FalseworkManual PDF

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_FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER REVISION NO. 39
Change Letter – Revision No. 39

June 29, 2016
Attached are revisions to the Falsework Manual. These changes can also be found on the
SC Intranet site under the link, Technical Manuals @
http://des.onramp.dot.ca.gov/structure-construction/structure-construction-technical-
manuals
Revisions
SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

Manual Cover 08/2013 Manual Cover 06/2016
Revision 38 Revision 39
Table of Contents 08/2013 Table of Contents 06/2016
Appendix C Index 08/2013 Appendix C Index 06/2016
Chapter 3 Table of Contents 06/2016
Chapter 3 Design 11/1994 Chapter 3 Design 06/2016
Considerations Considerations
Appendix C: C-Clamps 03/29/ Chapter 3: 06/2016
Falsework 1989 Section 3.04 B Restrictions for Use
Memo C-5 Section 3.04 C C-Clamps Criteria
Appendix C: Cap Beam Center 07/2001 Chapter 3: 06/2016
Falsework Loading Strips Section 3-3.02 Cap Beam Center
Memo C-11 Loading Strips
Appendix C: Longer T-Beam 12/2011 Chapter 3: 06/2016
Falsework Falsework Sapn Section 3- T-Beam Girder
Memo C19 3.03B
Background
The following is an explanation for each manual revision or addition.
1. Revisions to Chapter 3, Design Considerations include:

• Revised text and formatted to add clarity.
• Added references to the Standard Specifications.
• Added seven figures:
i. Figure 3-3: Examples of All Other Falsework and Heavy Duty
Metal Shoring.
ii. Figure 3-11: Limit of Sleeper on the Falsework Beam.
iii. Figure 3-12: Camber Strip/Sleeper Requirements.
iv. Figure 3-13: Innovative Falsework.
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER

FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER REVISION NO. 39
v. Figure 3-15 (a): C-Clamp with Angle Iron Clamped to Stringer

Details.
vi. Figure 3-15 (b): Approved Non-Commercial C-Clamp Details.
vii. Figure 3-17: Steel Girder Falsework Details.
• Modified Figure 3-16: Sloping Exterior Girder Brace Instability by adding
3-16 (b) After Deck Pour.
• Moved Figure 3-14, Center Loading Strip Details, from Falsework Memo
C-11, Cap Beam Center Loading Strips.
• Moved information from Appendix C, Falsework Memo C-11, Cap Beam
Center Loading Strips, to Section 3-3.02, Cap Beam Center Loading
Strips.
• Expanded discussion in Section 3-3.03, Construction Sequence, regarding
the use of a longer falsework span for T-beam structures than allowed by
the Standard Specifications.
• Added Section 3-3.04 B, C-Clamps Restrictions for Use.
• Added Section 3-3.04C, C-Clamps Criteria.
2. The content of Appendix C, Falsework Memo C-5, C-Clamps was moved to:
• Section 3-3.04B, Restrictions for Use.
• Section 3-3.04C, C-Clamps Criteria.
3. The content for Appendix C, Falsework Memo C-11, Cap Beam Center Loading
Strips was moved to Section 3-3.02, Cap Beam Center Loading Strips.
4. The content of Appendix C, Falsework Memo C-19, Longer T-Beam Falsework
Span was moved to Section 3-3.03B, T-Beam Girder.
STEVE ALTMAN
Deputy Division Chief
Division of Engineering Services
Structure Construction
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER ● PAGE 2 OF 2


August 30, 2013
Structure Construction (SC) Intranet site under Technical Manuals:
http://onramp.dot.ca.gov/hq/oscnet/sc_manuals/
Revisions

MANUAL COVER 08/2012 MANUAL COVER 08/2013
REVISION 37 REVISION 38
TABLE OF 08/2012 TABLE OF 08/2013
CONTENTS CONTENTS
APPENDIX C INDEX 02/2012 APPENDIX C INDEX 08/2013
APPENDIX C FALSEWORK 02/2012 APPENDIX C FALSEWORK 08/2013
MEMO C-18 MEMO C-18
Background
To follow is an explanation for each manual revision or addition.
Revisions to the Falsework Memo C-18, Pre-Authorized Wood Sand Jack and Proof
Testing Guidelines, include:
1. Removed the requirement, that wood sand jacks shall be lined and covered with
four (4) mil plastic, to protect sand from curing water and rain.
2. Increased the vertical displacement to 1″ from 3/4″.
3. Increased the allowable load to 68 kips from 55 kips.
4. Background information is added.
5. The term approved is replaced with authorized per the 2010 Standard
Specifications
ROBERT A. STOTT
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER PAGE 1 OF 1


August 31, 2012
SC Intranet site under “Technical Manuals”:
http://onramp.dot.ca.gov/hq/oscnet/sc_manuals/
Revisions

CONTENTS CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8 TRAFFIC 01/1988 CHAPTER 8 TRAFFIC 08/2012
OPENINGS OPENINGS
Background
1. Revisions to the Chapter 8 Traffic Openings include:

 Figure 8-0 is added to illustrate when a falsework post is considered to be
adjacent to roadways or railroads.
 Figure 8-1 is revised to clarify the requirement for clearance behind the K-Rail
when K-Rail is pinned or not pinned.
 Format and spelling corrections.
 Changes to reflect revisions in the 2010 Standard Specifications, as follows:
 It is acceptable to substitute coil rod for falsework adjacent to traffic.
 Approval received from Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) for substituting coil
rod for bolts for falsework adjacent to the railroad.
 Collision posts are no longer used for the falsework adjacent to the railroad;
therefore, it is deleted.
 Information is added regarding the Right-of-Entry Agreement and Service
Contract to avoid delay if these are not fully executed.
 Vertical clearance at traffic opening commentary is added.
ROBERT A. STOTT, Deputy Division Chief

Division of Engineering Services,
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER PAGE 1 OF 1

CHANGE LETTER FALSEWORK MANUAL – Revision No. 36
February 17, 2012

Page 1 of 1
Attached are revisions to the Falsework Manual. Please make the following changes in your
manual:

CONTENTS CONTENTS
APPENDIX C: FALSEWORK 07/2010 APPENDIX C: FALSEWORK 02/2012
MEMO C-1 REMINDER LIST MEMO C-1 REMINDER LIST
1. Revisions to Memo C-1, “Falsework Reminder List” include:

 The checklist (Section VI.A.3.) is corrected to state that a sign is required for vertical
clearance 15.5 feet or less, instead of 15 feet. This matches the Caltrans Construction
Manual.
 Corrections to format.
 Provides more specific references to enable reader to find referenced document.
 Provides references to the 2006 and 2010 Standard Specifications and Special
Provisions.

Offices of Structure Construction
December 12, 2011

Page 1 of 1
manual:

CONTENTS CONTENTS
APPENDIX C: LONGER T-BEAM 12/2011
MEMO C-19 FALSEWORK SPAN
APPENDIX D: CLEARANCES AT 12/2011
EXAMPLE D- FALSEWORK
18 OPENINGS
To follow is an explanation for each manual revision or addition:
1. Memo C-19, “Longer T-Beam Falsework Span”, is a new memo which provides a means
for the contractor to request using longer spans than currently allowed by the Standard
Specifications. This is not a frequent occurrence. If that is the case, the contractor’s request
may be implemented if approved by Contract Change Order.
2. Example 18 “Clearances at Falsework Openings”, is a new example which provides broad

guidelines to calculate clearances at falsework openings.

FALSEWORK MANUAL
July 27, 2010
manual:

CONTENTS CONTENTS
FALSEWORK FALSEWORK 06/95 FALSEWORK FALSEWORK 07/10
MEMO NO. 1 REMINDER LIST MEMO NO. 1 REMINDER LIST
Revisions to the Falsework Memo No. 1 “Falsework Reminder List” include:

Various revisions to reflect current information and clarification added for some items,
e.g., include web links, no erection of falsework except for pad and pile foundation
work.
A new attachment, Attachment A, “Basic Falsework Erection Plan Check List”, and
A new attachment, Attachment B, “Basic Falsework Removal Plan Check List”.
The previous revision to the Falsework Manual, “Change Letter Falsework Manual 10-01” is
renamed to be “Change Letter Falsework Manual – Revision No. 33. This is consistent with the
revision nomenclature for the Falsework Manual revisions.
The Manual Cover for Revision No. 33 was not sent with the last manual revision, thus Manual
Cover Revision 34 replaces Manual Cover Revision 32.
The Table of Contents for Revision No. 33 was not sent with the last manual revision, this Table
of Contents is updated to reflect changes for Revision No. 33 and Revision No. 34.

CHANGE LETTER FALSEWORK MANUAL - Revision No. 33
FALSEWORK MANUAL
July 6, 2010
manual:

CHAPTER 9 INSPECTION 06/95 CHAPTER 9 INSPECTION 07/10
FALSEWOR PRE-APPROVED WOOD 07/10

K MEMO SAND JACK AN D PROOF
NO. 18
TESTING GUIDELINES
Section 9-1.03C “Sand Jacks” of Chapter 9 “Inspection” is revised to expand information

provided for the inspection of sand jacks.
Falsework Memo No. 18 “Pre-Approved Wood Sand Jack and Testing Guidelines” is a new
falsework memo and provides:
Details for the pre-approved wood sand jack,
A discussion of the test results supporting the pre-approved wood sand jack, and
Guidelines for proof testing wood sand jacks designed by the contractor that deviate
from the pre-approved wood sand jack.

State of California Business, Transportation and Housing Agency
Memorandum
To: ALL FALSEWORK MANUAL HOLDERS Date: November 2, 2001
File: Falsework Manual

From: DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
DIVISION OF ENGINEERING SERVICES
OFFICES OF STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
Subject: Falsework Manual Revision No. 32
Attached are revisions to Chapter 5 and two falsework memorandums for

inclusion into your falsework manual.
The revisions entail changes to Chapter 5, “Falsework Stability”, by

replacing Section 5-1.07, “Double Cap Systems” with Section 5-1.07,
“Multiple & Built up Cap Systems”. This revision limits the height to width
ratio to 2:1 of sill and cap beam assemblies in both directions (transverse
and longitudinal), thus enhancing stability.
Falsework Memo 10, “Falsework Welding”, provides guidelines for

classification and certification of falsework welded members.
Falsework Memo 11, “Cap Beam Center Loading Strips”, increases the
allowable compressive stress for timber strips/shims from 450 psi (3.1 MPa)
to 900 psi (6.2MPa).
Please remove and recycle pages 5-13 through 5-14 and the “Index to
Appendix C – Falsework Memos" dated 09/99.
Please insert the attached revised table of contents and Chapter 5 pages (5-
13 through 5-16 Rev. 07/01), Index to Appendix C – Falsework Memos (Rev.
07/01), Falsework Memo 10 (Rev. 07/01), Falsework Memo 11 (Rev. 07/01),
and the title sheet for Revision 32 (07/01).
DOLORES M. VALLS
Attachments
(This page left intentionally blank.)
State of California
Department of Transportation
Falsework
Manual
Issued by
January 1988
Revision 39
June 2016
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1- 1.01 Purpose and Scope............................................................................................. 1-1

.02 Statement of Department Policy ...................................................................... 1-1
.03 Policy and Procedural Changes ........................................................................ 1-2
.04 Specification Reference ..................................................................................... 1-3
.05 Definitions ........................................................................................................ 1-3
.06 System Types ..................................................................................................... 1-4
.07 Contractual Relationships ................................................................................ 1-5
.08 Cal-OSHA Falsework Requirements ............................................................... 1-6
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW AND APPROVAL OF

FALSEWORK DRAWINGS
2- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 2-1

.02 General Information ......................................................................................... 2-1
.03 Design Calculations .......................................................................................... 2-2
.04 Initial Review .................................................................................................... 2-3
.05 Determining Review Durations........................................................................ 2-5
.06 Falsework Drawing Approval ........................................................................... 2-8
.07 Cal-OSHA Requirements .................................................................................. 2-11
.08 Design Revisions to Approved Drawings ......................................................... 2-11
.09 Chronological Record of Falsework Review..................................................... 2-12
CHAPTER 3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
3-1 Loads ..................................................................................................................

.01 Dead Loads ........................................................................................................ 3-1
.02 Live Loads .......................................................................................................... 3-1
.03 Minimum Total Vertical Design Load ............................................................. 3-2
.04 Loaded Zone for Deck Overhangs .................................................................... 3-3
.05 Vertical Design Load at Traffic Openings ....................................................... 3-4
.06 Horizontal Loads ............................................................................................... 3-5
A. Wind Loads ........................................................................................... 3-5
B. Calculation of Wind Loads on Heavy-Duty Steel Shoring ................. 3-7
C. Calculation of Wind Load on Pipe Column Falsework ...................... 3-11
D. Calculation of Wind Loads by Wind-Impact-Area Method ................ 3-12
E. Effect of Shielding on Wind Impact Area ............................................ 3-13
3-2 Deflection and Camber ..................................................................................... 3-15
.01 Beam Deflection ................................................................................................ 3-15
A.Negative Deflection ................................................................................ 3-16
.02 Camber ............................................................................................................... 3-17
A.Camber Strips ........................................................................................ 3-18
.03 Horizontal Deflection ........................................................................................ 3-19
3-3 Miscellaneous Considerations .......................................................................... 3-20
.01 Beam Continuity ............................................................................................... 3-20
.02 Cap Beam Center Loading Strips .................................................................... 3-21
.03 Construction Sequence ..................................................................................... 3-22
.04 Friction ............................................................................................................... 3-23
.05 Prestressing Forces ........................................................................................... 3-25
.06 Long –Term Superstructure Deflection ........................................................... 3-25
CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL i 06/16

TABLE OF CONTENTS
.07 Falsework at Deck Overhangs .......................................................................... 3-26

.08 Concrete Decks on Steel Girders ...................................................................... 3-27
CHAPTER 4. STRESS ANALYSIS
4-1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 4-1

.01 Policy Statement........................................................................................... 4-1
.02 General Design Assumptions....................................................................... 4-1
4-2 Timber Members .......................................................................................... 4-2
.01 Member Size.................................................................................................. 4-2
.02 Allowable Stresses and Load Duration ....................................................... 4-2
.03 Timber Beams ............................................................................................... 4-2
.04 Timber Posts ................................................................................................. 4-10
4-3 Timber Fasteners ......................................................................................... 4-12
.01 Introduction .................................................................................................. 4-12
.02 Connector Design Values ............................................................................. 4-12
.03 Nails and Spikes ........................................................................................... 4-12
.04 Bolted Connections ....................................................................................... 4-15
.05 Lag Screw Connections ................................................................................ 4-19
.06 Drift Pin and Drift Bolt Connections .......................................................... 4-20
.07 Adjustment for Duration of Load ................................................................ 4-22
4-4 Steel Members .............................................................................................. 4-23
.01 Allowable Stresses ........................................................................................ 4-23
.02 Bending Stresses .......................................................................................... 4-24
.03 Bi-Axial Bending .......................................................................................... 4-24
.04 Flange Buckling ............................................................................................ 4-27
.05 Beam Shear ................................................................................................... 4-29
.06 Web Crippling ............................................................................................... 4-30
.07 Steel Posts and Columns .............................................................................. 4-30
.08 Steel Bracing ................................................................................................. 4-31
.09 Miscellaneous Steel Components ................................................................ 4-31
4-5 Cable Bracing Systems ................................................................................ 4-32
.01 Introduction .................................................................................................. 4-32
.02 Required Information for all Cable Systems .............................................. 4-32
.03 Manufacturer's Technical Data ................................................................... 4-33
.04 Cable Connector Design ............................................................................... 4-35
.05 Cable Elongation .......................................................................................... 4-35
.06 Review Criteria for External Cable Bracing Systems ............................... 4-35
.07 Review Criteria for Internal Cable Bracing Systems ................................ 4-38
.08 Cable Load Tests .......................................................................................... 4-49
.09 Cable Anchor Systems .................................................................................. 4-49
.10 Splicing Cable ............................................................................................... 4-50
4-6 Manufactured Assemblies ........................................................................... 4-51
.01 General Information ..................................................................................... 4-51
.02 Load Tests ..................................................................................................... 4-52
.03 Beam Hangers .............................................................................................. 4-52
.04 Deck Overhang Brackets ............................................................................. 4-53
.05 Steel Joist Assemblies .................................................................................. 4-53
CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL ii 06/16

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5. FALSEWORK STABILITY
5- 1.01 Introduction .................................................................................................. 5-1

.02 Internal Stability .......................................................................................... 5-3
.03 Diagonal Bracing .......................................................................................... 5-3
.04 Longitudinal Stability .................................................................................. 5-9
.05 Overturning .................................................................................................. 5-10
.06 Pony Bent Systems....................................................................................... 5-13
.07 Multiple & Built up Cap Systems .................................................................... 5-13
.08 Combining Stresses ........................................................................................... 5-16
CHAPTER 6. STEEL SHORING SYSTEMS
6- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 6-1

.02 Safe Working Loads .......................................................................................... 6-1
.03 Pipe-Frame Shoring Systems ........................................................................... 6-2
.04 Intermediate Strength Shoring ........................................................................ 6-6
.05 Heavy-Duty Shoring Systems .......................................................................... 6-8
CHAPTER 7. FALSEWORK FOUNDATIONS
7-1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 7-1

7-2 Timber Pads ....................................................................................................... 7-1
.01 General ............................................................................................................... 7-1
.02 Definitions ......................................................................................................... 7-3
.03 Analysis of Continuous Pad Systems ............................................................... 7-3
.04 Analysis of Individual Falsework Pads ........................................................... 7-16
.05 Joints and Joint Location in Continuous Pads ............................................... 7-18
.06 Corbels ............................................................................................................... 7-20
7-3 Pile Foundations................................................................................................ 7-23
.01 General .............................................................................................................. 7-23
.02 Capacity of Timber Piles in Pile Bents ............................................................ 7-23
.03 Analysis of Timber Pile Bents .......................................................................... 7-29
.04 Field Evaluation of Pile Capacity .................................................................... 7-43
.05 Capacity of Steel Piles and Steel Pile Bents ................................................... 7-52
CHAPTER 8. TRAFFIC OPENINGS
8- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 8-1

.02 Horizontal and Vertical Clearances ................................................................. 8-1
.03 Requirements at Traffic Openings ................................................................... 8-4
.04 Additional Requirements at Railroad Openings ............................................. 8-8
CHAPTER 9. INSPECTION
9- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 9-1

.02 Falsework Erection and Removal Plans .......................................................... 9-1
.03 Foundation Pads and Piles ............................................................................... 9-1
.04 Timber Construction ......................................................................................... 9-6
.05 Structural Steel ................................................................................................. 9-10
.06 Manufactured Assemblies ................................................................................ 9-10
CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL iii 06/16

TABLE OF CONTENTS
.07 Metal Shoring Systems ..................................................................................... 9-11

.08 Miscellaneous Field Welding ............................................................................ 9-13
.09 Powder Driven Nail Anchorages ...................................................................... 9-13
.10 Cable Bracing Systems ..................................................................................... 9-14
.11 Traffic Openings ................................................................................................ 9-16
.12 Field Changes .................................................................................................... 9-18
.13 Cal-OSHA Requirements .................................................................................. 9-19
.14 Inspection During Concrete Placement ........................................................... 9-20
.15 Inspection After Concrete Placement .............................................................. 9-21
.16 Falsework Removal ........................................................................................... 9-22
INDEX
APPENDIX
A. Wood Characteristics ............................................................................................

