Planetary motion: The idea that began a

science revolution
By NASA Earth Observatory, adapted by Newsela staff on 11.13.19
Word Count 636
Level 720L

Image 1. In this time-lapse photograph, the sun, Jupiter, crescent moon and Venus all seem to set near a lone tree on the horizon Dec. 1,
2008. The image shows the "ecliptic," the imaginary plane the moon, sun and planets follow through space in our solar system. Photo: Larry
Landolfi/Science Source

At night, the stars seem fixed in their patterns. They rotate through the sky. They appear
unchanging through the seasons. Most societies have used constellations, or groups of stars, to tell
time. The planets, however, are different. They glide across the sky slowly. They seem to move
without direction. Efforts to explain why the planets move as they do led to the modern
understanding of gravity, a pulling force that works across space. It also led to understanding of
motion.

Evolution Of An Idea

The early Greek philosophers disagreed about how the planets moved. One camp thought the
planets orbited the sun. Aristotle's ideas were most popular. He believed the planets and Sun
orbited Earth. He saw no sign that the Earth was in motion. No unending wind blew over the

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Earth. For Aristotle, this meant the Earth had to be motionless. Therefore the planets, sun and
stars rotated around the Earth.

For nearly 1,000 years, Aristotle's views were accepted. An Earth-centered view of the world
became ingrained in Christian thought.

In 1515, a Polish man of the church named Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that Earth was a planet.
He also proposed that all planets circle the sun. Copernicus did not publish his idea until 1543. It
gathered few followers. Some who did believe him faced punishment for rebellious beliefs. Italian
scientist Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake. This was partly because he taught Copernicus'
ideas.

Facts supporting a sun-centered planetary system slowly mounted. In 1610, Galileo saw moons
orbiting Jupiter through his telescope. If Aristotle were right about everything orbiting Earth,
these moons could not exist. Galileo also saw how Venus changed appearance like the moon. This
proved that Venus orbits the sun. Galileo was tried for rebellious beliefs. He was placed under
house arrest for life.

About the same time, German mathematician Johannes Kepler was publishing a series of laws.
They defined the planets' orbits around the sun. These mathematical equations correctly foretold
how the planets moved. In 1687, Isaac Newton gave the final blow to the Aristotelian view of the
universe. Building on Kepler's laws, Newton explained why the planets moved as they did. He
named the force that kept them in check gravity.

Kepler's Laws Of Planetary Motion

Copernicus noted that the planets move around the sun. Kepler defined their orbits. At 27, he
began helping a rich astronomer, someone who studies stars. This astronomer had collected a
lifetime of notes. Kepler used this information. He found that planetary orbits followed three laws.

Like many philosophers of his time, Kepler believed

the circle was the universe's perfect shape. Therefore,
he believed the planets' orbits must be circle-shaped.
The astronomer had notes on the motions of the
planet Mars. Kepler struggled to make these notes
match a circle-shaped orbit.

Finally, Kepler noticed something. An imaginary line

drawn from a planet to the sun swept out equal areas
of space in equal amounts of time. You could draw a
three-sided shape from the sun to a planet's position at one point in time and its position at a fixed
time later. The shape's area was always the same. That meant the planet must move faster when
near the sun.

This discovery became Kepler's second law of orbital motion. It led to Kepler's first law, that the
planets move in an ellipse, or a squashed circle.

Kepler's third law shows that there is a mathematical relationship between a planet's distance
from the sun and the amount of time it takes to orbit the sun. This law helped Newton. Newton
came up with three laws of his own. These laws explain why the planets move as they do.

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Quiz

1 Read the following paragraph from the section "Evolution Of An Idea."

About the same time, German mathematician Johannes Kepler was publishing a series of laws.
They defined the planets' orbits around the sun. These mathematical equations correctly foretold
how the planets moved. In 1687, Isaac Newton gave the final blow to the Aristotelian view of the
Universe. Building on Kepler's laws, Newton explained why the planets moved as they did. He
named the force that kept them in check gravity.

What does the author mean by "the final blow to the Aristotelian view"?

(A) Newton was the first scientist to disagree with Aristotle.

(B) Newton would physically hit anyone who questioned his ideas.

