unit
Protection Two types
non unit
line
non unit type Compare
(distance) Unit type
Primary & Back – up protections
local remote
Zone of protection
#1 Power Research & Development
Distance relays(non- unit)
Z1, Z2 , Z0
Ia1, Ia2 , Ia0
relay fault
#2 Power Research & Development
Distance Relay
Expressions for Impedance calculations(Positive sequence impedance
Phase to Ground Fault(a-g)
VA= Ia1 Z1 + Ia2 Z2 + Ia0 Z0
= Ia1 Z1 + Ia2 Z2 + Ia0 Z0- Ia0 Z1+ Ia0 Z1
=Z1[Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 ] + Z1 Z0 - Z1
Ia0
Z1
=Z1[ Ia + 3kIa0 ]
K: Zero sequence compensation factor K= Z0 - Z1
3 Z1
#3 Power Research & Development
Phase to Phase fault(b-c)
Ib = - Ic ; Ib0 = - 0 ; Ic0 = - 0 ;
Vb= Ib1 Z1 + Ib2 Z2 = Ib Z1
Vc= Ic1 Z1 + Ic2 Z2 = Ic Z1
Vb –Vc Z1[Ib –Ic ]
= = Z1
Ib –Ic [Ib –Ic ]
#4 Power Research & Development
+JX
Load
-R R
No Load
Reverse
-JX
#5 Power Research & Development
Poly-phase protection
3 ph-ph
3 ph-G relays
T3 T3
T2 Z3 T2
Z2 Z2
T1 T1
Z4 Z1 Z1
Reverse Relay
fault
3
1 Forward 2
#6 Power Research & Development
jx
jx Z3
Z2 Z2
Z1 Z1
Z3
R Z4
Z4
- Transients in voltage & current inputs
- Load Encroachment
- Tolerance for fault resistance(RF)
- Power swing effects
- Parallel lines; Mutual coupling
#7 Power Research & Development
Switched Distance protection
Switching networks to ensure measuring elements connected to
correct phase under fault conditions
Switching networks controlled by fault detectors responsive to
current, impedance or combination of current and voltage.
Limitations: Operating time increases
First to identify the fault phases
To switch the measuring elements to correct phases
#8 Power Research & Development
Ex: Zone-1 Operation requires 3 functions
starting
Phase selection
measurement
Poly phase distance protection
Does not use special switching or phase
selective networks but use special combination
of relaying signals
#9 Power Research & Development
Starting relays
Operates for selected phases depending on type of fault and energie
switching networks for measuring elements
Overcurrent starter relays
Current setting considerations:
Depends on max load current, max. sound phase currents
To provide back-up function
Under voltage starter relays
Resistance earthed systems(3 phase – to – neutral connected under
voltage element)
Impedance starter relay
Improves fault coverage
#10 Power Research & Development
Distance protection based on information links
To avoid delayed operation for internal faults beyond zone-1 setting
Provides co-ordinated tripping between line ends
Information link through pilot-wire, power – line – carrier.
Tripping Schemes
Received signal is used for direct tripping
Received signal and the conditions of the relays at the receiving end
Three basic arrangements based on trip command
Direct inter tripping
permissive under reach
permissive over reach
#11 Power Research & Development
Direct tripping
operation of relays at either end initiate tripping at that end and
transmits the information to initiate tripping by remote end relays
should ensure correct tripping in the presence of interference
Probability of incorrect tripping as speed of communication channel
increases
Applied mainly to transformer feeder where circuit breaker is not
associated with transformer
Permissive inter tripping
Tripping action of received signal is made dependant on fault
detecting relay
Reduces the risk of unwanted tripping due to noise/interference
#12 Power Research & Development
Permissive under reach
i. With independent control
• Operates independently of the received inter trip signal
• Instantaneous operation of Zone-2 and operation of receive
relay results in tripping
ii. Accelerated distance protection
Permissive inter trip – over reaching
• Zone-1 relays with extended reach
• Tripping at each end depends on the operation of zone-1 relay at
both ends
#13 Power Research & Development
Disadvantage
For low fault level, tripping at one end is delayed, resulting in delayed
operation
Blocking Schemes
blocks the operation on detecting reverse faults at a relay location
either end blocks the operation of other
#14 Power Research & Development
What is apparent impedance & why ?