B. Soil Load Tests ......................................................................................................
C. Falsework Memos ..................................................................................................
D. Example Problems.................................................................................................
E. Timber Fasteners ..................................................................................................
CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL iv 06/16

CALIFORNIA
FALSEWORK MANUAL
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1-1.01 Purpose and Scope

The California Falsework Manual has been issued by the Depart-
ment of Transportation's Division of Structures to-fill a long-
recognized need for a comprehensive design and construction
manual devoted exclusively to bridge falsework. Its intended
purpose is to provide administrative and technical direction to
the Division's field engineers who are in responsible charge of
bridge construction on State highway projects. While emphasis
is placed on contract administration, it is important to note
that materials, design considerations, stress analysis, review
criteria, construction and construction inspection are covered
as well.
Proper use of the California Falsework Manual requires a
thorough understanding of the principles of civil engineering
design, and familiarity with the falsework specifications as
well.
1-1.02 Statement of Department Policy
The California Falsework Manual sets forth Department of Trans-
portation policy for administration of specifications governing
the design and construction of falsework for structures on
State highway projects. The manual also includes guidelines,
instructions and procedures which are to be followed on all
projects to ensure uniform and impartial contract administra-
tion. Project personnel who are responsible for review and
approval of falsework drawings and/or inspection of falsework
construction are expected to become thoroughly familiar -with
the contents of this manual.
When referring to the California Falsework Manual, field
personnel should keep in mind that it is not, and it is not
intended to be, a contract document. Should there be any
conflict between the manual and any contract provision, the
contract provision must be followed. This is not to say,
however, that the manual has no contractual significance. On
the contrary, Section 4-1.01 of the Standard Specifications
provides that in the absence of specific direction or complete
detail, "... only the best general practice is to prevail...".
Contractually, then, with respect to design and construction of
bridge falsework, the California Falsework Manual represents
the Department's opinion as to what constitutes "best general
practice" within the meaning of this term as it is used in the
Standard Specifications.
Analytical procedure and review criteria used by the Division
of Structures to evaluate the adequacy of falsework designs, as
set forth in this manual, are based on more than two decades of
1-1 Revised 02/95

CALIFORNIA FALSEWORK MANUAL
continuing study by the Division's engineering staff of the

behavior of individual components of the falsework system, and
of the behavior of the system as a whole, as the design loads
are applied. These studies, which covered a wide range of
typical load combinations, led to the development of simplified
methods which may be used to evaluate the adequacy of complex
falsework configurations. Where appropriate, the Division has
adopted a simplified approach to standardize and facilitate the
review process.
For elements of the falsework system that are mathematically
indeterminate, the Division's simplified methods and procedures
provide reasonably close correlation when compared to results
obtained by conventional, rigorous analysis; consequently, they
will be applicable to the type of falsework encountered on
typical bridge projects in California. Occasionally, however,
a situation will arise where analysis using a simplified
approach may be inappropriate. In such situations, the design
review should include a rigorous analysis to ensure stability
of the falsework system. (A falsework system composed of
custom-built, multi-tiered structural steel frames or towers
is an example of a design where a rigorous analysis would be
warranted.) The bridge engineer responsible for review of the
falsework design will be expected to recognize such situations
and to consult with the Office of Structure Construction head-
quarters office for the procedure to be followed.
If the contractor's design of an indeterminate element of the
falsework system is based on a rigorous analysis as shown by
the design calculations, and if the contractor so requests in
writing, system adequacy will be evaluated by the Division's
STRUDL program, or by a similar rigorous method of frame
analysis.
l-1.03 Policy and Procedural Changes
Information and instructions in the California Falsework Manual
are current as of the date of publication. It is expected,
however, that changes in policy guidelines and/or procedural
direction will from time to time occur. Such changes will be
implemented by issuing dated revisions to the manual text.
Revisions will be accompanied by instruction or explanation
when appropriate.
To expedite implementation, changes may be effected on an
interim basis by issuing Falsework Memos, which will then
supersede conflicting instructions in the manual text. False-
work Memos are to be filed in Appendix C until manual revisions
are issued. To ensure that current policy is readily apparent,
interim changes should be noted in the text by an appropriate
marginal reference.
1-2 Revised 02/95

INTRODUCTION
l-l.04 Specification Reference

Whenever the term "Standard Specifications", specifications"
or "falsework specifications" appears in this manual, the term
is used in reference to the current edition of the Standard
Specifications issued by the California Department of Trans-
portation.
l-l.05 Definitions
Falsework may be defined in general terms as a temporary frame-
work on which a main or permanent work is supported during its
construction.
Although temporary supports are occasionally required during
the construction of steel structures, the unqualified term
"falsework" is universally associated with the construction
of cast-in-place concrete structures, particularly bridge
structures. In this type of construction, falsework provides a
stable platform upon which the forms may be built, and furnishes
support for the bridge superstructure until the members being
constructed have attained sufficient strength to support them-
selves. 1
As commonly used in the construction industry, the term "false-
work" refers to the temporary supporting system between the
ground and the bridge soffit. Temporary features of construc-
tion above the soffit are generally considered to be forms
rather than falsework. However, the Standard Specifications
provide that the support systems for form panels supporting
deck slabs and overhangs on girder bridges will be considered
to be falsework members and designed as such. Accordingly, on
State highway projects all load carrying members, regardless of
their location within the supporting system, must meet the
design criteria included in the falsework specifications. 2
1
As a point of interest, note that while falsework is used
in conjunction with both bridge and building construction, the
temporary supports used in building work are commonly referred
to as "shores" and the support system as "shoring".
2
When considering the purpose of the temporary features
of construction above the bridge soffit, it is important to
recognize the distinction between "formwork" and "falsework" as
these terms are used in the construction industry. Forms,
which are used to retain plastic concrete in its desired shape
until it has hardened, are designed to resist the fluid pres-
sure of plastic concrete, plus the additional equivalent fluid
pressure generated by vibration. Forms, because they do not
carry the dead load of the concrete, may be removed as soon as
1-3 Revised 02/95

1-1.06 System Types

Typically, bridge falsework may be divided into two general
types, briefly described as follows:
(1) Conventional systems in which the various components
(beams, posts, caps, bracing, etc,) are each erected
individually to form the completed system.
(2) Proprietary shoring systems in which metal components
are assembled into modular units that may be stacked,
one above the other, to form a series of towers which
comprise the vertical load-carrying members of the
system.
l-1.06A Conventional Systems
A typical conventional falsework system will consist of timber
posts and caps, timber diagonal bracing, either timber beams or
steel stringers, and timber joists. Foundation support is
usually provided by timber pads set on the surface of the ground,
although poor soil conditions may dictate the use of concrete
footings or driven piles to ensure an adequate foundation.
Steel frame bents are sometimes used to carry the heavier loads
associated with falsework bents adjacent to traffic openings or
other locations where relatively long falsework spans are used.
Steel bents are usually supported by concrete footings, or by
steel sill beams which distribute the loads to heavy timber
pads or cribbing.
Of comparatively recent development is pipe column falsework
in which the vertical components consist of Welded steel pipe.
Typically, pipe diameters range from 12 to 18 inches, or more,
depending on the load to be carried. The pipe columns are
framed with steel caps at the top and bottom, and internally
braced with small diameter steel rods or reinforcing steel
bars. All frame connections are welded.
the concrete hardens. Falsework members do carry the dead load

of the concrete, and therefore they must remain in place until
the concrete becomes self-supporting.
Plywood panels on the underside of a concrete slab serve
both as a form and as a falsework member. For design, however,
such panels are considered to be forms because they must meet
the requirements in Section 51-l.O5, Forms, of the Standard
Specifications.
l-4 Revised 02/95

INTRODUCTION
1-1.06B Proprietary Shoring Systems

A11 proprietary shoring systems consist of metal components
that may be assembled into modular units and erected in place.
When erected, the shoring consists of a series of internally
braced towers which support the main horizontal load-carrying
members and carry the vertical loads to the ground.
Depending on capacity, the various shoring systems marketed
commercially may be described as pipe-frame shoring, heavy duty
shoring, or intermediate strength shoring. Pipe-frame shoring
systems have a rated capacity of 11,000 lbs per leg, or less
for some systems, whereas a properly designed and constructed
heavy duty shoring system will be capable of carrying up to
100,000 lbs per tower leg. Intermediate strength shoring has a
capacity of up to 25,000 lbs per tower leg.
Typically, timber caps and stringers will be used with pipe-
frame and intermediate strength systems, and foundation support
will be provided by timber pads. The higher capacity of the
heavy duty systems will permit longer falsework spans, so that
rolled beams or welded plate girders are normally used for the
main horizontal load carrying members. In most cases, the
larger loads associated with heavy duty shoring will require
reinforced concrete footings or pile foundations to ensure
adequate support.
1-l.07 Contractual Relationships
In accordance with contract requirements, the contractor is
responsible for the design and construction of bridge false-
work. Specifically, the Standard Specifications include the
following provisions:
From Section 5-1.02, Plans and Working Drawings:
"Working drawings for...falseworke...shall be submitted
when required by the specifications or ordered by the
Engineer. Such working drawings shall be subject to
approval insofar as the details affect the character
of the finished work and for compliance with design
requirements..., but details of design will be left
to the Contractor who shall be responsible for the
successful completion of the work."
From Section 51-1.06, Falsework:
"The Contractor shall be responsible for designing
and constructing safe and adequate falsework which
provides the necessary rigidity, supports the loads
imposed, and produces in the finished structure the
lines and grades shown on the plans,"
1-5 Revised 02/95

Since the contractor is responsible for falsework design and

construction, he determines the type of falsework to be used
and the construction and removal methods to be employed,
subject only to compliance with the design criteria and the
conditions of use found in the specifications. It is the
engineer's responsibility, however, to ensure by his review
that the falsework design meets all contract requirements.
From the foregoing, it is evident that the basic relationship
between the contractor and the engineer with respect to false-
work is the same as the relationship in other aspects of
contract work, with one significant difference. The engineer,
when satisfied that all contract requirements have been met,
must approve the contractor% design and construction details
as shown on working drawings that have been prepared and
submitted specifically for review and approval by the engineer
pursuant to applicable contract provisions.
Under Department of Transportation policy, review and approval
of the contractor's falsework design is a Division of Structures
responsibility. This responsibility is delegated to the Office
of Structure Construction's structure representative at the
project site. It is the structure representative, therefore,
who must determine whether the proposed falsework design, as
shown on the falsework drawings, meets contract requirements.
When reviewing falsework drawings, keep in mind that approval
of the drawings constitutes acceptance by the State of the
falsework design and such construction details as may be shown
on the drawings, and an acknowledgment that the design does in
fact meet contract requirements.
Responsibility for review and approval of falsework drawings is
not a matter to be taken lightly. Falsework drawings shall not
be approved until, and unless, the structure representative is
satisfied that the proposed falsework design complies in all
respects with all applicable contract requirements.
1-1.08 Cal-OSHA Falsework Requirements
The Construction Safety Orders issued by the California Depart-
ment of Occupational Safety and Health (Cal-OSHA) include
various provisions which apply to the design and construction
of falsework or vertical shoring, including falsework or
shoring for structures being constructed on State highway
projects.
Applicable Construction Safety Orders, and the engineer's
responsibility with respect to those orders as they affect
approval of falsework drawings and falsework inspection, is
discussed in Chapters 2 and 9, respectively.
1-6 Revised 02/95

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS
2-1.01 Introduction
This chapter covers Division of Structures policy with respect
to the falsework drawing review process. Subsequent chapters
cover specific review guidelines, procedures and explanations
where necessary to ensure uniform and impartial contract
administration.
As noted in Chapter 1, review and approval of the contractor's
falsework design is delegated to the Office of Structure
Construction's structure representative in responsible charge
of structure work at the project site. And while the actual
design check may be performed by any qualified member of his
staff, the structure representative is expected to give his
personal attention to the review while it is in progress and to
give his concurrence before the drawings are approved.
2-l.02 General Information
The contract requirement for submission of falsework drawings.
should be discussed at the preconstruction conference, with
emphasis on the need for a complete submittal before the review
period begins. (See Section 2-1.04 for information that must be
shown in a "complete" submittal.) The contractor should be
reminded that, except for foundation pads and piles, falsework
construction may not begin until the drawings are approved.
When a manufactured product or assembly will be used, the
specifications require the contractor to furnish catalog data
or other descriptive literature showing the manufacturer's
recommended safe load-carrying capacity, conditions of use, and
other information affecting the ability of the particular
product or device to carry the design load. However, such
supplemental design information must be furnished only if it is
requested by the engineer. To avoid delaying the review while
waiting for supplemental information, the contractor should be
informed promptly in any case where required technical data is
not furnished when the drawings are submitted for review.
It is not necessary for the contractor to submit all drawings
that will be required eventually before any are reviewed. The
drawings may be submitted in increments, and the increments may
be approved, provided they are well-defined units of the work,
such as individual bridges or portions of bridges that are
independent of other portions.
If falsework plans for different units of the work (two or more
individual bridges, for example) are submitted at the same
time, or if an additional plan is submitted for review before
review of a previously submitted plan has been completed, the
contractor must designate the order or sequence in which the
2-1 Revised 03/95

plans are to be reviewed. The time allowed for the review of

any plan in the sequence is not less than the contract time
allowed for review of that plan, plus two weeks for each higher
priority plan still under review.
On most contracts the engineer will be allowed three weeks for
review of the falsework drawings. For complicated structures
or if railroad approval will be required, the contract special
provisions will establish a longer review period.
Omissions, inconsistencies and design deficiencies discovered
during any review should be noted in red on the drawings, and
one set of drawings returned to the contractor for correction
and resubmission.
When falsework drawings are returned for correction, they are
to be accompanied by a letter giving the reason or reasons the
drawings are not acceptable, The letter should list the
specific deficiencies found (i.e., 6x16 stringers overstressed
in bending) but elaboration is unnecessary. Do not suggest any
corrective measures; listing the deficiencies is sufficient.
2-1.03 Design Calculations
In addition to falsework drawings, the contractor must furnish
a copy of the design calculations.
The specifications require the design calculations to show the
stresses and deflections in load-supporting members. In the
specification context, the term "load-supporting members" will
be construed as meaning the design-controlling members. It is
not the specification's intent to require the contractor to
calculate the stress in, and the deflection of, each and every
member in the falsework system.
Keep in mind that the design calculations furnished by the
contractor are for information only; they are not for review
and approval. Accordingly, any design or construction details
which may be shown in the form of sketches on calculation
sheetsmust be shown on the falsework drawings as well; other-
wise the drawings will not be complete. Note that as a matter
of Division policy, falsework drawings are not to be approved
in any case where it is necessary to refer to calculation
sheets for information needed to complete the design review,
or where information shown only on the calculation sheets will
be needed for construction.
In most cases it is unnecessary to refer to the contractor's
calculations during the design review. However, in the event a
falsework member is overstressed or is otherwise inadequate in
some respect, reference to the calculations may reveal the
reason for the design deficiency.
2-2 Revised O3/95

