Unsolved problems by subfield[edit]

The following is a list of notable unsolved problems grouped into broad areas of physics. [3]

General physics/quantum physics[edit]

 Theory of everything: Is there a theory which explains the values of
all fundamental physical constants, i.e., of all coupling constants, all elementary
particle masses and all mixing angles of elementary particles? [4] Is there a theory
which explains why the gauge groups of the standard model are as they are, and
why observed spacetime has 3 spatial dimensions and 1 temporal dimension? Are
"fundamental physical constants" really fundamental or do they vary over time? Are
any of the fundamental particles in the standard model of particle physics actually
composite particles too tightly bound to observe as such at current experimental
energies? Are there elementary particles that have not yet been observed, and, if so,
which ones are they and what are their properties? Are there unobserved
fundamental forces?
 Arrow of time (e.g. entropy's arrow of time): Why does time have a direction?
Why did the universe have such low entropy in the past, and time correlates with the
universal (but not local) increase in entropy, from the past and to the future,
according to the second law of thermodynamics?[4] Why are CP violations observed
in certain weak force decays, but not elsewhere? Are CP violations somehow a
product of the second law of thermodynamics, or are they a separate arrow of time?
Are there exceptions to the principle of causality? Is there a single possible past? Is
the present moment physically distinct from the past and future, or is it merely an
emergent property of consciousness? What links the quantum arrow of time to the
thermodynamic arrow?
 Interpretation of quantum mechanics: How does the quantum description of
reality, which includes elements such as the superposition of states
and wavefunction collapse or quantum decoherence, give rise to the reality we
perceive?[4] Another way of stating this question regards the measurement problem:
What constitutes a "measurement" which apparently causes the wave function to
collapse into a definite state? Unlike classical physical processes, some quantum
mechanical processes (such as quantum teleportation arising from quantum
entanglement) cannot be simultaneously "local", "causal", and "real", but it is not
obvious which of these properties must be sacrificed, [5] or if an attempt to describe
quantum mechanical processes in these senses is a category error such that a
proper understanding of quantum mechanics would render the question
meaningless. Can a multiverse resolve it?
 Yang–Mills theory: Given an arbitrary compact gauge group, does a non-trivial
quantum Yang–Mills theory with a finite mass gap exist? (This problem is also listed
as one of the Millennium Prize Problems in mathematics.)[6]
 Color confinement: Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) color confinement
conjecture is that color charged particles (such as quarks and gluons) cannot be
separated from their parent hadron without producing new hadrons. [7] There is not yet
an analytic proof of color confinement in any non-abelian gauge theory.
 Physical information: Are there physical phenomena, such as wave function
collapse or black holes, that irrevocably destroy information about their prior states?
[8]
 How is quantum information stored as a state of a quantum system?
 Dimensionless physical constant: At the present time, the values of the
dimensionless physical constants cannot be calculated; they are determined only by
physical measurement.[9][10] What is the minimum number of dimensionless physical
constants from which all other dimensionless physical constants can be derived? Are
dimensional physical constants necessary at all?
 Fine-tuned universe: The values of the fundamental physical constants are in a
narrow range necessary to support carbon-based life. [11][12][13] Is this because there
exist other universes with different constants, or are our universe's constants the
result of chance, or some other factor or process? In particular,
Tegmark's mathematical multiverse hypothesis of abstract mathematical parallel
universe formalized models, and the landscape multiverse hypothesis of spacetime
regions having different formalized sets of laws and physical constants from that of
the surrounding space — require formalization.
 Quantum field theory: Is it possible to construct, in the mathematically rigorous
framework of algebraic QFT, a theory in 4-dimensional spacetime that includes
interactions and does not resort to perturbative methods?[14][15]
Cosmology and general relativity[edit]
 Problem of time: In quantum mechanics time is a classical background parameter
and the flow of time is universal and absolute. In general relativity time is one
component of four-dimensional spacetime, and the flow of time changes depending
on the curvature of spacetime and the spacetime trajectory of the observer. How can
these two concepts of time be reconciled? [16]
 Cosmic inflation: Is the theory of cosmic inflation in the very early universe
correct, and, if so, what are the details of this epoch? What is the
hypothetical inflaton scalar field that gave rise to this cosmic inflation? If inflation
happened at one point, is it self-sustaining through inflation of quantum-mechanical
fluctuations, and thus ongoing in some extremely distant place? [17]
 Horizon problem: Why is the distant universe so homogeneous when the Big
Bang theory seems to predict larger measurable anisotropies of the night sky than
those observed? Cosmological inflation is generally accepted as the solution, but are
other possible explanations such as a variable speed of light more appropriate?[18]
 Origin and future of the universe: How did the conditions for anything to exist
arise? Is the universe heading towards a Big Freeze, a Big Rip, a Big Crunch, or
a Big Bounce? Or is it part of an infinitely recurring cyclic model?
 Size of universe: The diameter of the observable universe is about 93 billion light-
years, but what is the size of the whole universe?
 Baryon asymmetry: Why is there far more matter than antimatter in
the observable universe?
 Cosmological constant problem: Why does the zero-point energy of
the vacuum not cause a large cosmological constant? What cancels it out?[19][20]