2
I2
1 If2 3
I1 S If1
S
ZR = V1 If
I1
Z2
Z1
#15 Power Research & Development
Case 1: I 2
Z R Z1 Z 2 I1 I f 1
Case 2:V1 Z 2 . I f 1 Z1 . I1 Z 2 I1 I 2 Z1 . I1
V1 I2
ZR . Z 2 Z1 Z 2
I1 I1
#16 Power Research & Development
Relay
ZA I relay ZL ZB
EA EB 0
EA - EB
I relay =
ZT
ZT =ZA +ZB + ZL
V relay EA-I relay ZA
Zseen (relay)= =
I relay I relay
EA 1
= -ZA + ZT = -ZA +ZT
1- cos + jsin
EA - EB
1 = -ZA +ZT
= -ZA +ZT E 1- j cot
1- B - 2
EA
#17 Power Research & Development
X
-ZB
-ZT/2 EA > 1
=1800 EB
-ZL
EA = 1
EB
R
Power swing
EA < 1
-ZA EB
Power swing condition
#18 Power Research & Development
x
Allowance for fault
c
resistance
Reduces the
resistance reach
b a
e
f
R
d
#19 Power Research & Development
Parallel lines ‘a’ and ‘b’ are introduced to reduce reach for the
following reasons:
To avoid the tripping of a healthy line when load encroaches the
relay characteristic (especially during peak load conditions)
Reduces the effect of power swings on the operation of the relay
‘C’ & ‘D’ provides allowance for fault
resistance
‘e’ & ‘f’ lines provides directional feature for the
parallelogram Characteristic
#20 Power Research & Development
JX LINE
3RD ZONE
LOAD IMPEDANCE
0
40 80 120 160 240 280 320
1ST ZONE
R(ohms)
LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 132 kv LINE
#21 Power Research & Development
400 LINE
JX
300
3RD ZONE
200
1ST ZONE
100
LOAD IMPEDANCE
100 200 300 400 500
R(ohms)
LOAD IMPEDANCE AREAS FOR A TYPICAL 400 kv LINE
#22 Power Research & Development
X-axis
XF
: setting angle
RB R-axis
RF
XB
QUADRILATERAL CHAR OF TRACTION REALY
#23 Power Research & Development
Vcos *Icos+Vsin * Isin
Rcal =
Icos *Icos+Isin * Isin
Vsin *Icos-Vcos * Isin
Xcal =
Icos *Icos+Isin * Isin
Logic: a) DISTANCE PROTECTION
XB<Xcal<Xf
Xcal
RB + < Rcal< Rf + Xcal
tan tan
#24 Power Research & Development
X-Axis: Resistance in ohms OP. Point
30
Y-Axis: Resistance in ohms
25
20
15 Trip No Trip
10
5
Phase-Ground Fault
0
Load = 500A
-5
Power Factor = 0.8 Lagging
-10
Fault Location = 7.15 km
-15
From relaying point
-20
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Variation of fault impedance measured by the relay with sample
#25 Power Research & Development
X-Axis X5
X3
Zone 3
X2
Zone 2
X1 Power Swing Zone
Zone 1
RB 3 1
Zone 4 2
RBS
RF
RFS R-Axis
X4
X6
Quadrilateral characteristic of distance relay
#26 Power Research & Development
Relay Logic (For All zones; Fault Quadrilateral)
X4 < Xcal < X3
RB+Xcal cot 1 < Rcal < RF + Xcal cot 1
Additional relay Logic For Zone Detection
Zone-1 If R < 0; -R tan 3 < X < X
cal cal cal 1
If Rcal > 0; -Rcal tan 2 < Xcal< X1
Zone-2
If Rcal < 0; -Rcal tan 3 < Xcal< X2
If Rcal > 0; -Rcal tan 2 < Xcal< X2
Zone-3 R & X reach in Fault Quadrilateral and if not detected in Zone-1
Or Zone-2
Zone-4
Zone-3 reverse reach
#27 Power Research & Development
Power Swing (Power Swing Quadrilateral)
X3 < Xcal < X4 And RF + Xcal cot 1< Rcal < RB + Xcal cot 1
And
X6 < Xcal < X5 And RBS + Xcal cot 1< Rcal < RFS + Xcal cot 1
#28 Power Research & Development