REVIEW OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS
2-1.04 Initial Review

Immediately upon receipt of the first submittal of any set of
falsework drawings, the engineer will make an Initial review of
the documents received. The purpose of the initial review is
to ascertain whether the drawings and any required supporting
data are "complete" within the meaning of this term as it is
used in the Standard Specifications.
Determining whether a particular submittal is complete, or is
not complete, involves a certain degree of subjectivity, and
the engineer will be expected to exercise judgment and common
sense when making this determination. The basic requisite is
that the drawings contain enough information to enable the
engineer to verify that the design meets contract requirements.
This is accomplished by making a stress analysis; therefore,
if there isn't enough information or detail to make a stress
analysis, the drawings are not complete.
While Division policy requires a "complete" falsework submittal
to contain enough information to enable the-engineer to verify
the adequacy of the falsework design, this does not mean that
every design detail must be shown on a given set of falsework
drawings. A reference to a standard plan submitted previously,
or to a previously submitted drawing for another structure in
the same contract having a similar detail, is acceptable. 1
Regardless of other considerations, for administrative purposes
the drawings will be viewed as incomplete (and will be returned
to the contractor for completion and resubmission) if any of
the following information is omitted:
The drawings must show the size of all load-supporting
members, including soffit joists, and all transverse and
longitudinal bracing, including connections. For box
girder structures, the drawings must show the falsework
members supporting sloping exterior girders, deck over-
hangs and any attached construction, walkways.
All design-controlling dimensions must be shown, including
beam length and spacing; post location and spacing; over-
all height of falsework bents; vertical distance between
connectors in diagonal bracing; and similar dimensions
that are critical to the design.
1
Standard plans and Standard details are to be reviewed and
approved in the same manner as other falsework drawings, even
though they may have been approved on a previous contract.
Once approved, however, they need not be again reviewed when
included withfalsework drawing submittals for subsequent
structures in the same contract.
2-3 Revised 03/95

The location and method by which the falsework will be

adjusted to final grade must be shown.
Unless a concrete placing schedule is shown on the plans,
the falsework drawings must include a superstructure
placing diagram showing the proposed concrete placing
sequence and/or the direction of pour, whichever one is
applicable, and the location of all construction joints.
(For relatively simple structures, this requirement may be
satisfied by a note on the drawings.)
The drawings must show all openings through the falsework.
Horizontal and vertical clearances must be clearly shown,
and must meet contract requirements. The location of
temporary K-rail must be shown.
If the falsework will incorporate a proprietary shoring
system, the trade name and rating (i.e., WACO 100 kip
steel shoring) must be shown.
If the height of the falsework at any location, measured
from the ground line to the bridge soffit, exceeds 14
feet, or if any falsework span exceeds 16 feet, or if
openings are provided for vehicular, pedestrian or rail-
road traffic, each sheet of the drawings must be signed by
a civil engineer registered in California. (This includes
standard plans and standard details.)
The drawings must be accompanied by the contractor's
design calculations; and any other supplemental data
required by the 2falsework design that is needed for a
stress analysis.
Division policy requires the initial review to be completed
within two working days following receipt of a given set of
falsework drawings. The purpose of this policy is to assure a
timely notice to the contractor in the event the drawings are
not complete. Since the only purpose of the initial review is
to discover omissions that would prevent completion of a
2
The specifications require the contractor to submit design
data for any manufactured assembly to be used in the falsework,
but only if requested by the engineer. To assure a complete
falsework design submittal and thus avoid any unnecessary delay
in the review process when a manufactured product or device
will be used, the specification requirement should be discussed
with the contractor at the preconstruction conference. The
contractor should be informed that if proprietary products of
any kind are to be used, the required technical data must
accompany the falsework drawings when they are first submitted
for review.
2-4 Revised 03/95

subsequent design check, neither calculations nor an evaluation

of design details is required; thus completion within 2 working
days is a realistic time frame.
When reviewing falsework drawings pursuant to instructions in
this section, keep in mind that submission of complete drawings
along with all required supporting data is a specific contract
requirement that controls the start of the falsework review
period. However, while the time period for review of falsework
drawings does not begin until a complete submittal is received,
it is often possible to review portions of the design which do
not depend on the missing information. Accordingly, it is
Division policy to expedite the approval process by reviewing
as much of the design as is possible while waiting for the
resubmittal of falsework drawings that have been returned for
completion following the initial review.
The initial review may reveal omissions which are not of such
serious consequence as to delay the design check, but which if
not corrected will delay approval. For example, the omission
of items such as the falsework erection and removal plan; pad
and/or pile design information; the falsework lighting plan, if
one is required; and similar information that will eventually
be required prior to approval should be brought to the contrac-
tor's attention at the earliest convenient time.
2-1.05 Determining Review Durations
As previously noted, the time allowed by the contract for the
engineer's falsework design review is three weeks, or more for
complicated structures or when railroad approval is required.
Regardless of the time allowed, the review period begins when a
complete set of drawings is received from the contractor, and
ends when the drawings are approved. However, the total
elapsed time between submission of complete drawings and final
approval may exceed the time properly attributable to the
engineer's review. This is the case because the engineer is
not responsible for time taken by the contractor to make
necessary revisions or corrections to the drawings.
Determining the actual duration of the engineer's review can be
critical from an administrative standpoint, since the contract
provides for additional time and compensation to offset any
time lost due to delays attributable to the engineer's failure
to complete the falsework review within the time allowed. 3
3
In the event the contractor is delayed, the additional time
and compensation due are determined in accordance with the Right
of Way Delay provisions of the contract.
2-5 Revised 03/95

2-1.05A The Falsework Review Clock

Conceptually, the duration of the engineer's review may be
visualized as the time elapsed on an imaginary falsework review
clock. The clock is turned on when falsework drawings are
received and remains. on while the engineer is reviewing the
drawings. The clock is turned off, however, whenever the
drawings are being revised or corrected by the contractor. The
duration of the engineer's review is numerically equal to the
number of calendar days the review clock is turned on during
the overall falsework review period.
Although the review period begins when a complete falsework
submittal is received, the first day of the review period is
the day following the day on which the submittal is received,
and the final day (for a 3-week review period) is the 21st day
from the day the submittal is-received, excluding any days on
which the falsework review clock has been turned off.
Since the specifications contemplate a review period measured
in weeks, the number of working days within the review period
is irrelevant. Therefore, when calculating incremental review
durations within the overall review period, the elapsed time
between falsework review events is the number of calendar days
between the events, including weekends and holidays, converted
to calendar weeks.
Since the review clock is turned on whenever falsework drawings
are received, it is essential to determine whether the drawings
are complete when first submitted. This is the case because
the time allowed for the engineer's review begins when the
submittal is complete, but not before. Accordingly, Division
policy requires an initial review immediately upon receipt of
the first submittal. The time attributable to the initial
review depends on whether the first submittal is found to be
complete or not complete, and if not complete, on the actual
time taken for the review, as explained below.
Case I. First Submittal is Complete
The review clock is turned on when the drawings are received,
and since the submittal is complete as shown by the initial
review, the clock remains on until the drawings are returned
to the contractor for correction and resubmission, or until
the review has been completed and the drawings approved.
Case II. First Submittal is not Complete
Although the review clock is turned on when the drawings are
received, it is turned off and reset to zero following the
initial review, provided the contractor is notified and the
drawings returned for completion and resubmission within the
2-6 Revised O3/95

two working day period allowed for the initial review by

Division of Structures policy. If, however, the initial
review requires more than two days and/or the contractor is
not informed that the drawings are incomplete within the two
day initial review window, all additional time (beyond two
working days) remains on the review clock when it is reset
following the return of the drawings to the contractor.
For resubmittals following the initial review, for both the
Case I and Case II situations, the review clock is turned on
when the revised drawings are received and remains on while the
engineer is reviewing the design for compliance with contract
requirements. The clock is turned off when the contractor is
informed that further changes are required, and it remains off
while the contractor is making the required corrections and/or
revisions. The clock is turned off for the final time when the
contractor is informed that the drawings are approved. The
duration of the engineer's review is the total time shown on
the falsework review clock.
2-1.05B Review Time Adjustment for Design Revisions
Both the specifications and the review procedures previously
discussed contemplate a scenario in which a complete falsework
submittal will be acceptable as submitted, or will require only
minor corrections prior to approval. While this is typically
the case, situations occasionally arise wherein the contractor,
following the return of drawings for correction or revision,
will submit a new design rather than a corrected or revised
original design. In such cases Division policy provides for an
increased review time to compensate for the time previously
taken to review portions of the falsework design that have been
replaced or significantly altered by the new design.
Whether a resubmittal is a new design or merely a revised
original design is not always clear. As a guide, Division
policy provides that a resubmittal will be viewed as a new
design only if the change is such as to require another design
check to verify system adequacy.
For example, increasing the size or number of timber stringers
to correct a bending moment overstress is not a new design,
since the adequacy of the revision often can be verified by
inspection, and calculations, when necessary, are elementary.
However, if the resubmittal shows a longer span with steel
stringers, a complete design check would be required. (That
is, for the steel design it is necessary to recalculate loads,
determine section properties, and verify beam adequacy by
comparing actual and allowable stresses for the steel members.)
The time needed to perform this second design check is added to
the time originally allowed for the engineer's review to obtain
an adjusted review time.
2-7 Revised 03/95

2-1.06 Falsework Drawing Approval

Falsework Memo No. 1 includes a comprehensive listing of items
that should be considered and/or investigated before falsework
drawings are approved. Prior to the approval of any falsework
drawings, Falsework Memo No. 1 should be reviewed to ensure
that no requirement has been overlooked.
2-1.06A Procedure when Railroad Company is not Involved
Except for falsework that is adjacent to or over a railroad,
the falsework drawings may be approved when the structure
representative is satisfied that the falsework design meets all
contract requirements.
Approval will be noted on each sheet of the falsework drawings
by means of an Office of Structure Construction "Plan Approval"
stamp. Each sheet must be signed by the structure represent-
ative or by the member of his staff who actually reviewed the
design and who is a registered civil engineer.
One set of the approved drawings will be returned to the
contractor, with a cover letter signed by the structure
representative. 4
The approval letter must include the following paragraphs:
"The falsework drawings dated (date) for
(Name of Structure) have been reviewed and are
approved to the extent provided in Section 5-1.02 of the
Standard Specifications."
"Your attention is directed to your responsibilities
pursuant to Sections 5-1.02, 7-1.09 and 51-1.06 of the
Standard Specifications, and to applicable requirements of
the Construction Safety Orders."
"You are reminded that falsework construction must conform
to the approved drawings, that the materials used must be
of the quality necessary to sustain the stresses required
by the falsework design, and that workmanship must be of
such quality that the falsework will support the loads
imposed without excessive settlement or joint take-up
beyond that shown on the falsework drawings."
4
Under the specifications, falsework construction (except for
foundation pads and piles) for any unit of the falsework may not
begin until the drawings for that unit have been approved. From
a contractual standpoint, the approval letter is the contractor's
authorization to begin falsework construction.
2-8 Revised 03/95

Concurrently with approval, one copy of the approved drawings

and one copy of the engineer's calculations are to be submitted
to the Sacramento Office of Structure Construction, along with
a copy of the approval letter sent to the contractor.
One set of the approved drawings and the original calculation
sheets are retained in the job files.
2-1.06B Procedure when Railroad Company Approval is Required
For structures adjacent to or over railroad facilities, approval
of the falsework drawings is contingent on the drawings being
satisfactory to the railroad company involved.
When railroad company approval is required, the falsework
drawings are first reviewed for adequacy and compliance with
contract requirements in the same manner as all other falsework
drawings. When the review has been completed and the structure
representative is satisfied that all contract requirements have
been met, the drawings are to be sent to the Sacramento Office
of Structure Construction for subsequent transmittal to the
railroad company, in accordance with the procedure described in
this section.
The Standard Specifications include special requirements for
all falsework over or adjacent to railroads. When railroads
are involved, the contract special provisions will include
additional requirements that are project specific. Section 10
of the special provisions will include requirements for false-
work openings and collision posts, and other specific railroad
requirements may be included in this section as well. The
number of sets of falsework drawings to be submitted by the
contractor is found in the "Railroad Relations and Insurance"
section of the special provisions, along with any specific
requirements for protection of railroad tracks and/or property.
Standard Specification and special provision requirements for
falsework adjacent to and over railroads should be reviewed
before the drawings are sent to the Sacramento office to ensure
that all applicable requirements have been met.
All falsework opening clearances must be clearly shown. Note
that the vertical clearance is measured from the top of the
track rail and horizontal clearances are measured from the
centerline of the tracks.
In most cases, only the falsework drawings for the structure
span over the railroad tracks will require review and approval
by the railroad company. However, when the structure is high
enough for adjacent structure span falsework to fall on rail-
road property, the falsework drawings for those adjacent spans
must be submitted as well.
2-9 Revised 03/95

Falsework drawings that do not require review and approval by

the railroad company may be approved as soon as the design
check is completed. For such drawings, approval shall be in
accordance with the instructions in Section 2-1.06A.
The number of copies of drawings and other data required depends
on the type of structure and the railroad company involved. For
the Southern Pacific, Western Pacific, and5
Atchison, Topeka &
Santa Fe railroads, submit the following:
l
Four copies of the falsework drawings. (Five copies for
underpass structures and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway.)
. Two copies of manufacturer's catalog data for manufactured
assemblies. (Three copies for underpass structures and
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.)
l
Two copies of the contractor's calculations. (Three
copies for underpass structures and the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe Railway.)
. Two copies of the Structure Representative's calculations.
(Three copies for underpass structures and the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.)
Note that one copy of each of the above listed items is for use
by the falsework section in the Sacramento Office, and the
remaining copies are forwarded to the railroad company. In the
event that railroad company personnel at the job site need
copies of falsework drawings or other data, they are to obtain
them from their headquarters, not from the State or contractor.
Drawings and other data submitted to the Sacramento office are
to be accompanied by a letter of transmittal from the structure
representative listing the items submitted. The letter shall
state that the drawings have been reviewed and are considered
satisfactory:
Drawings and other data will be reviewed in the Sacramento
Office of Structure Construction, and if complete and otherwise
satisfactory, will be forwarded to the railroad company for
review and approval. (Submittals which are incomplete will be
returned to the structure representative.)
5
For other railroads, including light rail facilities
consult the falsework review section in the Sacramento Office
of Structure Construction for the number of copies required.
2-10 Revised 03/95

When the Sacramento Office of Structure Construction is informed

by the railroad company that the drawings are satisfactory, the
structure representative will be notified by telephone, with a
confirming letter following. Upon notification, the structure
representative may approve the drawings. Approval should follow
the procedure discussed in preceding Section 2-1.06A.
It is emphasized that falsework drawings for structures over
railroad facilities are not to be approved until the structure
representative has been notified by the Sacramento Office of
Structure Construction that the design is acceptable to the
railroad company.
2-1.07 Cal-OSHA Requirements
Article 1503 of the Construction Safety Orders requires the
contractor to obtain a permit to construct or dismantle false-
work or shoring that is more than three stories high, or the
equivalent height in feet. Article 1503 further defines a
"story" as 12 feet; consequently, this requirement will apply
to all falsework which exceeds 36 feet, measured from the top
of the falsework foundation to the bridge soffit.
Obtaining the permit required pursuant to Article 503 is the
contractor's responsibility. Upon application, a permit will
be issued for a specific project; however, as a business
practice many bridge contractors obtain a blanket permit to
cover all of their work. Blanket permits must be renewed
annually.
Although the structure representative has neither the authority
nor the duty to enforce Article 1503, as a matter of policy the
fact that the contractor has a valid permit will be verified
before the falsework drawings are approved in any case where a
permit is required; i.e., when the falsework is more than 36
feet high. The date of verification should be noted in the
falsework log and job diary.
2-1.08 Design Revisions to Approved Drawings
The specifications contemplate the possibility of the contrac-
tor submitting a revised design after the original design has
been reviewed and approved. For this occurrence, the engineer
is allowed sufficient time for a review, but not more time than
was originally allowed.
For administrative purposes, any revision to an approved false-
work drawing will be viewed as a new submittal, and as such
will be reviewed pursuant to applicable specification require-
ments and the review policy and procedures previously discussed
herein. Division policy provides that the engineer's review be
performed expeditiously.
2-11 Revised 03/95