Estimated distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe

 Dark matter: What is the identity of dark matter?[18] Is it a particle? Is it the
lightest superpartner (LSP)? Or, do the phenomena attributed to dark matter point
not to some form of matter but actually to an extension of gravity?
 Dark energy: What is the cause of the observed accelerated expansion (de Sitter
phase) of the universe? Why is the energy density of the dark energy component of
the same magnitude as the density of matter at present when the two evolve quite
differently over time; could it be simply that we are observing at exactly the right
time? Is dark energy a pure cosmological constant or are models
of quintessence such as phantom energy applicable?
 Dark flow: Is a non-spherically symmetric gravitational pull from outside the
observable universe responsible for some of the observed motion of large objects
such as galactic clusters in the universe?
 Axis of evil: Some large features of the microwave sky at distances of over 13
billion light years appear to be aligned with both the motion and orientation of the
solar system. Is this due to systematic errors in processing, contamination of results
by local effects, or an unexplained violation of the Copernican principle?
 Shape of the universe: What is the 3-manifold of comoving space, i.e. of a
comoving spatial section of the universe, informally called the "shape" of the
universe? Neither the curvature nor the topology is presently known, though the
curvature is known to be "close" to zero on observable scales. The cosmic
inflation hypothesis suggests that the shape of the universe may be unmeasurable,
but, since 2003, Jean-Pierre Luminet, et al., and other groups have suggested that
the shape of the universe may be the Poincaré dodecahedral space. Is the shape
unmeasurable; the Poincaré space; or another 3-manifold?
 The largest structures in the universe are larger than expected. Current
cosmological models say there should be very little structure on scales larger than a
few hundred million light years across, due to the expansion of the universe trumping
the effect of gravity.[21] But the Sloan Great Wall is 1.38 billion light-years in length.
And the largest structure currently known, the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall,
is up to 10 billion light-years in length. Are these actual structures or random density
fluctuations? If they are real structures, they contradict the 'End of Greatness'
hypothesis which asserts that at a scale of 300 million light-years structures seen in
smaller surveys are randomized to the extent that the smooth distribution of the
universe is visually apparent.
Quantum gravity[edit]
 Vacuum catastrophe: Why does the predicted mass of the quantum vacuum have
little effect on the expansion of the universe? [20]
 Quantum gravity: Can quantum mechanics and general relativity be realized as a
fully consistent theory (perhaps as a quantum field theory)?[22] Is spacetime
fundamentally continuous or discrete? Would a consistent theory involve a force
mediated by a hypothetical graviton, or be a product of a discrete structure of
spacetime itself (as in loop quantum gravity)? Are there deviations from the
predictions of general relativity at very small or very large scales or in other extreme
circumstances that flow from a quantum gravity theory?
 Black holes, black hole information paradox, and black hole radiation: Do black
holes produce thermal radiation, as expected on theoretical grounds? [8] Does this
radiation contain information about their inner structure, as suggested by gauge–
gravity duality, or not, as implied by Hawking's original calculation? If not, and black
holes can evaporate away, what happens to the information stored in them (since
quantum mechanics does not provide for the destruction of information)? Or does the
radiation stop at some point leaving black hole remnants? Is there another way to
probe their internal structure somehow, if such a structure even exists?
 Extra dimensions: Does nature have more than four spacetime dimensions? If so,
what is their size? Are dimensions a fundamental property of the universe or an
 emergent result of other physical laws? Can we experimentally observe evidence of
higher spatial dimensions?
 The cosmic censorship hypothesis and the chronology protection conjecture: Can
singularities not hidden behind an event horizon, known as "naked singularities",
arise from realistic initial conditions, or is it possible to prove some version of the
"cosmic censorship hypothesis" of Roger Penrose which proposes that this is
impossible?[23] Similarly, will the closed timelike curves which arise in some solutions
to the equations of general relativity (and which imply the possibility of
backwards time travel) be ruled out by a theory of quantum gravity which unites
general relativity with quantum mechanics, as suggested by the "chronology
protection conjecture" of Stephen Hawking?
 Locality: Are there non-local phenomena in quantum physics?[24][25] If they exist,
are non-local phenomena limited to the entanglement revealed in the violations of
the Bell inequalities, or can information and conserved quantities also move in a non-
local way? Under what circumstances are non-local phenomena observed? What
does the existence or absence of non-local phenomena imply about the fundamental
structure of spacetime? How does this elucidate the proper interpretation of the
fundamental nature of quantum physics?
High-energy physics/particle physics[edit]
See also: Beyond the Standard Model