Relay Logic
The fault detection characteristic can be realised by simple logic
Expressions given by,
If XB1< Xcal < XF1; RB1 < Rcal < RF1
OR
If XF1< Xcal < XF2; RB1 – (Xcal < XF1)*cot < Rcal <
RF1 + (Xcal - XF1)*cot
OR
If XB2< Xcal < XB1; RB1 + (Xcal - XB1)*cot < Rcal <
RF1 - (Xcal - XB1)*cot
OR
If XF2< Xcal < XF OR XB < Xcal < XB2 ; RB < Rcal < RF
#29 Power Research & Development
Where RF, RF1 and RB , RB1 are resistance reach setting in the
forward and reverse direction respectively. XF, XF1 and XF2
are forward reactance reach settings. XB, XB1 and XB2
are reverse reactance reach settings. is the setting angle.
Rcal and Xcal are computed values of R and X
#30 Power Research & Development
Power Swings
• Surges of Power resulting after the removal of a short circuit.
•Resulting from connecting a generator to the system at an instant whe
they are out of phase(Loss of Synchronism).
Power Swing Blocking
• Measured impedance should lie in power swing band for more than th
preset value of the timer (in ms)
• Relay operation blocked for few seconds
#31 Power Research & Development
X
Zone-3
Zone-2
(R3X3)
Zone-1
(R2X2)
(R1X1)
offset R
#32 Power Research & Development
Z1
R1 = cos
Z
Zone-1
Z1
X1 = sin
Z
Z2
R2 = cos
Z
Zone-2
Z2
X2 = sin
Z
Z3 Zoffset
R3 = cos - cos
Z 2 Zone-3
Z3 Zoffset
X3 = sin - sin
Z 2
#33 Power Research & Development
Relay Settings
Z1, Z2, Z1 Zone-1, Zone-2 & Zone-3 forward reach settings
Zoffset Reverse reach setting for Zone-3
Characteristic angle to suit line angle(450 750)
#34 Power Research & Development
Generalized Equations for Circular characteristic
r2 = (Rcal - R) 2 + (Xcal -X ) 2
Rcal , Xcal : Measured values of Resistance & Reactance computed
using relaying algorithm
R, X : Relay reach settings, (R1 - X1) for Zone-1,
(R2 – X2) for Zone-2 , (R3 – X3) for Zone-3
r : computed value
, , of radius
#35 Power Research & Development
Fault Detection Logic
r2 < r2th
r2th : Stored threshold values of square of radius . Compared for three
Different zones (zone detection)
Timers of predetermined relays are initiated if the fault is detected
in Zone-2 and Zone-3
#36 Power Research & Development
XF X
Additional fault
coverage
XF2
XF1
Load Load
RB RB1 RF1 RF
R
XB1
XB2
XB
Fault characteristic of Distance Relay
#37 Power Research & Development
Conclusions
digital distance relaying schemes based on DSP processors
have led to the reassessment of relaying algorithms for
developing high performance numeric distance relays.
Suitable pre-filtering techniques based on IIR and FIR filters
improves the performance of numeric relays.
Evaluation studies show that short data window algorithms can
be used for high speed distance designs
Multiprocessor based configuration for high speed and accurate
distance relay designs has been proposed.
The reliability of multiprocessor based relays can be improved
by executing several algorithms in parallel and by OR/AND
gating their outputs to issue trip signal during faults.
#38 Power Research & Development