2-1.09 Chronological Record of Falsework Review

A chronological record, or log, showing all pertinent dates
relating to the submission, review and approval of falsework
drawings is required for each structure in the contract
Normally, the first entry will be the date the drawings are
first received. If, however, topics having significance with
respect to the falsework design are discussed prior to the
first submittal, the discussion should be noted and the log
started.
The falsework log will include the date the falsework drawings
were first received; the date(s) the contractor is notified of
required revisions, including the reason(s) the review could
not continue and/or why the drawings had to be returned; the
date(s) revised drawings were received, the dates and subject
matter covered in conversations and letters relating to the
falsework review, the date of approval, the date the drawings
were forwarded to headquarters, and any other pertinent dates
affecting the review.
Keep the falsework review clock in mind when making entries in
the falsework log. When entries are properly made, the time
taken for the engineer's review should be readily apparent.
Make a notation in the log of the date that falsework for a
given structure becomes the controlling operation on the
project, and the date on which it is no longer controlling. Be
specific as to the activity that is actually controlling, such
as preparation of drawings by the contractor, review by the
State or railroad company, falsework erection, etc. 6
Entries in a chronological log are not in lieu of similar
information shown in construction diaries. The diary entry
should give detailed information, whereas the chronological log
should list only the dates, identification of subject, and the
people involved.
6
In some situations, particularly where a CPM analysis has
not been made, it may be difficult to ascertain whether false-
work is, or is not, on the critical path. If the actual
controlling operation is not evident but it appears that the
falsework review (or construction) may affect other aspects of
the project, the Structure Representative should note this fact
in the log.
2-12 Revised 03/95

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
Chapter 3: Design Considerations

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... i

3-1 Loads .................................................................................................................................. 3-1
3-1.01 Dead Loads ............................................................................................................. 3-1
3-1.02 Live Loads .............................................................................................................. 3-1
3-1.03 Minimum Total Vertical Design Load ................................................................... 3-2
3-1.04 Loaded Zone for Deck Overhangs ......................................................................... 3-4
3-1.05 Vertical Design Load at Traffic Openings ............................................................. 3-4
3-1.06 Horizontal Loads ................................................................................................... 3-5
3-1.06A Wind Loads ................................................................................................... 3-5
3-1.06B Calculation of Wind Loads on Heavy-Duty Steel Shoring ........................... 3-7
3-1.06C Calculation of Wind Load on Pipe Column Falsework ............................... 3-11
3-1.06D Calculation of Wind Loads by Wind-Impact-Area Method ........................... 3-12
3-1.06E Effect of Shielding on Wind Impact Area ...................................................... 3-13
3-2 Deflection and Camber ....................................................................................................... 3-15

3-2.01 Beam Deflection ..................................................................................................... 3-15
3-2.01A Negative Deflection ....................................................................................... 3-16
3-2.02 Camber ................................................................................................................... 3-17
3-2.02A Camber Strips ................................................................................................ 3-18
3-2.03 Horizontal Deflection ............................................................................................. 3-19
3-3 Miscellaneous Considerations ............................................................................................ 3-20

3-3.01 Beam Continuity..................................................................................................... 3-20
3-3.02 Cap Beam Center Loading Strips ........................................................................... 3-21
3-3.03 Construction Sequence .......................................................................................... 3-22
3-3.04 Friction ................................................................................................................... 3-23
3-3.05 Prestressing Forces ................................................................................................ 3-25
3-3.06 Long-Term Superstructure Deflection .................................................................. 3-25
3-3.07 Falsework at Deck Overhangs ............................................................................... 3-26
3-3.08 Concrete Decks on Steel Girders............................................................................ 3-27
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHAPTER 3 - i

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
Chapter 3: Design Considerations
3-1 Loads
Falsework must be designed to resist the sum of all dead and live vertical loads, plus an
assumed horizontal load, as provided in the Standard Specifications (SS) 1.
3-1.01 Dead Loads

Except when calculating for deflection (as discussed in the next paragraph), the dead load
imposed on a falsework member is the weight of the:
• Concrete.
• Forms.
• Reinforcing steel the falsework member is required to support.
• Falsework member’s own weight.
The minimum value given in the SS1 for the weight of the: concrete, forms and
reinforcing steel is:
• 160 pounds per cubic foot (pcf) for normal concrete.
• 130 pcf for lightweight concrete.
When calculating deflection as allowed by the SS 2, the dead load on the member is the
weight of the concrete only (refer to Section 3-2.01, Beam Deflection). For the dead load
calculation, it is customary to use:
• 150 pcf for normal concrete.
• The actual value as determined from unit-weight tests for lightweight concrete.
Falsework must be designed to support the dead load of the entire superstructure cross
section, excluding the weight of the bridge railings. There is one exception with girder
stems and connected bottom slabs when deck concrete is placed more than five days after
girder-stem concrete. In this case, the girder stem may be considered self-supporting
between falsework bents when the top slab is placed, provided the distance between
falsework bents does not exceed four times the depth of the portion of the girder placed in
the first pour. This is based on the strut and tie model used for deep concrete and
prestressed concrete beams. The purpose of this exception is to reduce the design dead
load on joists and stringers for box-girder structures in those cases where the girder stem
(and the soffit slab as well where the soffit slab is loaded by the deck falsework) has
gained sufficient strength to carry the weight of the top slab.
1
2010 Standard Specifications (SS), Section 48-2.01D(3)(b), Loads. 2015 SS, 48-2.02B(2), Loads.
2
2010 SS, 48-2.01D(3)(c), Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections. 2015 SS, 48-2.02B(3), Stresses, Loadings
and Deflections.
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHAPTER 3 - 1

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
3-1.02 Live Loads

The design live load consists of a combination of:
• A uniform load of 20 pounds per square foot (psf) applied over the total area
supported.
• The actual weight of construction equipment 3 applied as a concentrated load at
each point of contact.
• A uniform load of 75 pounds per linear foot (lbs/ft) 4 applied at the outside edge
of deck overhangs. 5
Engineering judgment is required when investigating the effect of live loads caused by
construction equipment. Some instances will occur where equipment live load and
concrete dead load are not applied at the same time. For example, when concrete placing
equipment (such as a belt-spreader) is used in advance of the concrete front, there are two
loading conditions. The first loading condition will be uniform live load plus (+)
equipment live load plus (+) an allowance for weight of forms and reinforcing steel. The
other condition will be uniform live load plus (+) the dead load. Both conditions should
be investigated.
For application of the uniform 20 psf live load, the total area supported includes the area
of construction walkways that extend beyond the outside edge of the deck or the deck
overhang. However, the design load for all falsework supporting the walkway is the
greater of the actual vertical load, or the minimum total design load of 100 psf, as
discussed in the following section.
The uniform load of 75 lbs/ft is only applied at the edge of deck overhangs. It is not
applied along the edge of slab bridges, or box girder bridges without overhangs, or at the
edge of an interior deck construction joint.
3-1.03 Minimum Total Design Load

The minimum total design load (dead load plus (+) vertical live load) to be used in the
design of any falsework member must not be less than 100 psf, measured over the total
area supported by that member. For application of this requirement, the meaning of the
term “total area supported” also includes any area that is subjected to a dead load or a live
load during any construction sequence.
3
The Contractor may use belt spreaders, finishing bridges, cure bridges, bridge concrete pavers (bid-well),
or concrete buggies. See Section 3-1.04, Loaded Zone for Deck Overhangs, for miscellaneous equipment
and materials not otherwise considered, that can and do occur during the concrete placing and finishing
operations.
4
The work/finishing/cure bridge is included in the 75 lb/ft.
5
Refer to Section 3-1.04, Loaded Zone for Deck Overhangs.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
Figure 3-1. Walkway Support Members.
There is some confusion as to the design load for falsework supporting a construction
walkway extending beyond the edge of the deck or deck overhang. Refer to Figure 3-1,
note that Joist A, Beam B, Post C, Joist D, Beam E and falsework members supporting
Beam E, all see the construction walkway area as part of the “total area supported.”
Figure 3-2 is a schematic of the various loads and load combinations specified for design
of the deck overhang falsework. For the construction walkway itself (the walkway planks
or plywood) the design load is 20 psf. However, for the falsework members supporting
the walkway, the design load is the greater of the actual vertical load, or 100 pounds per
square foot. The 100 psf load applied over the width of the walkway is usually greater
than the walkway dead load and 20 psf live load.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
Figure 3-2. Edge of Deck and Walkway Loading.
3-1.04 Loaded Zone for Deck Overhangs

Experience has shown that concentrated live loads, such as the load from
work/finishing/curing bridges and other miscellaneous equipment and materials not
otherwise considered, can and do occur at or near the edge of a bridge deck during the
concrete placing and finishing operations. In the case of deck overhangs, these loads may
significantly increase the stresses in the overhang falsework support system. To account
for the accumulated effect of such loads, the SS 6 include the requirement of a 75 lbs/ft
live load applied along the outside edge of all deck overhangs.
While the specified linear live load is a necessary design consideration for deck overhang
falsework, its application to falsework components below the overhang support system
will, in the case of long falsework spans, impose a design load that is unlikely to occur in
actual practice. To prevent an unrealistic loading condition for falsework members it is
Structure Construction (SC) practice to limit the distance over which the specified 75
6
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3)(b), Loads. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B(2), Loads. Unless otherwise
specified in Chapter 3, when specification is referred to, it is referencing this section of the 2015 SS.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
lbs/ft live load is applied to a loaded zone 20 feet in length measured along the edge of
the overhang. The loaded zone will be viewed as a moving load positioned to produce
maximum stresses in the falsework member under consideration.
The loaded zone concept, will be used when checking stresses in stringers, caps, posts
and other members of the falsework system, below the level of the bridge soffit, in all
cases where the falsework spans exceed 20 feet in length. This loaded zone concept will
be applied to the following two cases:
1. Application of the 75 lbs/ft live load on the edge of deck.

2. The minimum total design vertical load (100 psf) on a construction walkway,
adjacent to the edge of the deck overhang.
3-1.05 Vertical Design Load at Traffic Openings

The vertical design load for falsework posts and towers at traffic openings are increased
to 150% 7 of the load calculated in the usual manner. This load factor does not apply to
posts and towers that are adjacent to traffic that do not support falsework members over
traffic 8. The application and reason for this requirement is discussed in Chapter 8, Traffic
Openings.
3-1.06 Horizontal Loads

The “falsework bracing system” must be capable of resisting an assumed horizontal load
applied in any direction. For typical falsework analysis the horizontal load is applied at
the top of the post (bottom of cap).
As a design load, the assumed horizontal load is the sum of any actual loads due to
equipment, construction sequence or other causes, plus an allowance for wind. The
horizontal design load should never be less than two percent of the total supported dead
load at the location under consideration. This will be the minimum horizontal design
load.
Note that the specified horizontal design load is an “assumed” load. Since it is an
assumed load, it will not be necessarily equal to any actual horizontal load that may
occur. Nevertheless, the falsework bracing system must be designed to resist the
horizontal design load with the falsework in either the loaded or unloaded condition.
Designing falsework bracing to resist a horizontal load is included to ensure both

transverse and longitudinal stability. Falsework system stability is discussed in Chapter 5,
Falsework Stability.
7
150% is not applied to the joists, stringers, caps, sills, corbels or foundations.
8
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3)(d), Special Locations. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B(4), Special Locations.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
3-1.06A Wind Loads

The minimum horizontal design load will generally govern the design for typical
highway separation structures and other structures where the falsework height is less than
30 feet. Depending on falsework configuration, wind may be a design consideration when
the height of falsework exceeds 30 feet. However, wind loads will govern most designs
where falsework height exceeds about 40 feet.
Determining the actual force exerted by wind on bridge falsework is a highly

indeterminate problem due to the number of variable factors 9 involved. Although, it is
possible to establish values for all of the variables in a falsework system, it is quite
cumbersome and time-consuming. The complex method of calculation is often no more
accurate than a simplified method because of the subjective nature of some of the
variables. Caltrans has developed a SS 10 which recognizes the effect of the more
influential variables and assigns a coefficient to cover the others. By using this simplified
method, there is statewide uniformity in calculating wind loads.
For the wind load calculation, the specification considers two general falsework types:
1. Heavy-duty steel shoring and steel pipe column falsework where the vertical
members have a load carrying capacity exceeding 30 kips per tower leg or pipe
column.
2. All other falsework includes timber post, metal pipe frame and intermediate
shores including falsework above them and above the heavy-duty shoring or pipe
columns. For some of the examples, see Figure 3-3.
9
The wind pressure values were developed from the basic theory of fluid flow with a design wind velocity
based on a 100-year recurrent wind prevalent in most of California. Reductions were taken to account for
the temporary exposure of falsework to wind forces and increased for gusts. Variables are wind velocity,
downwind width of the falsework system, downwind distance between adjacent members, drag or shape
factor for the various members, “solidity ratio” or percentage of solid-surface in a given gross frontal area
and height of the falsework above the ground.
10
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01(D)(3)(b), Loads. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B(2), Loads

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
a) All Other Falsework b) All Other Falsework above the Tower
Figure 3-3. Examples of All Other Falsework and Heavy Duty Metal Shoring.
For heavy-duty shoring and pipe column falsework systems, the wind load is the product
of the wind impact area, a shape factor, and an appropriate wind pressure value. The wind
impact area is defined as the total projected area of all elements in a tower face or
falsework bent normal to the direction of the wind. The shape factor is included to
account for the effect of wind drag forces on the members and, for heavy-duty shoring,
the effect of wind acting on members in the other three tower faces.
For all other falsework, including falsework supported by heavy-duty shoring and pipe
columns, the wind load is the product of the wind impact area and an appropriate wind
pressure value. The wind impact area is the gross projected area of the falsework and any
unrestrained portion of the permanent structure, e.g. bridge precast girder or steel girder
without deck slab, excluding the area between falsework bents or towers where diagonal
bracing is not used. In the specification context, the term “diagonal bracing” does not
include flexible bracing systems. 11
For all falsework types, the wind pressure value is a function of the height of the
falsework. Wind pressure values, for each height zone, are tabulated in the
11
Flexible bracing includes cable, reinforcing steel bars, steel rods and bars, and similar members that do
not resist compression.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
specifications. 12 Wind pressure height zones are always measured from the ground up
regardless of falsework configuration.
Except for falsework on driven pile bents, the height to be used for the wind impact area
calculation is the vertical distance between the base elevation of the component of the
falsework system, about which overturning rotation can occur, and the bridge soffit. In
the case of pile bents, judgment is required to determine the lower limit of the wind
impact area. If the piles are cut off and capped near the ground, the lower limit will be the
plane at the pile cut-off elevation. If, however, the piles extend an appreciable distance
above the ground or above the water surface for structures over water, the entire height of
the falsework (measured from ground or water surface to bridge soffit) should be used.
Keep in mind when calculating wind impact areas, the formwork extending above the
bridge soffit should not be included in the wind impact area. This formwork is excluded
from the wind impact area under the assumption that when subjected to the design wind
load, the forms would be blown off the falsework. However, the contractor should
restrain their forms on top of the falsework in the event of high winds.
Example problems illustrating the procedure to be followed when calculating the wind
load on various falsework systems are included in Appendix D, Example Problems.
3-1.06B Calculation of Wind Loads on Heavy-Duty Steel Shoring

For wind acting on heavy-duty steel shoring, the critical loading condition will occur
when the wind force is applied at right angles to the tower faces. The effect of wind
acting in other directions need not be considered except in the case of temporary bracing
installed during falsework erection and/or removal.
The horizontal design load produced by wind forces acting on top of the heavy-duty steel
shoring is determined as follows:
1. From the tabulation in the SS 13, select the wind pressure for each height zone.
2. Multiply the selected wind pressure by the specified shape factor (2.2) to obtain
the design wind pressure.
3. Calculate the total wind force per tower (WF) for each height zone by multiplying
the design wind pressure by the total projected area of all the elements in the
tower face normal to the applied wind.
12
The specified shape factor for pipe column falsework (1.0) {Ref. 2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3)(b), Loads
} has been adjusted upward from the true shape factor of 0.8 for circular sections to account for the effect of
bracing and connections, which are ignored in the calculations. This procedure is reasonable for typical
pipe column bents where the bracing consists of small diameter steel rods or reinforcing steel, cable, or
small structural shapes. However, in the event larger bracing elements are used, the projected area of the
bracing components must be included in the total projected area of the falsework calculated in step 3. For
this calculation, use a shape factor of 1.3.
13
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3)(b), Loads. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B(2), Loads.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
The following tabulation shows the projected area, in square feet per foot of tower
height, for heavy-duty steel shoring systems which were approved for use on
State projects in early 1990. They are no longer approved and will require review
to ensure that current metal shores have the projected area given below in the
table. In the tabulation, the projected area of the members has been adjusted to
account for the effect of brackets, gussets and other minor components within the
tower cross-section. See Figure 3-4 for tower with various leg configurations.
No. Legs WACO PAFCO WADCO HI-CAP

Per face Shoring Shoring Shoring Shoring
(ft2/ft) (ft2/ft) (ft2/ft) (ft2/ft)
2 2.00 1.75 1.93 1.64
3 2.50 2.25 2.43 ---
4 3.00 2.75 2.93 ---
Figure 3-4. Different Number of Tower Legs per Face.
4. For each height zone, calculate the overturning moment by multiplying the wind
force (from step 3) by the distance from the base of the tower (top of the tower
footing) to the center of pressure. Add the overturning moments for each height
zone to obtain the total overturning moment.
5. Divide the total overturning moment determined in step 4 by the vertical distance
between the tower base and a horizontal plane at the top of the highest falsework
tower. The value thus obtained is the horizontal design wind load (DWL) acting
on top of the tower.
This method is used to calculate wind load on top of the tower because the assumed
horizontal load must be at least 2% of the total dead load which is applied on top of the
tower. This method makes it easy to compare the two loads, and the higher load is used
for member design.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
3-1.06B(1) Analysis in the Transverse Direction