 Hierarchy problem: Why is gravity such a weak force? It becomes strong for

particles only at the Planck scale, around 1019 GeV, much above the electroweak
scale (100 GeV, the energy scale dominating physics at low energies). Why are
these scales so different from each other? What prevents quantities at the
electroweak scale, such as the Higgs boson mass, from getting quantum
corrections on the order of the Planck scale? Is the solution supersymmetry, extra
dimensions, or just anthropic fine-tuning?
 Planck particle: The Planck mass plays an important role in parts of mathematical
physics. A series of researchers have suggested the existence of a fundamental
particle with mass equal to or close to that of the Planck mass. The Planck mass is
however enormous compared to any detected particle. It is still an unsolved problem
if there exist or even have existed a particle with close to the Planck mass. This is
indirectly related to the hierarchy problem.
 Magnetic monopoles: Did particles that carry "magnetic charge" exist in some
past, higher-energy epoch? If so, do any remain today? (Paul Dirac showed the
existence of some types of magnetic monopoles would explain charge quantization.)
[26]

 Neutron lifetime puzzle: While the neutron lifetime has been studied for decades,
there currently exists a lack of consilience on its exact value, due to different results
from two experimental methods ("bottle" versus "beam"). [27]
 Proton decay and spin crisis: Is the proton fundamentally stable? Or does it
decay with a finite lifetime as predicted by some extensions to the standard model?
[28]
 How do the quarks and gluons carry the spin of protons? [29]
 Supersymmetry: Is spacetime supersymmetry realized at TeV scale? If so, what
is the mechanism of supersymmetry breaking? Does supersymmetry stabilize the
electroweak scale, preventing high quantum corrections? Does the
lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) comprise dark matter?
 Generations of matter: Why are there three generations of quarks and leptons? Is
there a theory that can explain the masses of particular quarks and leptons in
particular generations from first principles (a theory of Yukawa couplings)?[30]
 Neutrino mass: What is the mass of neutrinos, whether they
follow Dirac or Majorana statistics? Is the mass hierarchy normal or inverted? Is the
CP violating phase equal to 0?[31][32]
 Strong CP problem and axions: Why is the strong nuclear interaction invariant
to parity and charge conjugation? Is Peccei–Quinn theory the solution to this
problem? Could axions be the main component of dark matter?
 Anomalous magnetic dipole moment: Why is the experimentally measured value
of the muon's anomalous magnetic dipole moment ("muon g−2") significantly
different from the theoretically predicted value of that physical constant? [33]
 Proton radius puzzle: What is the electric charge radius of the proton? How does
it differ from gluonic charge?
 Pentaquarks and other exotic hadrons: What combinations of quarks are
possible? Why were pentaquarks so difficult to discover? [34] Are they a tightly-bound
system of five elementary particles, or a more weakly-bound pairing of a baryon and
a meson?[35]
 Mu problem: problem of supersymmetric theories, concerned with understanding
the parameters of the theory.
 Koide formula: An aspect of the problem of particle generations. The sum of the
masses of the three charged leptons, divided by the square of the sum of the roots of
these masses, to within one standard deviation of observations, is . It is unknown
how such a simple value comes about, and why it is the exact arithmetic average of
the possible extreme values of 1⁄3 (equal masses) and 1 (one mass dominates).
Astronomy and astrophysics[edit]
Main article: List of unsolved problems in astronomy

 Solar cycle: How does the Sun generate its periodically reversing large-scale
magnetic field? How do other solar-like stars generate their magnetic fields, and what
are the similarities and differences between stellar activity cycles and that of the
Sun?[36] What caused the Maunder Minimum and other grand minima, and how does
the solar cycle recover from a minima state?
 Coronal heating problem: Why is the Sun's corona (atmosphere layer) so much
hotter than the Sun's surface? Why is the magnetic reconnection effect many orders
of magnitude faster than predicted by standard models?
 Astrophysical jet: Why do only certain accretion discs surrounding certain
astronomical objects emit relativistic jets along their polar axes? Why are
there quasi-periodic oscillations in many accretion discs?[37] Why does the period of
these oscillations scale as the inverse of the mass of the central object? [38] Why are
there sometimes overtones, and why do these appear at different frequency ratios in
different objects?[39]
 Diffuse interstellar bands: What is responsible for the numerous interstellar
absorption lines detected in astronomical spectra? Are they molecular in origin, and if
so which molecules are responsible for them? How do they form?
 Supermassive black holes: What is the origin of the M-sigma relation between
supermassive black hole mass and galaxy velocity dispersion? [40] How did the most
distant quasars grow their supermassive black holes up to 1010 solar masses so early
in the history of the universe?
Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy: predicted (A) and observed (B). Can the discrepancy
between the curves be attributed to dark matter?