(C) Discoveries by Newton and others helped people see after many years that Aristotle was wrong.

(D) Discoveries by Newton were the last ones that any scientist made about planets and how they move.

2 The author of the article said, "An Earth-centered view of the world became ingrained in Christian thought."

Which answer choice explains what the author meant?

(A) Many early Christians developed a strong belief over many years that Earth was the center of the
universe.

(B) Many early Christians developed a strong belief about the world that would be difficult to change.

(C) Many early Christians held strong religious beliefs about what could be found at the center of the Earth.

(D) Many early Christians held strong religious beliefs about how other Christians were allowed to think.

3 Which selection from the article helps the reader to understand that it once was dangerous for people to believe that planets
circle the sun?

(A) Most societies have used constellations, or groups of stars, to tell time. The planets, however, are
different.

(B) The early Greek philosophers disagreed about how the planets moved. One camp thought the planets
orbited the sun.

(C) Italian scientist Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake. This was partly because he taught Copernicus'
ideas.

(D) About the same time, German mathematician Johannes Kepler was publishing a series of laws. They
defined the planets' orbits around the sun.

4 Read the section "Kepler's Laws Of Planetary Motion."

Which selection explains how gravity creates a planet's orbit around the sun?

(A) This astronomer had collected a lifetime of notes. Kepler used this information. He found that planetary
orbits followed three laws.

(B) Like many philosophers of his time, Kepler believed the circle was the universe's perfect shape.
Therefore, he believed the planets' orbits must be circle-shaped.

(C) The astronomer had notes on the motions of the planet Mars. Kepler struggled to make these notes
match a circle-shaped orbit.

(D) Kepler's third law shows that there is a mathematical relationship between a planet's distance from the
sun and the amount of time it takes to orbit the sun.

This article is available at 5 reading levels at https://newsela.com.

Answer Key

1 Read the following paragraph from the section "Evolution Of An Idea."

About the same time, German mathematician Johannes Kepler was publishing a series of laws.
They defined the planets' orbits around the sun. These mathematical equations correctly foretold
how the planets moved. In 1687, Isaac Newton gave the final blow to the Aristotelian view of the
Universe. Building on Kepler's laws, Newton explained why the planets moved as they did. He
named the force that kept them in check gravity.

What does the author mean by "the final blow to the Aristotelian view"?

(A) Newton was the first scientist to disagree with Aristotle.

(B) Newton would physically hit anyone who questioned his ideas.

(C) Discoveries by Newton and others helped people see after many years that Aristotle was wrong.

(D) Discoveries by Newton were the last ones that any scientist made about planets and how they move.

2 The author of the article said, "An Earth-centered view of the world became ingrained in Christian thought."

Which answer choice explains what the author meant?

(A) Many early Christians developed a strong belief over many years that Earth was the center of the
universe.

(B) Many early Christians developed a strong belief about the world that would be difficult to change.

(C) Many early Christians held strong religious beliefs about what could be found at the center of the Earth.

(D) Many early Christians held strong religious beliefs about how other Christians were allowed to think.

3 Which selection from the article helps the reader to understand that it once was dangerous for people to believe that planets
circle the sun?

(A) Most societies have used constellations, or groups of stars, to tell time. The planets, however, are
different.

(B) The early Greek philosophers disagreed about how the planets moved. One camp thought the planets
orbited the sun.

(C) Italian scientist Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake. This was partly because he taught
Copernicus' ideas.

(D) About the same time, German mathematician Johannes Kepler was publishing a series of laws. They
defined the planets' orbits around the sun.

4 Read the section "Kepler's Laws Of Planetary Motion."

Which selection explains how gravity creates a planet's orbit around the sun?

(A) This astronomer had collected a lifetime of notes. Kepler used this information. He found that planetary
orbits followed three laws.

(B) Like many philosophers of his time, Kepler believed the circle was the universe's perfect shape.
Therefore, he believed the planets' orbits must be circle-shaped.

(C) The astronomer had notes on the motions of the planet Mars. Kepler struggled to make these notes
match a circle-shaped orbit.

(D) Kepler's third law shows that there is a mathematical relationship between a planet's distance
from the sun and the amount of time it takes to orbit the sun.

This article is available at 5 reading levels at https://newsela.com.