The calculation of the horizontal design load for wind acting in the transverse
direction is shown schematically in Figure 3-5.
Figure 3-5. Transverse Design Wind Loading.
Except as provided in the following paragraph, adjacent towers in the same

falsework bent must each resist the design wind load because the upwind tower
does not shield the downwind tower to any significant degree. This premise will
be considered valid regardless of the distance between the towers, and will
include those configurations where the space between abutting legs of adjacent
towers is minimal. See Figure 3-6.
Figure 3-6. Wind Load on not Connected Abutting Towers
If the abutting legs of adjacent towers are connected, the total wind load for the
two towers will be assumed as 1.5 times the design wind load acting on the
upwind tower face. For analysis of the system, distribute one-half of the total
wind load (or 75 percent of the design wind load) to each tower. See Figure 3-7.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
Figure 3-7. Wind Load on Connected Abutting Towers.
In addition to resisting the horizontal load produced by wind acting on the shoring
towers, the falsework bracing system must resist the additional horizontal load
produced by wind acting on elements of the falsework system (caps, stringers,
joists, etc.) supported by the shoring. The design wind load on supported
falsework is calculated by the wind impact area method. See Section 3-1.06D,
Calculation of Wind Loads by Wind-Impact-Area Method.
Refer to Figure 3-8 and note that for wind acting parallel to the falsework bent,
the wind load on the supported falsework will be distributed to the individual
towers in accordance with the following assumptions:
• For bents with two towers, one-half of the design wind load will be
distributed to each tower.
• For bents with three towers or more, one-half of the design wind load will
be distributed to the upwind tower and the remainder distributed equally to
all other towers in the bent.
Figure 3-8. Wind Load on Tower from Supported Falsework.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
3-1.06B(2) Analysis in the Longitudinal Direction

For wind acting in the longitudinal direction or normal to the bent, the overturning
moment calculation (wind load per tower) will be as depicted in Figure 3-5 for
wind acting on the falsework towers. However, distribution of the load produced
by wind acting on the supported falsework depends on the way the system is
designed to resist longitudinal forces. Accordingly, when evaluating system
adequacy, the load due to wind acting on the supported falsework should be
distributed to the system in accordance with the discussion in Section 5-4,
Longitudinal Stability.
3-1.06C Calculation of Wind Load on Pipe Column Falsework

For a pipe column falsework bent, the horizontal design load due to wind acting on the
bent is the sum of the wind loads on the individual pipe columns in the bent. While this is
obvious for wind acting normal to the bent, it is also the case for wind acting in the
transverse direction (parallel to the bent centerline). Typically, the columns are so widely
spaced that shielding will not occur.
For adjacent columns where the downwind column is within the shielded zone, the
applied wind force on the downwind column will decrease. This will be offset by higher
drag forces produced by increased wind turbulence. Because of this offset, it is SC
practice to ignore any theoretical decrease in wind load attributable to downwind
shielding of adjacent pipe columns.
The design wind load is determined as follows:

1. Select the wind pressure for each height zone from the tabulation in the SS 14.
2. For each height zone, multiply the selected wind pressure by the specified shape
factor (1.0) to obtain the design wind pressure.
3. For each height zone, calculate the total projected area of the falsework bent. The
total projected area is the sum of the projected areas (height of pipe column time’s
diameter) of the individual pipe columns in the bent. 15
4. For each height zone, multiply the design wind pressure (from step 2) by the total
projected area (from step 3) to obtain the wind force. 16
5. For each height zone, calculate the overturning moment by multiplying the wind
force (from step 4) by the vertical distance between the point at the base of the
14
15
See Section 3-1.06E, Effect of Shielding on Wind Impact Area, for a discussion of shielding of downwind
falsework members.
16
The specified shape factor for pipe column falsework (1.0) has been adjusted upward from the true shape
factor of 0.8 for circular sections to account for the effect of bracing and connections, which are ignored in
the calculations. This procedure is reasonable for typical pipe column bents where the bracing consists of
small diameter steel rods or reinforcing steel, cable, or small structural shapes. However, in the event larger
bracing elements are used, the projected area of the bracing components must be included in the total
projected area of the falsework calculated in step 3. For this calculation, use a shape factor of 1.3.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
pipe column frame about which overturning rotation will occur and the center of
pressure.
Judgment is required when determining the point about which overturning
rotation will occur. Typically, a pipe column bent is a rigid unit consisting
of top and bottom cap beams, two or more columns, and internal diagonal
bracing, all supported by a foundation system. Where vertical/grade
adjustment is provided at the top of the bent, the lower cap or sill beam
will be supported by corbels, which distribute the load to the foundation.
Where vertical/grade adjustment is provided at the bottom, wedges will be
located between the sill beam (lower cap) and the corbels. In either of
these typical cases, when overturning forces are applied, the bent will tend
to rotate about a point at the bottom of the lower cap beam. For other
configurations, the point of rotation should be determined as the lowest
point in the system about which rotation can occur while the frame
remains rigid.
6. Add the overturning moments for each height zone to obtain the total
overturning moment.
7. Divide the total overturning moment by the vertical distance between the
point of overturning rotation at the base of the frame (determined in step
5) and the top of the highest bent component. The value thus obtained is
the horizontal design load for wind acting on the bent.
In addition to resisting the horizontal load produced by wind acting on the

falsework members in the bent, the bracing must resist the additional load
produced by wind acting on elements of the falsework (stringers, joists, etc.
supported by the bent). The wind load on supported falsework is calculated by the
wind-impact-area method discussed in the following section.
3-1.06D Calculation of Wind Loads by Wind-Impact-Area Method

Except for heavy-duty steel shoring and pipe column falsework bents, the design wind
load to be applied to all types of bridge falsework, including falsework supported by
heavy-duty shoring and pipe column bents, is the product of an appropriate wind pressure
value and the wind impact area of the falsework system under consideration. This method
of determining the design wind load is commonly referred to as the “wind-impact area”
method.
The design wind load is calculated as follows:

1. Determine the value for W, which is the downwind width of the falsework
system, or that portion of the system under consideration, measured in the wind
direction. For falsework supported by heavy-duty shoring or pipe column bents,
W will be the distance between the exterior beams or stringers. For all other
falsework, W is the width of that portion of the falsework which supports a
continuous cap or is connected by uninterrupted diagonal bracing.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
2. Calculate the value for drag coefficient, Q. From the specifications,

Q = 1.0 + 0.2W, but is not greater than 10.
3. Calculate the wind pressure value for each height zone. Using the wind velocity
coefficient for that height zone as listed in the SS 17 and the value for Q calculated
in step 2 above.
4. Calculate the wind impact area. It is defined in the specifications as the gross
projected area of the falsework and any unrestrained element of the permanent
structure, excluding the area between falsework bents where diagonal bracing is
not used. Keep in mind that the term “diagonal bracing” as used in the wind
impact area definition does not include flexible bracing.
5. Calculate the total wind force for each height zone by multiplying the calculated
wind pressure value by the wind impact area for that height zone.
6. Calculate the overturning moment for each height zone by multiplying the wind
force (from step 5) by its distance above the point at the base of the falsework
about which overturning rotation will occur. For this calculation, the wind force
will be assumed as acting at the centroid of the wind impact area for the height
zone under consideration.
When determining the point about which overturning rotation will occur, keep in
mind that an overturning failure occurs when a rigid element of the system, such
as a braced frame or tower, rotates about the lowest downwind point of frame or
tower support. Depending on the manner in which post or leg loads are distributed
to the foundation, the point of overturning rotation might be at the top of a corbel
or other load distributing member rather than at the bottom of the falsework
system as a whole.
7. Add the overturning moments for each height zone to obtain the total overturning
moment.
8. Divide the total overturning moment by the distance from the point at the base of
the falsework about which overturning rotation will occur (determined in step 6)
to the top of the falsework post (bottom of top cap). The value thus obtained is the
horizontal design load for wind acting on the falsework system.
For evaluation of system adequacy, the wind force will be applied parallel to and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the falsework bent. The effect of wind acting in
other directions need not be considered in the analysis.
For wind forces (or a wind force component) applied parallel to the axis of a falsework
bent, the calculated design wind load for each width (W) must be resisted by bracing
within that width.
17

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
For wind forces applied perpendicular to the bent, resistance to the design wind load
should be evaluated in the same manner as resistance to other longitudinal forces.
3-1.06E Effect of Shielding on Wind Impact Area

When investigating the effect of wind acting perpendicular to a falsework bent,
consideration may be given to the shielding provided by solid obstructions. Solid
obstructions such as abutment fills and pier walls will shield downwind falsework
members to some extent, and thus reduce the wind impact area. The degree of shielding
actually provided is speculative and not easily determined. To ensure uniformity, the
assumptions discussed in the following paragraphs will be considered as SC practice.
As wind blows around the end of a solid obstruction, the area over which the wind
pressure is effective will increase inward on a 2:1 ratio (downwind distance to inward
distance) as shown in Figure 3-9. Falsework bents within the shielded zone will be
considered as totally sheltered from wind forces.
Figure 3-9. Wind Shielded Zone Limits.
In the case of falsework bents which are partly shielded, the term “gross projected area of
the falsework” will be interpreted as the area of the bent that is outside the shielded zone.
See Bent A in Figure 3-10. When checking such bents for stability, the total wind load
may be distributed uniformly along the entire length of the bent.
In the case of adjacent bents, which are fastened together to form a single, longer bent,
the wind load may be distributed into the adjacent bent provided the bents are rigidly
connected. Such bents will be considered “rigidly connected” if the connection is capable
of transferring the wind forces. See Bent C in Figure 3-10.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
Figure 3-10. Wind Load on Connected and Unconnected Bents.
In the case of bents which are located immediately adjacent to a solid obstruction, the
effect of wind may be neglected since the exposed area is relatively small. Refer to
Figure 3-10, Bents E, F and G.
When investigating the effect of shielding, keep in mind that wind may blow from any
direction. Falsework bents that are totally shielded from wind in one direction may be
fully exposed when the wind forces are applied from the opposite direction.
3-2 Deflection and Camber
3-2.01 Beam Deflection

When reviewing falsework drawings, a distinction must be made between the maximum
allowable deflection allowed by the specifications 18 and the actual deflection under a
given loading condition.
The maximum allowable deflection is calculated using only the weight of all concrete
only in the superstructure cross-section (as though the entire superstructure were placed
in a single concrete pour), and is limited to the 1/240 of the span of the falsework beam.
This limiting value is included in the specifications 19 to ensure a certain degree of
rigidity in the falsework and thereby minimize distortion of the forms as concrete is
placed.
18
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3)(c), Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B(3),
Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections.
19
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3)(c), Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B(3),
Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
“Actual deflection” is the deflection that occurs as the falsework beam is loaded.
Calculating actual deflection is the Engineer's responsibility, since it is used in
determining the amount of falsework camber required. 20
When calculating actual deflection, it is necessary to include the weight of:

• The forms and falsework supported by the beam (10 lbs/cf).
• The weight of the beam itself (lbs/ft).
• The weight of the concrete and reinforcement (150 lbs/cf).
Consideration must be given to such factors as the sequence of construction and the depth
of the superstructure when two or more concrete pours are involved.
The Standard Specifications do not include a limiting value for live load deflection, as
they are of a transient nature. However, when a bridge deck finishing machine is
supported at the outer edge of a cantilevered deck overhang, particular care must be taken
to prevent excessive deflection of the deck overhang support system. Unless special
precautions are taken, the concentrated load, due to the weight of the finishing machine,
may cause the deck overhang to deflect appreciably with respect to the remainder of the
deck surface. This will decrease bridge deck thickness and reduce reinforcing steel cover,
both of which are detrimental to the completed structure.
The applicable specification 21 is the general requirement that falsework must be designed
and constructed to produce, in the finished structure, the lines and grades shown on the
plans. To ensure compliance with this general requirement, it is SC practice to add the
“deflection due to the weight of a deck finishing machine” to the “deflection due to the
weight of the concrete”. The sum of these two deflections should not be too large as to
adversely affect the character of the finished work. This will require engineering
judgment. In summary, the important point is that the weight of the finishing machine be
considered, and the total deflection limited to a realistic value.
3-2.01A Negative Deflection

Depending on the concrete placing sequence, negative (upward) deflection may occur
where falsework beams are continuous over a long span and a relatively short adjacent
span. This condition (negative deflection at the end support) is an indication of system
instability and must be considered in the falsework design. If beam uplift cannot be
prevented by loading the short span first, the end of the beam must be restrained or the
span lengths must be revised. Structure Construction practice does not permit approval of
any design where theoretical beam uplift will occur under any loading condition.
20
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01C(2), Shop Drawings. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.01C(2), Shop Drawings. 2010 SS,
Section 48-2.01D(3)(c), Stresses, Loadings, and Deflection. The 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B(3), Stresses,
Loadings, and Deflection, require the Contractor's design calculations to show the “stresses and deflections
in load carrying members”. Said deflections, which may not exceed 1/240 of the span, are calculated using
the theoretical weight (150 pcf) of the concrete supported by the member: There is no requirement that the
Contractor furnish “actual” deflections.
21
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01, General. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.01, General.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
When falsework beams are considerably longer than the actual falsework span, the beam
cantilever extending beyond the point of support will deflect upward as the main span is
loaded. The falsework design must include provisions to accommodate this upward
deflection. The usual method uses a filler strip (often called a “sleeper”) on the main span
only, which allows free movement of the beam cantilever. The sleeper ends at the center
line of the falsework top cap and does not extend into the cantilever section. See Figure
3-11. The sleeper must be thick enough to offset the theoretical beam uplift on the
cantilever.
No sleeper strip on the beam tail
Figure 3-11. Limit of Sleeper on the Falsework Beam.
Sometimes the contractor may use the beam cantilever beyond the support with wood
beams wedged tight between its flanges to close the gap at abutment and column faces.
This may be acceptable for short distances up to 4 feet. This detail when applied to close
longer gap can cause depression in the wet soffit concrete due to stringer tail movement
when concrete is placed in the main span. This should be discouraged.
3-2.02 Camber
The term “camber” is used to describe an adjustment to the profile of a load-supporting
beam or stringer so the completed structure will have the lines and grades shown on the
plans. In theory, the camber adjustment consists of the sum of the following factors:
• Anticipated total deflection of the falsework beam (stringer) under its own weight
and the actual load imposed.
• Difference between the falsework beam profile and profile grade, also called
vertical curve compensation.
• Difference between the beam profile and ultimate superstructure deflection curve
(bridge camber).