 Kuiper cliff: Why does the number of objects in the Solar System's Kuiper belt fall
off rapidly and unexpectedly beyond a radius of 50 astronomical units?
 Flyby anomaly: Why is the observed energy of satellites flying by planetary
bodies sometimes different by a minute amount from the value predicted by theory?
 Galaxy rotation problem: Is dark matter responsible for differences in observed
and theoretical speed of stars revolving around the centre of galaxies, or is it
something else?
 Supernovae: What is the exact mechanism by which an implosion of a dying star
becomes an explosion?
 p-nuclei: What astrophysical process is responsible for the nucleogenesis of
these rare isotopes?
 Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray:[18] Why is it that some cosmic rays appear to
possess energies that are impossibly high, given that there are no sufficiently
energetic cosmic ray sources near the Earth? Why is it that (apparently) some
cosmic rays emitted by distant sources have energies above the Greisen–Zatsepin–
Kuzmin limit?[4][18]
 Rotation rate of Saturn: Why does the magnetosphere of Saturn exhibit a (slowly
changing) periodicity close to that at which the planet's clouds rotate? What is the
true rotation rate of Saturn's deep interior?[41]
 Origin of magnetar magnetic field: What is the origin of magnetar magnetic field?
 Large-scale anisotropy: Is the universe at very large scales anisotropic, making
the cosmological principle an invalid assumption? The number count and intensity
dipole anisotropy in radio, NRAO VLA Sky Survey (NVSS) catalogue [42] is inconsistent
with the local motion as derived from cosmic microwave background[43][44] and indicate
an intrinsic dipole anisotropy. The same NVSS radio data also shows an intrinsic
dipole in polarization density and degree of polarization [45] in the same direction as in
number count and intensity. There are several other observation revealing large-
scale anisotropy. The optical polarization from quasars shows polarization alignment
over a very large scale of Gpc.[46][47][48] The cosmic-microwave-background data shows
several features of anisotropy,[49][50][51][52] which are not consistent with the Big
Bang model.
 Age–metallicity relation in the Galactic disk: Is there a universal age–metallicity
relation (AMR) in the Galactic disk (both "thin" and "thick" parts of the disk)? Although
in the local (primarily thin) disk of the Milky Way there is no evidence of a strong
AMR,[53] a sample of 229 nearby "thick" disk stars has been used to investigate the
existence of an age–metallicity relation in the Galactic thick disk, and indicate that
there is an age–metallicity relation present in the thick disk.[54][55] Stellar ages from
asteroseismology confirm the lack of any strong age–metallicity relation in the
Galactic disc.[56]
 The lithium problem: Why is there a discrepancy between the amount of lithium-7
predicted to be produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the amount observed in
very old stars?[57]
 Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs): What powers X-ray sources that are not
associated with active galactic nuclei but exceed the Eddington limit of a neutron
star or stellar black hole? Are they due to intermediate mass black holes? Some
ULXs are periodic, suggesting non-isotropic emission from a neutron star. Does this
