1.

1 INTRODUCTION- Computer
Today, almost all of us in the world make use of computers in one way or the

other. It finds applications in various fields of engineering, medicine, commercial, research and others.
Not only in these sophisticated areas, but also in our daily lives, computers have become
indispensable. They are present everywhere, in all the dev ices that we use daily like cars, games,
washing machines, microwaves etc. and in day to day computations like banking, reservations,
electronic mails, internet and many more.

The word computer is derived from the word compute. Compute means to calculate. The
computer was originally defined as a super fast calculator. It had the capacity to solve complex
arithmetic and scientific problems at very high speed. But nowadays in addition to handling complex
arithmetic computations, computers perform many other tasks like accepting, sorting, selecting,
moving, comparing various types of information. They also perform arithmetic and logical operations
on alphabetic, numeric and other types of information. This information provided by the user to the
computer is data. The information in one form which is presented to the computer is the input
information or input data.

Information in another form is presented by the computer after performing a process on it. This
information is the output information or output data.

The set of instructions given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the
computer program. The process of converting the input data into the required output form with the
help of the computer program is called as data processing. The computers are therefore also referred
to as data processors

Therefore a computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing system that
accepts data, performs various operations on the data, has the capability to store the data and produce
the results on the basis of detailed step by step instructions given to it..

The terms hardware and software are almost always used in connection with the computer.

• The Hardware:

The hardware is the machinery itself. It is made up of the physical parts or devices of the computer
system like the electronic Integrated Circuits (ICs), magnetic storage media and other mechanical
devices like input devices, output devices etc. All these various hardware are linked together to form
an effective functional unit. The various types of hardware used in the computers, has evolved from
vacuum tubes of the first generation to Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits of the present generation.

• The Software:

The computer hardware itself is not capable of doing anything on its own. It has to be given explicit
instructions to perform the specific task. The computer program is the one which controls the processing
activities of the computer. The computer thus functions according to the instructions written in the
program. Software mainly consists of these computer programs, procedures and other documentation
used in the operation of a computer system. Software is a collection of programs which utilize and
enhance the capability of the hardware

1. 2 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
The computers of today are vastly different in appearance and performance as compared to the
computers of earlier days. But where did this technology come from and Where is it heading? To fully
understand the impact of computers on today’s world and the promises they hold for the future, it is
important to understand the evolution of computers.
1.2.1. The First Generation:
The first generation computers made use of:
• Vacuum tube technology,
• Punched cards for data input,
• Punched cards and paper tape for output,
• Machine Language for writing programs, Magnetic tapes and drums for external storage.
The computers of the first generation were very bulky and emitted large amount of heat
which required air conditioning. They were large in size and cumbersome to handle. They had to be
manually assembled and had limited commercial use. The concept of operating systems was not known
at that time. Each computer had a different binary coded program called a machine language that told
it how to operate.

Punched cards Paper tape Vacuum tube

Fig. 1.1 The first Generation Computer technology

The Abacus, which emerged about 5000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today, allows
users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack. Early merchants used
Abacus to keep trading transactions.

Abacus Pascaline
Fig. 1.2 the first Generation Computers

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented the first mechanical machine, a

rectangular brass box, called Pascaline which could perform addition and subtraction on whole
numbers. This was in the seventeenth century. Colmar, a Frenchman invented a machine that could
perform the four basic arithmetic functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Colmar’s
mechanical calculator, “Arithmometer”, presented a more practical approach to computing. With its
enhanced versatility, the “Arithmometer” was widely used until the First World War, although later
inventors refined Colmar’s calculator, together with fellow inventors, Pascal and Leibniz, he helped
define the age of mechanical computation.
Charles Babbage a British mathematician at Cambridge University
invented the first analytical engine or difference engine. This
machine could be programmed by instructions coded on punch
cards and had mechanical memory to store the results. For his
contributions in this field Charles Babbage is known as ‘the
father of modern digital computer.
Some of the early computers included:
Mark I –
This was the first fully automatic calculating machine. It was designed by Howard Aiken of
Harvard University in collaboration with IBM. This machine was an electronic relay computer.
Electromagnetic signals were used for the movement of mechanical parts. Mark I could perform the
basic arithmetic and complex equations. Although this machine was extremely reliable, it was very slow
(it took about 3-5 seconds per calculation) and was complex in design and large in size.