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
• Difference between the beam profile and any permanent or residual camber to
remain in the structure for its useful service life.
In structures with parabolic soffits 22, an additional adjustment may be required to
account for the difference between beam profile and soffit curvature.
When falsework beams are relatively short, the theoretical adjustment due to vertical
curve compensation, bridge camber, and desired permanent or residual camber will be
small and may be neglected. As falsework spans increase, these factors become
increasingly significant and must be considered along with beam deflection.
More than any other single factor, the satisfactory appearance of a completed structure
will depend on the accuracy of the camber used in the falsework construction. Good
judgment will be required, particularly in determining the amount of camber to be used to
compensate for anticipated dead load falsework deflection.
In general, the weight of the top slab of conventionally reinforced box girders should be
omitted when calculating camber, since additional stringer deflection as the top slab is
placed usually is insignificant. In the case of cast-in-place prestressed construction,
falsework span length may be an important consideration. In such structures, judgment
will be required as to the relative stiffness of the girder stems, and whether they will
resist additional deflection and by how much, as the top slab is placed.
The Engineer furnishes the amount of camber to use in constructing falsework. 23
3-2.02A Camber Strips

When to require camber strips 24 is a matter of engineering judgment. As a general rule,
camber strips are not necessary unless the total camber adjustment exceeds
approximately 1/4-inch for beams supporting the edge of the girder/soffit or deck
overhang and/or approximately 1/2-inch for beams at interior locations. The Engineer
orders the Contractor to furnish camber strips 25.
Because camber strips are an incidental part of the falsework system, their installation
seldom receives more than cursory attention. Casual treatment of camber strip installation
can result in an unforeseen and undesirable loading of the falsework beam. For example,
a camber strip placed at a distance away from the centerline of a steel beam may induce
torsional stresses that were not considered in the falsework design. Undesirable torsional
22
When parabolic soffits are being built, the vertical curve component is sometimes included with the soffit
profile (4-scale) grades.
23
2010 SS, Section 48-2.03C, Erection. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.03C, Erection.
24
Camber strips are lengths of wood cut to the shape of the camber curve and fastened to the top of the
falsework beam or stringer. Typically, camber strips will be secured by nailing to the top of timber
members or by banding in the case of steel members. Typically, the camber strips have zero thickness at
the ends and grades are provided at the quarter points. Since it is impractical to cut to zero thickness, the
contractor often adds camber strip thickness to the sleeper thickness.
25
2010 SS, Section 48-2.03C, Erection. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.03C, Erection.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
stresses may be induced in beams supporting falsework for structures having steep cross
slopes, even if the camber strip is properly placed along the beam centerline. For such
structures, unless the vertical dimension of the camber strip includes an allowance to
compensate for cross fall, the joist may bear on the edge of the beam flange rather than
on the camber strip itself. Refer to Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-12. Camber Strip/Sleeper Requirements.
To ensure proper design and installation, camber strips must conform to the following
criteria:
• The width of the camber strip must not be less than 1-1/2 inches.
• Structure cross slope, allowable wood crushing, and joist deflection must be
considered when determining the height of the camber strip. The minimum height
of the camber strip must be such that the joists will not come into contact with any
part of the falsework beam under any loading condition.
• Camber strips must be centered along the longitudinal centerline of the falsework
beam.
• Camber strips must not extend onto the unloaded portion of a trailing beam
cantilever.
The allowable stress for perpendicular-to-the-grain loading has been increased from 450
pounds per square inch(psi) to 900 psi for camber strip bearing loads. When the applied
load produces the maximum allowable stress, camber strip deformation due to crushing
should not exceed about 1/8-inch.
If the amount of camber is large, as in the case where a parabolic curved bridge soffit is
supported by a long falsework beam, the camber strips should be braced or built up with
wide material to avoid lateral instability. The use of laterally unsupported tall, narrow
camber strips should not be permitted.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
3-2.03 Horizontal Deflection

Although the SS 26 do not include a limiting value for horizontal deflection, such
deflection will be negligible in any falsework system where horizontal forces are resisted
by bracing. Accordingly, horizontal deflection need not be considered in any case where
the horizontal design load is resisted by a properly designed bracing system. This
includes external bracing systems where the use of external bracing is necessary to
prevent overturning.
Horizontal deflection will be a consideration when the horizontal design load is resisted
by bending in a falsework member. This situation occurs when falsework is supported by
driven piles that extend above the ground surface. When evaluating the adequacy of pile
bents, it is necessary to combine bending and vertical load stresses to obtain the actual
stress.
The procedure for evaluating the adequacy of falsework pile bents is discussed in Chapter
7, Falsework Foundations.
Horizontal deflection may be an issue with innovative falsework where loading of the
stringers is through the bottom flanges and not directly over the web. Loading stringers
this way may cause the top flange to move horizontally. Refer to Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-13. Innovative Falsework.
26
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3), Design Criteria. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B, Design Criteria.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
3-3 Miscellaneous Considerations

3-3.01 Beam Continuity
Because of the sequential, and sometimes unpredictable, manner in which falsework
loads are applied, beam continuity is an uncertain design condition. To accommodate this
uncertainty, it is SC practice to assume the continuous beam condition when continuity
will act to increase loads or stresses, but not otherwise.
For example, the simple span condition will be assumed when calculating positive
bending moments in joists, stringers, and similar continuous members; however, full
continuity will be assumed when calculating negative bending moments in these same
members. Assume full continuity when calculating the beam reaction on interior supports
under continuous falsework members, but assume the simple span condition when
calculating the reaction at the end support.
In a framed bent, continuity must be considered in any case where stringer loads are
applied within the cap span rather than directly over the supporting post to ensure that
allowable post loads are not exceeded.
Continuous caps are often supported by two or more towers in a heavy-duty shoring
system. If leg loads are unequal, the resulting differential leg shortening will cause a
redistribution of beam reactions and a corresponding change in the magnitude and
location of maximum cap bending stress.
When beams are continuous over two or more spans, beam uplift can occur in adjacent
unloaded spans when concrete is placed in one span. Refer to discussion in Section 3-
2.01A, Negative Deflection.
The Engineer will be expected to recognize these and other cases where the effect of
beam continuity must be investigated to prevent the overstressing of any falsework
member or instability in the falsework system.
3-3.02 Cap Beam Center Loading Strips

The use of timber center loading strips or shims as a method for transferring the load
from stringers to cap beams has become more common. Center loading strips aid in
transferring the vertical reaction load from stringer to cap concentrically. Invariably they
are used when stringers are placed on a steep longitudinal slope. This prevents the
stringer bottom flange from bearing on the flange edges of the cap. Otherwise the stringer
can induce torsional rotation in the cap if the stringer bears on points other than the center
of the cap. When center loading strips are used, it is critical that they are symmetrically
located about a vertical line that passes through the webs of both the stringer and the cap.
Refer to Figure 3-14. This ensures the transfer of the force reactions from stringer to the
cap through the web of cap thereby preventing any unintended moment on the cap.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
The allowable compressive stress for timber shims with maximum thickness of 6 inches
and loaded perpendicular to grain may be increased to 900 psi. This maximum thickness
limitation eliminates excessive build-up between the cap and the stringer beam that could
lead to stability problems. Where the shim is formed by multiple built-up sections, the
maximum allowable compressive stress should not exceed 450 psi.
This revised allowable stress supersedes the allowable stress listed in the Section 4-
2.03D, Compression Perpendicular to the Grain and in the SS 27.
Figure 3-14. Center Loading Strip Details.
3-3.03 Construction Sequence

Unless a concrete placing sequence is shown on the plans, the falsework drawings must
include a placing diagram showing the proposed placing sequence and the location of all
construction joints. If a placing schedule or sequence is shown on the plans, no deviation
is permitted and the falsework must be designed and constructed to accommodate the
planned placing sequence.
3-3.03A Transverse Construction Joint

The location of transverse construction joints in the bridge superstructure is an important
falsework design consideration. If a construction joint is located near the mid-point of a
falsework beam, the initial concrete pour on one side of the joint will deflect the beam as
the concrete dead load is applied. Later, as concrete is placed on the opposite side of the
joint, additional beam deflection will occur. The additional beam deflection leaves the
first concrete placed to be unsupported, and this can result in unanticipated detrimental
stresses and even cracking in the permanent structure. To avoid this condition, transverse
construction joints in the bridge superstructure should be designed and constructed in
such a manner that subsequent pours will not produce additional stresses in the concrete
already in place. In many cases the exact location of a construction joint is not critical,
27
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3)(c)(ii), Timber. 2015 SS, 48-2.02B(3)(b), Timber.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
and the joint can be moved a few feet in either direction to accommodate the falsework
design. The important point; however, is that the joint location be considered in the
falsework design with respect to falsework beam span, thus avoiding a problem during
construction.
3-3.03B T-Beam Girder

When relatively long falsework spans are used to support T-beam structures, the added
weight of the deck concrete, which often exceeds the weight of the stem, loads the stem
and the falsework as the deck concrete is placed. This can produce stresses of
considerable magnitude in the concrete and reinforcing steel in the girder stem.
To prevent overstressing and cracking of concrete and reinforcing steel in the girder
stems of simple span T-beam girder bridges over the falsework bent or continuous T-
beam girders over the bridge bent, the SS 28 limit the length of falsework spans to 14 feet
plus 8.5 times the depth of the T-beam girder. “Depth of the T-beam girder” is a distance
between the top of the deck and the girder soffit.
Contractors will occasionally request to use a longer falsework span (l 2 ) than allowed by
the specifications. It is acceptable to exceed the specification falsework span length (l 1 ),
provided the deflection due to concrete loading in the longer span is the same as the
maximum deflection for the specification falsework span length. For T-beams with
varying depth (Haunch) girders use minimum depth for calculating falsework span,
14 + 8.5 D.
To fulfill this requirement, the falsework stringer will require a moment of inertia greater
than that required for the specification falsework span length. The acceptable moment of
inertia for the longer span will be the one which will furnish deflection (Δ 2 ) for the
proposed span same as the specification span length (Δ 1= l 1 /240 max allowed per
specification).
With Δ1 = Δ2
5wl 1 4 5wl 2 4
=
384EI 1 384EI 2
I 2 = I 1 (l 2 4/l 1 4)
Δ 1 = Deflection “l 1 /240”
Δ 2 = Deflection of the proposed span, limited to not greater than Δ 1
3-3.04 Friction
Friction used as a means of resisting opposing horizontal forces is a very intangible
factor; accordingly, the use of friction for this purpose should be considered with caution.
28
2010 SS, Section 48-2.01D(3), Design Criteria. 2015 SS, Section 48-2.02B, Design Criteria.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
When friction is used, the coefficient of friction should be assumed as not being greater
than 0.30 maximum for all contact surfaces.
In general, friction may be considered as resisting the tendency of one member to slide
over or across another member, provided frictional resistance is actually developed under
the loading condition being investigated.
Do not consider frictional resistance in any case where the dead load is not applied
uniformly through all stages of construction, or where continuity would reduce the load
acting on a support under a non-uniform loading condition.
Do not consider frictional resistance as contributing to the lateral stability of beams or

stringers. If flange support is required, the method of support must be positive and
independent of any theoretical frictional resistance.
Do not consider friction as contributing to the resisting capacity of any connecting device
unless the device is specifically designed and marketed as a friction-type connector,
except as otherwise provided in the Section 3-2.04A, C-Clamps.
3-3.04A C-Clamps
Heavy-duty commercial and/or non-commercial C-clamps having a torque-tightening
capacity of 90 foot-pounds or more may be used as connecting devices in accordance
with the criteria included herein. However, C-clamps are not to be used at any location
where they are exposed to vandalism, such as at the bottom of posts or along sill beams.
Approval of C-clamp installations must conform to the following procedure:

• The location of the clamps must be shown on the falsework drawings.
Restrictions listed below in Section 3-2.04B, C-Clamps Restrictions for Use, must
be met.
• The falsework drawings must include a note requiring all clamps to be torqued to
a minimum of 90 foot-pounds.
• For commercial clamps, the Contractor must furnish a catalog cut or
manufacturer's technical data sheet describing the clamp in sufficient detail to
verify compliance with product criteria listed in Section 3-2.04B, C-Clamps
Restrictions for Use.
• For non-commercial clamps the falsework drawings must include a sketch
showing the dimensions of the clamp. The clamp must comply with restrictions
and requirements in Section 3-2.04B, C-Clamps Restrictions for Use.
3-3.04B C-Clamps Restrictions for Use

Based on the results of field testing, C-clamps in conjunction with angles-clamped to
beams, are permitted for transmitting longitudinal forces in accordance with the criteria
contained in this section.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
The use of approved C-clamps is to be in accordance with the following situations:

A. When clamping constant thickness flanges, angle legs or plates connecting steel
sections. They are not to be used in conjunction with beveled or sloping surfaces.
B. When used as shown in Figure 3-15(a), clamps may resist longitudinal forces at a
maximum value of 3,000 pounds per clamp with a holding angle and may be used
on either, or both, sides of caps; but may not be used to resist other forces.
C. When resisting the specified 500 pound force in any direction between stringer
and cap in special locations without a holding angle; but may not be used to resist
other forces.
D. When used without an angle iron, C-clamps may be used as a mechanical
connection at traffic openings to connect stringer with cap to resist at least 500-lb
load in any direction including uplift.
Figure 3-15 (a). C-Clamp with Angle Iron Clamped to Stringer Details.
3-3.04C C-Clamps Criteria

C-clamps criteria are as follows:
A. Commercial heavy duty service pattern clamps (generally drop forged premium
quality steel) with not less than a 10,000 pound load limit.
B. C-clamp must remain in the elastic range while withstanding a torque of 90 foot-
pounds load on the bolt.
C. Bolt diameter is to be not less than 3/4 inch with a hardened cup end.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
D. Non-commercial C-clamps must conform to the above listed restrictions and

criteria. See Figure 3-15(b) for an approved non-commercial C-clamp.
Side View Front View
Figure 3-15 (b). Approved Non-Commercial C-Clamp Details.
3-3.05 Prestressing Forces

When cast-in-place prestressed structures are stressed, the initial stressing produces an
upward deflection in the positive moment area, and the resulting redistribution of vertical
forces transfers the superstructure dead load from the falsework to the adjacent abutments
and columns.
Dead load redistribution due to longitudinal prestressing will not be a falsework design
consideration unless stage construction is required. An example that will require dead
load redistribution is with continuous structures having hinged connections. For these
structures, prestressing will reduce the dead load on the falsework near the center of the
suspended span and increase the load on the falsework at the hinge. The forces involved
in the dead load redistribution are of considerable magnitude, since up to 3/8 of the total
suspended span dead load may be transferred to the falsework at the hinge. The load due
to dead load transfer must be added to the dead load calculated in the usual manner to
obtain the total dead load for the falsework design at the hinge support.
If the dead load hinge reaction (the load applied to the cantilever span by the supported
span) is not shown on the contract plans, it may be obtained from the designer.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
The effect of transverse prestressing is also a consideration. If the structure is designed to

include transverse prestressing of decks or caps, the project plans will include the
stressing sequence, and the falsework must be designed to accommodate the sequence
outlined on the plans.
3-3.06 Long-Term Superstructure Deflection

As discussed in the preceding section, falsework at a hinge must be designed to carry the
additional load imposed when the super-structure is stressed. Depending on factors, such
as the length of time the falsework is to remain in place and the method and sequence of
falsework removal, long-term deflection of the bridge superstructure occurring
subsequent to stressing may be a design consideration as well.
Long-term superstructure deflection will begin as soon as the structure is stressed. As

deflection occurs, a portion of the dead load initially transferred to the falsework at the
hinge will be carried back to the falsework near the center of the span. The amount of
dead load carry-back is a function of time and is not easy to predict. However, this should
not present a problem in most cases because the load carried back cannot exceed the load
originally resisted by the falsework.
If falsework is removed in stages, field engineers should be aware that part of the
redistributed load will be carried back with time, and that components of the falsework
system remaining in place near the center of the span will be subjected to a gradually
increasing load as superstructure deflection takes place. Accordingly, dead load carry-
back may be an important consideration when evaluating the adequacy of a given
falsework removal sequence. 29
3-3.07 Falsework at Deck Overhangs

For box girder structures with cantilevered deck overhangs, the normal two-stage
construction sequence results in differential loading of the exterior and first interior
falsework beams. The differential loading condition is exacerbated if the exterior girder is
also sloping outward at the top, as is usually the case. Depending on beam size and
location, differential loading may result in differential beam deflection, causing the
exterior girder stem to rotate. Girder rotation may occur during the girder stem pour or
during the deck pour, or during both pours.
Refer to Figure 3-16 and note that during the girder stem pour, Beam B may deflect more
than Beam A, in which case Point D will move upward relative to Beam B. This upward
movement at Point D causes the girder-stem form to rotate inward. Inward rotation will
affect alignment and grade at the top of the girder stem, but in most cases this is not
problematic since any required adjustment can be made before the deck pour. However,
the effect of differential beam deflection during the girder stem pour should be
investigated as a precautionary measure to determine whether any adverse consequences
will occur.
29
Refer to Section 9-l.16A, Stage Construction.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
No Differential Deflection Differential Deflection
(a) Prior to Deck Pour (b) After Deck Pour
Figure 3-16. Sloping Exterior Girder Brace Instability.

A more serious situation may develop during the deck pour where the weight of the deck
overhang may cause Beam A to deflect more than Beam B, particularly if Beam A is a
smaller member, which is sometimes the case. This differential deflection causes a
downward movement at Point D relative to Beam B, which pulls Brace E away from the
girder stem form panel and leaves the sloping exterior girder unsupported. The weight of
the unsupported exterior girder produces an outward rotational moment, which, if not
resisted, will cause unanticipated torsional stresses in the concrete and reinforcing steel at
the girder base. This condition (outward rotational moment) is exacerbated by the weight
of the deck concrete on the inside of the exterior girder.
The load applied to the exterior and adjacent interior falsework beams, during the deck
pour, should be investigated in all cases where the depth of a box girder structure, having
sloping exterior girders, exceeds five feet. When the applied loads result in differential
beam deflection of sufficient magnitude to cause the exterior girder support system to
become dysfunctional, the falsework design must include a means to resist girder
rotation. Structure Construction practice requires the method by which this is
accomplished to be shown on the falsework drawings, such as tiebacks to the base of the
adjacent interior girder.
For various reasons, contractors occasionally follow a three-step construction sequence in

which the soffit slab is placed independently of the girder stems. When the soffit slab is
placed as a separate concrete pour, Beam C will deflect more than Beam B and there will
be no appreciable deflection at Beam A [See Figure 3-16(a)]. These differential beam
deflections will result in an upward movement at Point D relative to Beam B.
Additionally, joist continuity will tend to lift the soffit joist at Point D as concrete is
placed. Upward movement at Point D resulting from these factors will rotate the girder
form inward. If these movements are appreciable, it may be necessary to realign the form
before placing stem concrete.

CHAPTER 3 JUNE 2016
3-3.08 Concrete Decks on Steel Girders

The SS 30 include special requirements for falsework supporting the concrete deck of steel
girder bridges. See Figure 3-17. These requirements are included to control the manner in
which falsework loads are applied to the steel girder, and thus prevent undesirable
distortion of the permanent structure.
Horizontal loads applied to the girder flanges by the falsework will produce a torsional
moment in the girder. To prevent possible overstressing of the permanent diaphragm
connections, the falsework design must include temporary struts and/or ties to resist the
full torsional moment and to prevent appreciable relative vertical movement between the
edge of deck form and the adjacent steel girder.
Additionally, the falsework must be so designed and constructed that any loads applied to
the girder web will be applied within six inches of a flange or stiffener. The applied loads
must be distributed so as to prevent local distortion of the web. Two items of concern
pertaining to steel girder bridge deck falsework are shown in Figure 3-17.
Figure 3-17. Steel Girder Falsework Details.
30
2010 SS, Section 55-1.03, Steel Structures, Construction. 2015 SS, Section 55-1.03, Steel Structures,
Construction.