apply to all ULXs? How could such a system form and remain stable?
 Fast radio bursts (FRBs): What causes these transient radio pulses from distant
galaxies, lasting only a few milliseconds each? Why do some FRBs repeat at
unpredictable intervals, but most do not? Dozens of models have been proposed, but
none have been widely accepted.[58]
Nuclear physics[edit]

The "island of stability" in the proton vs. neutron number plot for heavy nuclei

 Quantum chromodynamics: What are the phases of strongly interacting matter,

and what roles do they play in the evolution of cosmos? What is the
detailed partonic structure of the nucleons? What does QCD predict for the
properties of strongly interacting matter? What determines the key features of QCD,
and what is their relation to the nature of gravity and spacetime? Do glueballs exist?
Do gluons acquire mass dynamically despite having a zero rest mass,
within hadrons? Does QCD truly lack CP violations? Do gluons saturate when their
occupation number is large? Do gluons form a dense system called Colour Glass
Condensate? What are the signatures and evidences for the Balitsky–Fadin–
Kuarev–Lipatov, Balitsky–Kovchegov, Catani–Ciafaloni–Fiorani–Marchesini evolution
equations?
 Nuclei and nuclear astrophysics: Why is there a lack of convergence in estimates
of the mean lifetime of a free neutron based on two separate – and increasingly
precise – experimental methods? What is the nature of the nuclear force that
binds protons and neutrons into stable nuclei and rare isotopes? What is the nature
of exotic excitations in nuclei at the frontiers of stability and their role in stellar
processes? What is the nature of neutron stars and dense nuclear matter? What is
the origin of the elements in the cosmos? What are the nuclear reactions that
drive stars and stellar explosions? What is the heaviest possible chemical element?
Atomic, molecular and optical physics[edit]
 Abraham–Minkowski controversy: What is the momentum of light in optical
media? Which (Abraham's or Minkowski's) momentum is right?
 Bose–Einstein condensation: How do we rigorously prove the existence of Bose–
Einstein condensates for general interacting systems?[59]
Classical mechanics[edit]
 Singular trajectories in the Newtonian N-body problem: Does the set of initial
conditions for which particles that undergo near-collisions gain infinite speed in finite
time have measure zero? This is known to be the case when N ≤ 4, but the question
remains open for larger N.[60][61]
 The Navier–Stokes equation explains Fluid dynamics. Although this equation was
discovered in the 19th century, the existence of solutions and their proof are still not
well established.
 Turbulence: Is it possible to make a theoretical model to describe the statistics of
a turbulent flow (in particular, its internal structures)?[4] Also, under what conditions
do smooth solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations exist? The latter problem is also
listed as one of the Millennium Prize Problems in mathematics.
 Upstream contamination: When pouring water from a higher container to a lower
one, particles floating in the latter can climb upstream into the upper container. A
definitive explanation for this phenomenon is still lacking.
Condensed matter physics[edit]
A sample of a cuprate superconductor (specifically BSCCO). The mechanism for superconductivity
of these materials is unknown.