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) –

This computer developed by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry was the world’s first general
purpose electronic digital computer. It made use of vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for
storage.
ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator) –
The first all electronic computer was produced by a partnership between the US
Government and the University of Pennsylvania. It was built using 18,000 vacuum tubes,
70,000 resistors and 1,500 relays and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. The ENIAC
computed at speed about thousand times faster than Mark I. However, it could store and manipulate
only a limited amount of data. Program modifications and detecting errors were also difficult.

Fig. 1.3 ENIAC

EDVAC –
In the mid 1940’s Dr. John von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer with a memory to store both program and data. This was the first machine which
used the stored program concept. It had five distinct units arithmetic, central control, memory, input
and output. The key element was the central control. All the functions of the computer were co-ordinate
through this single source, the central control. The programming of the computers was done in machine
language
UNIVAC • I –
Remington Rand designed this computer specifically for business data processing
applications. The Universal Automatic Computer was the first general purpose commercially
available computer.
 Fig 1.4 UN IVAC

1.2.2 The Second Generation:

In the second generation computers:
• Vacuum tube technology was replaced by transistorized technology,
• Size of the computers started reducing,
• Assembly language started being used in place of machine language, Concept of stored
program emerged, High level languages were invented.

This was the generation of Transistorized Computers. Vacuum tubes were replaced
by transistors. As a result, the size of the machines started shrinking. These computers were smaller,
faster, more reliable and more energy efficient. The first transistorized computer was TX-0. The first
large scale machines that took advantage of the transistor technology were the early supercomputers,
Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry Rand. These machines were mainly developed for atomic energy
laboratories. Typical computers of the second generation were the IBM 1400 and 7000 series,
Honeywell 200 and General Electric.

Fig 1.5 Transistors

IBM 1401 was universally accepted throughout the industry and most large businesses
routinely processed financial information using second generation computers. The machine language
was replaced by assembly language. Thus the long and difficult binary code was replaced with
abbreviated programming code which was relatively easy to understand.
The stored program concept and programming languages gave the computers flexibility
to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored program concept implied that
the instructions to run a computer for a specific task were held inside the computer’s memory and could
quickly be modified or replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function. High level
languages like COBOL, FORTRAN and AL- GOL were dev eloped. Computers started finding vast and
varied applications. The entire software industry began with the second generation computers.

1.2.3. The Third Generation:

The third generation computers were characterized by:

• Use of Integrated circuits,
• Phenomenal increase in computation speed,
• Substantial reduction in size and power consumption of the machines,
• Use of magnetic tapes and drums for external storage, Design-of Operating systems and
new higher level languages,
• Commercial production of computers.

This generation was characterized by the invention of Integrated Circuits (ICs).

The 1C combined electronic components onto a small chip which was made from quartz.

Fig 1.6 i) Integrated Circuit ii) Integrated Circuit

Later, even more components were fitted onto a single chip, called a semiconductor. This reduced
the size even further. The weight and power consumption of computers decreased and the speed
increased tremendously. Heavy emphasis was given to the development of software. Operating
systems were designed which allowed the machine to run many different programs at once. A central
program monitored and co-ordinate the computer s memory. Multiprogramming was made possible,
whereby the machine could perform several jobs at the same time. Computers achieved speeds of
executing millions of instructions per second. Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
Higher level languages like Pascal and Report Program Generator (RPG) were introduced and
applications oriented languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, and PL/1 were developed.