CHAPTER 4. STRESS ANALYSIS
Section 4-1 Introduction
4-1.01 Policy Statement

The design stresses and deflections set forth in the falsework
specifications are the maximumstresses and deflections which
may be allowed for a given loading condition. Loads are to be
applied in accordance with the policy and procedures discussed
in Chapter 3, Section 3-l. Individual members of the falsework
system, as well as the system as a whole, must be capable of
resisting the specified design loads without exceeding the
allowable values.
In accordance with Division of Structures policy, falsework
drawings are not to be approved in any case where the calculated
stress or deflection in any falsework member exceeds the allow-
able stress or deflection for that falsework member.
4-l.02 General Design Assumptions
In general, stresses in load-carrying members of the falsework
system may be determined by using the general formulas of civil
engineering design applicable to statically determinate framed
structures.
For those elements of the falsework system that are statically
indeterminate, the Division of Structures has developed specific
methods and procedures which are to be used when investigating
system adequacy. These procedures, which are applicable to
diagonal bracing, metal shoring systems, and pads and pile
bents, are explained in Chapters 5, 6 and 7, respectively, of
this manual.
The load-carrying capacity of commercial products or devices,
such as jacks, beam hangers, deck overhang brackets and similar
items, should be determined reference to a catalog, brochure
or other technical literature published by the manufacturer, or
by a load test performed in accordance with the instructions in
Section 4-6, Manufactured Assemblies.
The load imposed on falsework beams and stringers by the slab
support system of closely-spaced joists is actually applied as
a series of concentrated loads. When calculating stresses in
these members, an equivalent uniform load may be assumed.
The effect of beam continuity must be investigated. As provided
by Division policy, any theoretical advantage resulting from
continuity should be neglected; however, the adverse effects
must be considered to prevent overstressing of any falsework
member, (See discussion in Chapter 3.)
4-1 Revised 06/95

CALIFORNIA FALSEW0RK MANUAL
When calculating stresses, keep in mind that the individual

falsework members as well as the system as a whole must be
capable of resisting all imposed loads, including any direct or
redistributed load caused by beam continuity, the construction
sequence, prestressing, deck shrinkage, and similar design and
construction features which may contribute to the overall load
to be carried by the member under investigation.
Section 4-2 Timber Members
4-2.01 Member Size

Timber members should be assumed as S4S unless shown otherwise
on the falsework drawings.
The dimensions of rough cut lumber may vary appreciably from the
theoretical dimension, particularly in the larger sizes commonly
used in falsework construction. If the use of rough cut lumber
is anticipated by the falsework design, the actual member size
must be verified prior to use.
4-2.02 Allowable Stresses and Load Duration
The maximum allowable stresses for timber as listed in the
specifications include an adjustment for an assumed duration of
load of about ten days, which is typical for most falsework
installations. Since these stresses are maximums, they may not
be increased even though the actual duration of load may turn
out to be less than the assumed duration.
Occasionally a situation will occur where the falsework will be
loaded for a long period of time, such as, for example, when a
continuous structure is constructed in stages. In such cases
load duration considerations may warrant a reduction (by the
contractor) in the allowable stress level.
Appropriate duration of load factors are shown in Figure 4-6.
4-2.03 Timber Beams
4-2.03A Beam Span
For simple beams the span length is the clear distance from
face-to-face of supports, plus one-half the required bearing
length at each end.
For continuous beams the span length is the center-to-center
distance between supports over which the beam is continuous.
For end spans of-continuous beams the span length is the
4-2 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
distance between the center-of-bearing at the continuous support

and the point of end support determined in accordance with the
simple beam rule stated in the preceding paragraph.
4-2.03B Bending and Deflection
The extreme fiber stress due to bending (fb) is calculated from
the formula:
where is the bending stress in pounds per square inch; M is

the bending moment, in inch-pounds; c is the distance from the
neutral axis to the extreme fiber, in inches; I is the moment
4
of
inertia of the section about the 3neutral axis, in inches ; and S
is the section modulus, in inches .
Deep, narrow beams may require lateral support to prevent the
compression edge from buckling before the allowable bending
stress is reached. (See Section 4-2.03E, Lateral Support of
Wood Beams.)
The maximum deflection of a uniformly loaded simple beam is
given by the formula:
where is the deflection, in inches; W is the total uniformly

distributed load, in pounds; L is the beam span, in inches; and
E and I are, respectively, the modulus of elasticity and the
moment of inertia, both in customary units.
4-2.03C Horizontal Shear
The formula for horizontal shear in a rectangular beam "b"
inches wide and "d" inches deep is:
where is the maximum horizontal shearing-stress, in pounds

per square inch; V is the vertical shear, in pounds; and A is
the cross sectional area of the beam, in square inches.
Theoretically, the strength of a wood beam in horizontal shear
is a function of that strength property for the specie and the
extent to which a particular beam may be checked or split at the
end, However, tests by the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory and
others have shown that with split beams the shear force is not
uniformly distributed as assumed by the shear formula. Instead,
in a split or checked beam, the upper and lower halves of the
beam each resist a portion of the total horizontal shear force
4-3 Revised 06/95

independently of the force resisted by the beam at the neutral

axis, so that a split or checked beam is capable of carrying a
larger load than would appear to be the case using the general
shear formula. Investigation of this phenomenon led to the
derivation of so-called "two-beam" or "checked-beam" formulas
from which the horizontal shearing stress may be determined with
greater accuracy.
When reviewing falsework designs, the horizontal shearing stress
should be1
computed using the general formula for a rectangular
section . When computing the total shear "V" to use in the
formula, neglect all loads within a distance from the face of
the support equal to the depth of the beam. If the allowable
stress is exceeded when computed by the general formula, and if
the contractor's beam design is based on the use of the checked-
beam method of analysis, the shear value "V" may be determined
by using the checked-beam formulas, and this value used in the
horizontal shear calculation 2.
4-2.03D Compression Perpendicular to the Grain
Compression perpendicular to the grain at beam supports is given
by the formula:
where is the compression stress perpendicular to the grain,

in pounds per square inch; P is the applied load, in pounds; and
A is the-bearing area in square inches.
When calculating the bearing area at the end of a beam, no
allowance need be made for the fact that, as the beam deflects,
the pressure at the heaviest loaded edge of the support appears
greater than at the other edge. The wood yields enough so that
pressures equalize, and overstressing does not occur.
1
Note that the Division's Falsework Check computer program
uses the general formula for rectangular sections to calculate
horizontal shear.
2
A discussion of checked-beam theory is not included in this
manual because horizontal shear is seldom critical in bridge
falsework spans. However, a discussion of the checked-beam
method of analysis may be found in the National Design Specifi-
cation for Wood Construction and other timber design manuals,
and reference is made thereto.
4-4 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
For small members (2x4's, 2x6's, 4x4's etc.) having a short

length of bearing, it is standard practice to compute the
bearing stress on the basis of an effective area determined
by multiplying the actual area by the factor:
L + 3/8
L
where L is the bearing length in inches.

Use of the "effective area" factor will be permitted in the
analysis of bridge falsework, provided the bearing length is
less than six inches and the end of the load-carrying member
extends three inches or more beyond the back face of the
support.
To facilitate construction at locations where a conventional
support may not be feasible, falsework members occasionally are
supported by rods or dowels cast into a previous concrete pour.
For example, lost deck forms may be supported- by a ledger beam
bearing on dowels cast into the girder stem. In this or any
other case where a timber member bears directly on a round
support, there will be some yielding of the wood fibers as the
load is applied, and some crushing will occur.
When investigating bearing adequacy. when timber members are
supported by steel bars, the following policy will apply:
l When lost deck forms are supported by 2-inch nominal and
wider ledger beams bearing on either 5/8-inch or 3/4-inch
diameter reinforcing bar dowels, and provided the dowel
extends far enough from the face of the concrete to-ensure
full-width bearing under the ledger, a vertical design load
of 900 pounds (maximum) may be used on each dowel.
l For all other cases where timber members bear directly on
steel bars, bearing adequacy will be verified by means of
an "equivalent length of bearing" equal to one-half the bar
diameter. If the calculated stress based on an equivalent
bearing length of one-half the bar diameter does not exceed
the allowable stress, the detail may be approved even
though some crushing will occur.
When investigating the bearing adequacy of a timber member on a
round support, the bearing area obtained by using an equivalent
length of bearing may not be increased further by applying the
effective area factor previously discussed. Combining the two
procedures would take unreasonable advantage of the bridging
ability of wood fibers, and thus as a matter of policy will not
be permitted for falsework analysis.
4-5 Revised 06/95

4-2.03E Lateral Support of Wood Beams
Beams having a large depth-to-width ratio may fail by lateral
buckling (in much the same manner as long columns) before the
allowable bending stress is reached unless they are restrained
and forced to deflect in the plane of the load. The amount of
restraint needed to ensure beam stability is a function of the
depth-to-width ratio; however, it is not subject to precise
analysis.
In the timber industry it is accepted design practice to check
beam stability using guidelines developed empirically by the
U.S. Forest Products Laboratory. However, these industry
guidelines, which may be found in many timber design manuals and
handbooks, were developed for permanent work and thus are too
conservative for the temporary loading conditions typical of
bridge falsework. Accordingly, the Division of Structures has
modified the industry guidelines to reflect the temporary nature
of falsework construction. The Division's criteria for evaluat-
ing timber beam stability are as follows:
l If the nominal depth-to-width ratio of a beam is 3:1 or
less, no lateral support is needed.
l If the nominal depth-to-width ratio exceeds 3:l but is not
more than 4:1, the ends of the beam should be braced at the
top and bottom.
l If the nominal depth-to-span ratio exceeds 4:l but is not
more than 6:1, the ends of the beam should be fully sup-
ported by blocking between beams.
• If the nominal ratio exceeds 6:1, in addition to blocking
at the beam ends, blocking or diagonal bridging should be
used at midspan for spans up to 16 feet, and at midspan and
the quarter points for spans greater than 16 feet.
3
4-2.03F Beam Rollover
When placed in other than a true vertical position, a timber
beam will exhibit a tendency to rotate about its base as the
load is applied. This rotational tendency, commonly referred to
as "beam rollover", is an indication of instability which must
be investigated during the falsework design review.
The tendency of beams to roll over when placed on a sloping
surface is a function of the height and width of the beam,
3
As used in this section, the term "beam" means and includes
any horizontal load-carrying member of the falsework system,
including joists.
4-6 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
the load, and the slope (the angle with horizontal expressed as
a percentage) on which the beam is placed. Beam rollover should
be investigated in all cases where beams are set on a sloping
surface using the procedure described below to find the maximum
beam height for a given load, slope and beam width.
In addition to rollover stability, beams placed on a sloping
surface require a further check to verify that the allowable
compressive stress is not exceeded at the downslope corner of
the beam.
4-2.03F(1) Investigation of Rollover Stability
For analysis of beam rollover, it is assumed that the vertical
load acts as a concentrated load on the top center of the beam.
Refer to Figure 4-l and note that the load transfers through the
beam to the surface in contact with the supporting member
through a vertical line. The beam will be stable against
rollover if the line of the vertical load reaction lies within
the beam width.
When moments are taken about the downslope
corner of a beam placed on a sloping surface,
as indicated by point A in Figure 4-1, the beam
will be stable against rollover provided the
righting moment (RM) exceeds the overturning
moment (OTM).
For a given slope and beam load, there is a
limiting beam height-to-width relationship.
For a given width, the limiting height is
determined as follows:
FIGURE 4-l
where P is the load on the beam, h is the height of the beam, b

is the width of the beam, S is the slope expressed in percent,
and is the tilt angle.
As an example, the limiting Slope for a 2x10 (1.5" x 9.25") beam
is calculated as follows:
Slope(%) = 50 b = 50(1.5) = 8.1%

h 9.25
4-7 Revised 06/95

4-2.03F(2) Investigation of Compressive Stress

As the slope on which the beam rests increases, the compressive
bearing stress between the beam and the supporting member at the
downslope edge of the beam increases. This is the case because
the center of gravity of the load acting through the top center
of the beam remains vertical. The stress at the downslope edge
is determined as follows:
l Calculate the compressive stress for normal bearing on the
area between the beam and the supporting member as shown in
Figure 4-2(a).
fc =
where is the compressive stress; P is the load and is
the slope angle, so that is the load component acting
perpendicular to the bearing surface; and A is the bearing
area.
l Calculate the stress due to vertical load eccentricity
using the bending stress equation. See Figure 4-2(b)
where is the stress due to the bending moment produced

by the eccentric loading condition, e is the distance from
the centerline of the beam at the bearing surface to the
vertical reaction line, and S is the beam section modulus.
(a)
FIGURE 4-2
The sum of the stress values from steps 1 and 2 will give the
total compressive stress at the downslope edge of the beam, as
shown in Figure 4-2(c).
4-8 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
Except for joists bearing on camber strips, the calculated

bearing stress on the downslope edge of a beam may not exceed
the allowable stress of 450 psi. For joists bearing on camber
strips, the calculated stress may not exceed the allowable
stress of 900 psi.
As an example, the bearing stress on the downslope edge of a
2x10 (1.5" x 9.25") beam on a 6 percent cross slope resting-on a
l-1/2" wide camber strip where the design load is 1900 pounds is
calculated as follows:
4-2.03F(3) Blocking to Prevent Rollover4

Beams which otherwise would be unstable against rollover when
investigated in accordance with the procedure described in the
preceding sections may be made stable by the use of. full-depth
blocking at the beam ends. Additionally, when the slope exceeds
8 percent, the following shall apply:
l If the nominal depth-to-width ratio is 4:l or less, block-
ing. should be provided at mid-span.
l If the nominal depth-to-span ratio exceeds 4:1, blocking
should be provided at the l/3 points of the span.
For joists that are subject to rollover, toe-nailing to the
supporting surface, in lieu of blocking, will not be permitted
since the joist can break at the toe-nailed location.
4
The tendency of a beam to roll over is an independent condi-
tion of instability; consequently, the need for blocking to
prevent beam rollover occurs independently of any requirement
for blocking or other means of support to ensure beam stability
as discussed in Section 4-2.03E, Lateral Support of Wood Beams.
4-9 Revised 06/95

4-2.04 Timber Posts
For analysis, falsework posts may be considered as pinned at the
top and bottom, regardless of the actual end condition, except
for driven pile bents. In a timber pile bent, the piles may be
assumed as fixed at a point four diameters below the ground
surface, unless the actual soil condition dictates a different
assumption. (See Chapter 7 for the procedure to be followed
when investigating the capacity of timber pile bents.)
For analysis, timber posts are classified as short, long or
intermediate columns, depending on the failure mode.
Short columns are those in which failure occurs as a result of
axial crushing, and bending is not a factor. Most authorities
define a "short" column as one having a slenderness ratio of
eleven or less. (Slenderness ratio is the ratio of length to
least dimension.) Long columns are those in which failure is
due to buckling, and strength is governed entirely by stiffness.
Intermediate columns are those in which failure is due to a
combination of axial crushing and bending.
In short posts the axial unit stress in compression parallel to
the grain is determined by dividing the total load by the cross
sectional area of the post; hence the formula:
f c = P/A
where is the compressive stress parallel to the grain, in
pounds per square inch; P is the axial load, in pounds; and A is
the cross-sectional area of the post, in square inches.
Analysis of long and intermediate posts requires the use of
empirical formulas to obtain a limiting value for , which is
less than the allowable for-axially-loaded short posts. These
formulas are derived from the general Euler formula, which was
developed for axially-loaded pin-ended columns. For a square or
rectangular cross-section, the Euler formula is:
0.3E
Fc =
2
(L/d)
where is the maximum allowable unit stress, in pounds per
square inch; E is the modulus of elasticity; L is the unsup-
ported length, in inches; and d is the minimum dimension, in
inches, measured normal to the plane of bending.
4-10 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
The Euler formula reduces to the following when the modulus of

elasticity for wood of 1.6 x l06 psi is used:
480,000
FC =
2
(L/d)
The specifications limit the value of to 1600 psi. This
limiting value corresponds to an L/d ratio of about 17.3.
In actual practice, the Euler formula gives conservative values
since it is applied to restrained and square-end posts and
columns, which are not as limber as the pin-ended columns from
which it was derived.
4-2.04A Round and Tapered Posts and Piles
Other factors being equal, round and square posts having the
same cross-sectional area have approximately equal stiffness,
and therefore carry approximately the same load.
When analyzing round members, the least dimension "d" to use in
the column formula should be taken as the length of the side of
a square post whose area is equal to the cross-sectional area of
the round post being used. This procedure will give results
which are accurate within five percent for posts of the size and
length ordinarily encountered in falsework construction.
When analyzing tapered members, the least dimension "d" to use
in the slenderness ratio L/d is found by first determining the
"equivalent diameter" of the tapered member by means of the
following relationship:
where Do is the equivalent diameter, is the tip or smallest

diameter, and is the butt or largest diameter. All dimen-
sions are in inches.
4-11 Revised 06/95