 High-temperature superconductors: What is the mechanism that causes certain

materials to exhibit superconductivity at temperatures much higher than around
25 kelvins? Is it possible to make a material that is a superconductor at room
temperature?[4]
 Amorphous solids: What is the nature of the glass transition between a fluid or
regular solid and a glassy phase? What are the physical processes giving rise to the
general properties of glasses and the glass transition? [62][63]
 Cryogenic electron emission: Why does the electron emission in the absence of
light increase as the temperature of a photomultiplier is decreased?[64][65]
 Sonoluminescence: What causes the emission of short bursts of light from
imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound? [66][67]
 Topological order: Is topological order stable at non-zero temperature?
Equivalently, is it possible to have three-dimensional self-correcting quantum
memory?[68]
 Fractional Hall effect: What mechanism explains the existence of the  state in the
fractional quantum Hall effect? Does it describe quasiparticles with non-Abelian
fractional statistics?[69]

Magnetoresistance in a  fractional quantum Hall state.

 Liquid crystals: Can the nematic to smectic (A) phase transition in liquid crystal

states be characterized as a universal phase transition?[70][71]
 Semiconductor nanocrystals: What is the cause of the nonparabolicity of the
energy-size dependence for the lowest optical absorption transition of quantum dots?
[72]

 Metal whiskering: In electrical devices, some metallic surfaces may

spontaneously grow fine metallic whiskers, which can lead to equipment failures.
While compressive mechanical stress is known to encourage whisker formation, the
growth mechanism has yet to be determined.
 Superfluid transition in helium-4: Explain the discrepancy between the
experimental[73] and theoretical[74][75][76] determinations of the heat capacity critical
exponent α.[77]
Plasma physics[edit]
 Plasma physics and fusion power: Fusion energy may potentially provide power
from abundant resource (e.g. hydrogen) without the type of radioactive waste that
fission energy currently produces. However, can ionized gases (plasma)
be confined long enough and at a high enough temperature to create fusion power?
What is the physical origin of H-mode?[78]
 The injection problem: Fermi acceleration is thought to be the primary
mechanism that accelerates astrophysical particles to high energy. However, it is
unclear what mechanism causes those particles to initially have energies high
enough for Fermi acceleration to work on them.[79]
 Solar wind interaction with comets: In 2007 the Ulysses spacecraft passed
through the tail of comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) and found surprising results
concerning the interaction of the solar wind with the tail.
 Alfvénic turbulence: In the solar wind and the turbulence in solar flares, coronal
mass ejections, and magnetospheric substorms are major unsolved problems in
space plasma physics.[80]
Biophysics[edit]
 Stochasticity and robustness to noise in gene expression: How do genes govern
our body, withstanding different external pressures and internal stochasticity? Certain
models exist for genetic processes, but we are far from understanding the whole
picture, in particular in development where gene expression must be tightly
regulated.
 Memory: How is long-term memory stored on a biological substrate undergoing
constant turnover?
 Quantitative study of the immune system: What are the quantitative properties
of immune responses? What are the basic building blocks of immune
system networks?
 Homochirality: What is the origin of the preponderance of
specific enantiomers in biochemical systems?
 Magnetoreception: How do animals (e.g. migratory birds) sense the Earth's
magnetic field?