1.2.4. The Fourth Generation:

The general features of the fourth generation computers were:
• Use of Very Large Scale Integration, Invention of microcomputers,
• Introduction of Personal Computers,
• Networking,
• Fourth Generation Languages.

Fig. 1.7 VLSI

The third generation computers made use of ‘Integrated Circuits that had 1020 components
on each chip, this was Small Scale Integration (SSI).
 The Fourth Generation realized Large Scale Integration (LSI) which could fit hundreds of
components on one chip and Very Large Scale integration (VLSI) which squeezed thousand of
components on one chip. The Intel 4004 chip, located all the components of a computer (central
processing unit, memory, input and output controls) on a single chip and microcomputers were
introduced. Higher capacity storage media like magnetic disks were developed. Fourth generation
languages emerged and applications software’s started becoming popular.

Computer production became inexpensive and the era of Personal Computers (PCs)
commenced. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer for use in office, home and schools. In
direct competition, the Macintosh was introduced by Apple in 1984. Shared interactive systems and
user friendly environments were the features of these computers.
As the computers started becoming more and more powerful, they could be linked together
or networked to share not only data but also memory space and software. The networks could reach
enormous proportions with local area networks. A global web of computer circuitry, the Internet, links
the computers worldwide into a single network of information.

1.2.5 The Fifth Generation:

Defining the fifth generation computers is somewhat difficult because the field is still in its
infancy. The computers of tomorrow would be characterized by Artificial Intelligence (At). An example
of Al is Expert Systems. Computers could be developed which could think and reason in much the
same way as humans. Computers would be able to accept spoken words as input (voice recognition).

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to
enable the creation of fifth generation computers. Two such advances are parallel processing where
many CPUs work as one and advance in superconductor technology which allows the flow of
electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow

1. 3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are broadly classified into two categories depending upon the logic used in their design as:

1.3.1 Analog computers:

In analog computers, data is recognized as a continuous measurement of a
physical property like voltage, speed, pressure etc. Readings on a dial or graphs are obtained as the
output, ex. Voltage, temperature; pressure can be measured in this way.

1.3.2 Digital Computers:

These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are
programmable. They process data by way of mathematical calculations, comparison,
sorting etc. They accept input and produce output as discrete signals representing high
(on) or low (off) voltage state of electricity. Numbers, alphabets, symbols are all
represented as a series of 1s and Os.

Digital Computers are further classified as General Purpose

Digital Computers and Special Purpose Digital Computers. General Purpose
computers can be used for any applications like accounts, payroll, data processing etc.
Special purpose computers are used for a specific job like those used in automobiles,
microwaves etc.

Another classification of digital computers is done on the basis of their capacity to

access memory and size like:
• Small Computers:
I) Microcomputers: Microcomputers are generally referred to as Personal
Computers (PCs). They have Smallest memory and less power. They are widely used
in day to day applications like office automation, and professional applications, ex.
PCAT, Pentium etc.

II) Note Book and Laptop Computers: These are portable in nature and are
battery operated. Storage devices like CDs, floppies etc. and output devices like
printers can be connected to these computers. Notebook computers are smaller in
physical size than lap top computers. However, both have powerful processors, support
graphics, and can accept mouse driven input.

Microcomputer

Notebook or Laptop Handheld Computer

Fig. 1.8 Small Computers

III) Hand Held Computers:

These types of computers are mainly used in applications like collection of
field data. They are even smaller than the note book computers.
• Hybrid Computers: Hybrid Computers are a combination of Analog and Digital computers.
They combine the speed of analog computers and accuracy of digital computers. They are mostly used
in specialized applications where the input data is in an analog form i.e. measurement. This is
converted into digital form for further processing. The computers accept data from sensors and produce
output using conventional input/output devices.

