chicago, IL:
American Hospital Association: 1971: 254-274.

5. William A. Rutala, Ph.D., M.P.H., David J. Weber, M.D., M.P.H. and the
Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC).
Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities, 2008.

50