• Mini Computers: Mini computers are more powerful than the micro computers. They have
higher memory capacity and more storage capacity with higher speeds. These computers are mainly
used in process control systems. They are mainly used in applications like payrolls, financial
accounting, Computer aided design etc. ex. VAX,
PDP-11

•Mainframe Computers: Main frame computers are very large computers which process data at very
high speeds of the order of several million instructions per second. They can be linked into a network
with smaller computers, micro computers and with each other. They are typically used in large
organizations, government departments etc.
ex. IBM4381, CDC

• Super Computers: A super computer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive
computer which is used for complex tasks that require a lot of computational power. Super computers
have multiple processors which process multiple instructions at the same time. This is known as
parallel processing. These computers are widely used in very advanced applications like weather
forecasting, processing geological data etc. ex. CRAY-2, NEC - 500, PARAM.

1.4 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern world. Some of the
major application areas include:

1.4.1 Scientific, Engineering and Research:

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are used in areas
which require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, weather forecasting, and complex
mathematical and engineering applications. Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Manufacturing (CAM) help in designing robotics, automobile manufacturing, automatic process control
dev ices etc.

1.4.2 Business:
Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts are all the
areas of business and industry where computers are used to a great extent. Database management is
one of the major area where computers are used on a large scale. The areas of application here include
banking, airline reservations, etc. where large amounts of data need to be updated, edited, sorted,
searched from large databases.

1.4.3 Medicine:
Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient data like , pulse
rate, blood pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis. Modern day medical equipment
are highly computerized today. Computers are also widely used in medical research.

1.4.4 Information:
This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet, networks are all
based on computers.

1.4.5 Education:
 The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students develop the
habit of thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving techniques. CDs on a variety
of subjects are available to impart education. On line training programs for students are also becoming
popular day by day. All the major encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now available in the digital
form and therefore are easily accessible to the student of today. Creativity in drawing, painting,
designing, decoration, music etc. can be well developed with computers.
1.4.6 Games and Entertainment:
Computer games are popular with children and adults alike. Computers are nowadays
also used in entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.

1.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS

Advantages of Computers:
1.5.1 Speed:
The speed of a computer is measured in terms of the number of instructions that it can
perform or execute in a second. The speeds of computers are measured in milli-seconds (10~3 sec),
micro-seconds (10*6 sec), and nano-seconds (10~9sec). Computers are superfast machines and can
process millions of instructions per second. Smaller computers can execute thousands of instructions
per second, while the more complex machines can execute millions of instructions per second.

1.5.2 Accuracy:

Computers are very accurate. They are capable of executing hundreds of instructions
without any errors. They do not make mistakes in their computations. They perform each and every
calculation with the same accuracy.

1.5.3 Efficiency
The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age. The computers can perform
repeated tasks with the same efficiency any number of times without exhausting there selves. Even if
they are instructed to execute millions of instructions, they are capable of executing them all with the
same speed and efficiency without exhaustion.

1.5.4 Storage Capability

Computers are capable of storing large amounts of data in their storage devices. These
dev ices occupy very less space and can store millions of characters in condensed forms. These
storage devices typically include floppy disks, tapes, hard disks, CDs etc, the data stored on these
devices can be retrieved and reused whenever it is required in future

1.5.5 Versatility
Computers are very versatile. They are capable not only of performing complex
mathematical tasks of science and engineering, but also other nonnumerical operations fielding air-line
reservation, electricity bills, data base management etc.

Limitations of Computers:
Although the computers of today are highly intelligent and sophisticated they have their
own limitations. The computer cannot think on its own, since it does not have its own brain. It can only
do what is has been programmed to do. It can execute only those jobs that can be expressed as a
finite set of instructions to achieve a specific goal. Each of the steps has to be clearly defined. The
computers do not learn from previous experience nor can they arrive at a conclusion without going
through all the intermediate steps. However the impact of computers on today’s society in phenomenal
and they are today an important part of the society
1.6 Similarities and Difference between Humans and Computer

Computer is a very effective and efficient machine which performs several activities in few
minutes, which otherwise would have taken several days if performed naturally. Besides there would
have been a doubt about the accuracy, finish etc. The computer may be faster; more accurate but it
cannot compete with human brain. However there are some similarities between the human and the
computer which would make the computer more understandable.

Human Computer

# Like human beings has ears, Computers have input devices such as keyboard,
nose, eyes etc. scanner, touch screen, mouse etc to get information.

# Like we remember things Computer also stores information.

#We recollect certain information The computer also retrieves information when times,
as required.

#We express ourselves by Computer expresses through screen, Printouts etc

speech, writing etc which We call as output.

with the help of software, computer also

#When we watch, hear, learn
can analyze Information and draw
certain things and
conclusions.
analyze.

The computer brain is known as CPU conclude

#The place where we store,
information is known as the brain (Central
analyze,
Processing Unit) where it analyses information.

The computer has storage devices like floppies, hard disks, compact disks to store and retrieve
information.

However computer does not understand emotions, it does not understand meaning beyond
words, it cannot read between the lines like the human. We learn many things unknowingly, certain
things knowingly; we call it as upbringing. But computers can learn everything only knowingly. We learn
many things on our own, but computer has to be taught to do everything
1.7 A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Any system is defined as a group of integrated parts which are designed to achieve a common objective.
Thus, a system is made up of more than one element or part, where each element performs a specific
function and where all the elements (parts) are logically related and are controlled in such a way that
the goal (purpose) of the system is achieved.

A computer is made up of a number of integrated elements like

- The central processing unit, -
The input and output devices and - The storage devices.
Each of these units performs a specific task. However, none of them can function
independently on their own. They are logically related and controlled to achieve a specific goal. When
they are thus integrated they form a fully fledged computer system.

1. 8 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

The basic parts of computer system are:

• Input Unit
• The Central Processing Unit
• Output Unit

Fig. 1.9 Central Processing Unit

The Input Unit:

Input dev ices are the dev ices which are used to feed programs and data to the computer. The input
system connects the external environment with the computer system. The input dev ices are the means
of communication between the user and the computer system. Typical input devices include the
keyboard, floppy disks, mouse, microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way in which
the data is fed into the computer through each of these devices is different. However, a computer can
accept data only in a specific form. Therefore these input devices transform the data fed to them, into
a form which can be accepted by the computer. These devices are a means of communication and
inter1 station between the user and the computer systems.

Thus the functions of the input unit are:

• accept information (data) and programs.

• convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
• provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.
The Central Processing Unit:
This is the brain of any computer system. The central processing unit or CPU is made of three
parts:
• The control unit.
• The arithmetic logic unit
• The primary storage unit

The Control Unit :

The Control Unit controls the operations of the entire computer system.
The control unit gets the instructions from the programs stored in primary storage unit interprets these
instruction an subsequently directs the other units to execute the instructions. Thus it manages and
coordinates the entire computer system.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit:

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) actually executes the instructions and
performs all the calculations and decisions. The data is held in the primary storage unit and transferred
to the ALU whenever needed. Data can be moved from the primary storage to the arithmetic logic unit
a number of times before the entire processing is complete. After the completion, the results are sent
to the output storage section and the output devices.

The Primary Storage Unit:

This is also called as Main Memory. Before the actual processing starts
the data and the instructions fed to the computer through the input units are stored in this primary
storage unit. Similarly, the data which is to be output from the computer system is also temporarily
stored in the primary memory. It is also the area where intermediate results of calculations are stored.
The main memory has the storage section that holds the computer programs during execution. Thus
the primary unit:

• Stores data and programs during actual processing

• Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
• Stores results of execution temporarily

1.8.3 Output Unit:

The output devices give the results of the process and computations to the outside
world. The output units accept the results produced by the computer, convert them into a human
readable form and supply them to the users. The more common output devices are printers, plotters,
display screens, magnetic tape drives etc.