CALIFORNIA FALSERORK MANUAL
Section 4-3 Timber Fasteners
4-3.01 Introduction
Design methodology and fastener values found in the National
Design Specification for Wood Construction and other recognized
timber handbooks are intended to apply to permanent work, and,
thus are not necessarily appropriate for falsework. In view of
this, the Division of Structures has developed alternative
methodology that generally follows industry design practice, but
which includes modifications where warranted to assure that the
review procedures followed are reasonable in the light of false-
work requirements.
4-3.02 Connector Design Values
Design values for both lateral load resistance and withdrawal
resistance for wood fasteners in various wood species have been
standardized by the timber industry, and are available in many
timber design manuals and handbooks.
To facilitate review of falsework designs using timber bracing,
fastener design values for Douglas Fir-Larch, which is the wood
species commonly used for construction in California, are
tabulated in Appendix E for nails, bolts, lag screws and drift
pins. Design values for other fasteners, and for other wood
species, may be obtained from the Sacramento Office of Structure
Construction.
The design values in Appendix E are for normal duration of load,
and may be increased for the shorter load durations typical of
bridge falsework. See Section 4-3.07, Adjustment for Duration
of Load.
4-3.03 Nails and Spikes
4-3.03A Design Values
Withdrawal and lateral load design values for nails and spikes
are tabulated in Tables E-4 through E-7 in Appendix E.
The tabulated values are for an individual nail or spike. When
more than one nail or spike is used in a connection, the total
design value for the connection is the sum of the design values
for the individual nails or spikes.
Diameters shown in the design tables apply to fasteners before
application of any protective coating.
4-12 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
4-3.03(1) Withdrawal Resistance

The tabulated design values are for a nail or spike driven into
the side grain of the member holding the point with the axis of
the nail or spike perpendicular to the direction of the wood
fibers.
Nails and spikes have little resistance to withdrawal when
driven into the end grain of a wood member. Accordingly, the
use of connections where the nail or spike is subject to with-
drawal from the end grain of wood will not be permitted.
4-3.03A(2) Lateral Resistance
The tabulated design values are for a nail or spike driven into
the side grain of the member holding the point with the axis of
the nail or spike perpendicular to the direction of the wood
fibers. The values apply for a lateral load acting in any
direction.
When a nail or spike is driven into the end grain of a wood
member, the design value is reduced to 2/3 of the tabulated
value.
The ability of a nail or spike to resist lateral forces is a
function of the diameter and depth of penetration of that nail
or spike into the member holding the point. The design value
tables show both the maximum and minimum lateral resistance
values-for a given type and size fastener. Refer to the design
tables (Tables E-4 through E-7 in Appendix E) and note that the
maximum lateral resistance is reached when the penetration is 11
diameters, which is identified in the tables as the desired
penetration. The lateral resistance value at the desired
penetration of 11 diameters may not be increased, even though
the actual penetration may exceed 11 diameters.
When the penetration is less than 11 diameters, the design value
is obtained by straight-line interpolation between the maximum
and minimum tabulated values, provided the actual
5
penetration is
not less than the minimum penetration shown.
5 A penetration of less than the desired penetration may occur

when round posts are used or when longitudinal bracing on skewed
bents is not parallel to the side of a square post. In such
situations, care must be taken to ensure that the minimum
penetration is actually obtained, since nails or spikes having a
penetration of less than the minimum will have no allowable
lateral load-carrying value.
4-13 Revised 06/95

4-3.03B Required Nail Spacing

The timber industry has not adopted standards to govern the
spacing of nails and spikes when used in an engineered timber
connection. The industry guideline is that edge distance, end
distance and spacing must "...be sufficient to prevent split-
ting of the wood." (National Design Specification for Wood
Construction, 1991 Edition.)
In recent years there has been a trend toward the use of a
greater number of nails in timber falsework connections than
would appear warranted by prudent design considerations. In
view of this, the Division of Structures has established the
following guidelines which, as a matter of policy, will govern
the spacing of nails and spikes when used to connect falsework
bracing components:
l The average center-to-center distance between adjacent
nails or spikes, measured in any direction, shall not be
less than the required penetration into the main member for
the size of nail being used.
l The minimum end distance in the side member, and the
minimum edge distance in both side member and main
member, shall not be less than one-half of the required
penetration.
While proper installation of timber connections is primarily a
field concern, the design review must assure that the members
are large enough to accommodate the required number of nails or
spikes when the nails or spikes are spaced in conformance with
Division of Structures criteria as set forth above.
4-3.03C Toe-Nailed Connections
Industry practice recommends that toe-nails be driven at an
angle of approximately 30° with the member being toe-nailed, and
started approximately l/3 the length of the nail from the end of
the member.
Design values for withdrawal and lateral load resistance must be
reduced for toe-nailed connections, as follows:
l For withdrawal loading, the design load shall be reduced to
2/3 of the value shown in the applicable design table.
l For lateral loading, the design load shall be reduced to
5/6 of the value shown in the applicable design table.
4-14 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
4-3.04 Bolted Connections

4-3.04A Design Values
Design values for bolted connections are shown in Table E-1 in
Appendix E.
Except for connections in falsework adjacent to or over rail-
roads, threaded rods and coil rods may be used in place of bolts
of the same diameter with no reduction in the tabulated values.
The values in Table E-l may be used without modification when
the load is applied either parallel or perpendicular to the
direction of the wood grain. When the load is applied at an
angle to the grain, as is the case with falsework bracing, the
design value for the main member is obtained from the Hankinson
formula. The Hankinson formula is:
where N is the design value for the main member; P and Q are,
respectively, the tabulated design values for a load applied
parallel to and perpendicular to the grain; and is the angle
between the direction of the wood grain in the main member and
the direction of the load in the side member. (See Figure 4-3.)
Direction of load
in side member
Direction of
wood grain
FIGURE 4-3
4-15 Revised 06/95

The design values in Table E-l are based on square posts. For a
round post, use as the main member thickness the side of a
square post having the same cross-sectional area as the round
post used.
When appropriately sized steel bars or shapes are used as
diagonal bracing, the tabulated design values for main members
loaded parallel to the grain (P value) are increased 75 percent
for joints made with bolts l/2 inch or less in diameter; 25
percent for joints made with bolts l-l/2 inches in diameter;
and proportionally for intermediate diameters. No increase is
allowed in the tabulated values for perpendicular-to-grain
loading (Q value).
4-3.04B Design Procedure
Design values shown in Table E-1 are directly applicable only to
three-member joints (bolt in double-shear) in which the side
members are each one-half the thickness of the main member.
This joint configuration is not typical of bridge falsework
where side members are usually much smaller than main members
and where two-member joints (bolt in single shear) are common,
Full-scale load tests on bolted connections carried out at the
California Department of Transportation research facility
revealed that the industry design procedure for two-member
joints, which assumes a single-shear load factor of 0.50, is
overly conservative for falsework members. A factor of 0.75 was
found to be a more realistic value for falsework requirements.
In view of this, the procedure adopted by the Division of
Structures uses a shear factor of 0.75 when evaluating the
adequacy of two-member bolted connections as explained in the
following section.
4-3.04B(l) Two-Member Connections
Figure 4-4 shows a typical two-member bolted connection in which
the side member is loaded parallel-to-grain and the main member
is loaded at an angle to the grain.
For a two-member connection, the connector design value is the
lessor of the design values for the side and main member deter-
mined in accordance with the following:
l For the side member, the design value is three-fourths of
the tabulated design value (TDV) for a piece twice the
thickness of the side member. To find the tabulated design
value, enter Table E-1, Column P, with a member twice the
thickness of the side member.
SIDE MEMBER DESIGN VALUE = (0.75)(TDV)
4-16 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
TWO-MEMBER BOLTED CONNECTION
FIGURE 4-4
l For the main member, the design value is three-fourths of

the value obtained from the Hankinson formula using the
tabulated parallel-to-grain (P value) and perpendicular-to-
grain (Q value) design values in Table E-1 for a piece the
thickness of the main member.
MAIN MEMBER DESIGN VALUE = (0.75)PQ
where P and Q are, respectively, the tabulated design

values for a load applied parallel to and perpendicular
to the grain, and is the angle between the main and side
members.
The design procedure discussed in the preceding paragraphs is
valid only when the direction of the load is perpendicular to
the axis of the bolt. If the load acts at an angle to the bolt
axis, as will be the case with longitudinal bracing when false-
work bents are skewed, the design values must be determined
using a single-shear factor of 0.50, rather than the 0.75 factor
used when the load is perpendicular to the bolt axis. For this
condition, the design value formulas become:
MAIN MEMBER DESIGN VALUE = (0.5)(TDV)
MAIN MEMBER DESIGN VALUE = (0.50)PQ
4-17 Revised 06/95

4-3.04B(2) Three-Member Connections

Figure 4-5 shows a three-member connection in which the side
members are loaded parallel-to-grain and the main member is
loaded at an angle to the grain. In a three member connection,
each side member connection functions as an independent two-
member connection. The allowable connector design value for
each side member is determined individually in accordance with
the previously described procedure for two-member connections.
THREE-MEMBER BOLTED CONNECTION
FIGURE 4-5
4-3.04C Installation Requirements

Although installation is primarily a construction concern, the
design review should verify that bolt installation will meet the
following industry criteria for end and edge distance:
• For parallel-to-grain loading, the minimum end distance for
full design load shall be:
(a) In tension, 7 times the bolt diameter.
(b) In compression, 4 times the bolt diameter;
• For perpendicular-to-grain loading, the minimum end
distance shall be 4 times the bolt diameter.
4-18 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
l For parallel-to-grain loading in tension or compression,

the edge distance shall be at least 1.5 times the bolt
diameter.
l For perpendicular-to-grain loading, the edge distance
toward which the load is acting shall be at least 4 times
the bolt diameter and the distance on the opposite edge
shall be at least 1.5 bolt diameters. When load reversal
occurs, as will be the case for diagonal bracing in timber
frames, 4 bolt diameters will be needed at both edges.
See Chapter 9 for additional information on fabrication of
bolted connections and installation of bolts.
4-3.04D Multiple-Bolt Connections
When two bolts are used in a connection, the total connector
capacity is the sum of the design values of the two individual
bolts.
When two bolts are used, they must be set on the axis of the
side member. The minimum distance (spacing) between the bolts
is 4 times the bolt -diameter, measured center-to-center of the
bolt holes.
When more than two bolts are used to connect timber members,
industry guidelines impose additional requirements that must be
followed in the design. These guidelines, to the extent they
are applicable to falsework construction, are discussed in
Appendix E. Appendix E also includes example problems showing
the design procedure for multiple-bolt installations.
6
4-3.05 Lag Screw Connection
Design values for lag screws for both withdrawal and lateral
loading may be found in Tables E-2 and E-3 in Appendix E.
The tabulated values apply only when the lag screw is installed
in a properly sized predrilled hole. (See Chapter 9.)
6
As a point of interest, note that lag screws, or lag bolts
as they are sometimes called, are not "bolts" in the commonly
understood meaning of the term. Lag screws are pointed on the
end opposite the head and have a screw-type thread. In a lag
screw connection, the lag screw penetrates into but not through
the main member. Bolts have a constant diameter and are
uniformly threaded to receive a nut. In a bolted connection,
the bolt will extend through all members. Because of their
superior performance characteristics, bolts are assigned a much
higher fastening value than lag screws of the same nominal
diameter.
4-19 Revised 06/95

For withdrawal resistance, the tables show the withdrawal value

in pounds per inch of penetration of the threaded part of the
lag screw into the side grain of the member holding the point,
with the axis of the screw perpendicular to that member.
For end-grain withdrawal, the allowable design value may not
exceed 75 percent of the corresponding value for withdrawal from
side grain.
For lateral load resistance, the tables list design values for
loads applied both parallel and perpendicular to the direction
of the wood grain. When the load is applied at an angle to the
grain, as is the case with falsework bracing, the design value
is obtained from the Hankinson formula. (See discussion in
Section 4-3.04A, Design Values.)
The tabulated lateral load design values apply only when the lag
screw is inserted into the side grain of the member holding the
point. If for a particular use, a lag screw is inserted into
the end grain of the main member, the design value is 2/3 of the
value shown for a load acting perpendicular to-the grain (the Q
value).
Industry standards require the spacing, edge and end distances,
and net section for lag screw connections to conform to the
requirements for bolted connections made with bolts having a
diameter equal to the shank diameter of the lag screw.
4-3.06 Drift Pin and Drift Bolt Connections
Drift pins are steel rods cut to any desired length. Drift
bolts are steel rods manufactured with a bolt head on one end.
Typically, these fasteners are used to connect large members,
such as caps and posts in a timber bent.
When drift pins or drift bolts are used at locations where the
connection is subject to analysis, the required penetration will
be determined as provided in this section.
4-3.06A Lateral Resistance
In accordance with industry standards, the lateral resistance
design value of a drift pin or drift bolt inserted into the side
grain of a wood member may not exceed 75 percent of the design
value for a common bolt of the same diameter and length in the
main member.
4-20 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
The timber industry has not established design values for drift
pins or bolts inserted into the end grain of a member, as would
be the case for a falsework cap-to-post connection. For this
type of connection, Division of Structures policy limits the
lateral load-resisting capacity to 60 percent of the allowable
side grain load (perpendicular to grain, or Q value) for an
equal diameter bolt with nut. To develop this strength the
drift pin or bolt should penetrate at least 12 diameters into
the end grain.
4-3.06B Withdrawal Resistance
Withdrawal resistance is a function of several factors, such as
the diameter of the drift pin or bolt, the length of penetration
into or through a member, and the density of the wood. However,
the timber industry has not adopted specific design values for
withdrawal. Rather, the recognized industry standard is that
drift pins or drift bolts subject to withdrawal loading are to
be "...designed in accordance with good engineering practice?
(From National Design Specification for Wood Construction, 1991
Edition.)
In the absence of industry-wide criteria, the following formulas
developed by the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory may be used to
estimate the withdrawa. resistance of drift pins and bolts. The
formulas shown are applicable to Douglas-Fir Larch.
For withdrawal from side grain:
For withdrawal from end grain:

P =
In the formulas, P is the allowable withdrawal load in pounds
per inch of penetration, and D is the diameter of the drift pin
or drift bolt.
Values obtained from the formulas are for normal duration of
load, and should be increased pursuant to the provisions in
Section 4-3.07, Adjustment for Duration of Load.
For installations where the penetration of a drift pin or drift
bolt is into the end grain of the holding member and through the
side grain of the member being held, as is typical of a cap and
post or pile connection, the penetration into the end grain
should provide a withdrawal resistance sufficient to develop the
side grain withdrawal resistance of the member being held.
4-21 Revised 06/95

7
4-3.07 Adjustment for Duration of Load
Design values shown in Tables E-l through E-8 are for normal
load durations and may be increased for short-duration loading.
Selecting the proper duration-of-load factor to use in the
calculations is a matter of engineering judgment. Reference to
the duration of load graph in Figure 4-6 indicates that a factor
of 1.25 will be applicable to most falsework designs, since
falsework is seldom subjected to maximum loading for more than
seven days. For loads of shorter duration, such as wind, a
larger factor would be appropriate. For stage construction
where the falsework will remain loaded for an appreciable length
of time, a lower factor may be appropriate.
Duration of Maximum Load
FIGURE 4-6
7
The adjustment for duration of load as discussed in this
section applies only to design values for timber connectors,
such as nails, bolts and lag screws. Allowable stresses for.
timber and structural steel components used in the connection,
as set forth in the specifications, are maximums and thus may
not be increased even though the actual duration of load in a
given situation may be less than the assumed duration
4-22 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
For normal falsework construction, Division of Structures policy.

will permit the use of the following duration-of-load factors:
l a factor of 1.25 when the falsework design is governed by
the minimum load (two percent of the design dead load),
l a factor of 1.33 when the design is governed by the wind
load.
l a factor of 2.0 (impact loading) for design of the sill-
to-base, post-to-sill, cap-to-post and stringer-to-cap
connections at traffic openings. (See Chapter 8.)
If the falsework will remain loaded for a relatively longer
period, such as cast-in-place prestressed construction where
stressing will be delayed or stage construction sequences for
any type of concrete structure, the use of a smaller duration
of load factor may be appropriate.
Section 4-4 Steel Members
4-4.01 Allowable Stresses

The maximum allowable stresses and other design criteria in the
specifications are based on the assumed use of structural steel
conforming to ASTM Grade A36. This assumption is reasonable for
beams and other sections commonly used in falsework construc-
tion, including unusual sections such as old railroad car beams
and beams salvaged from dismantled bridges or buildings, because
these older sections were rolled from Grade A7 steel. The
physical properties of former Grade A7 steel are similar to the
properties of the Grade A36 steel being produced today.
The specifications permit the use of higher working stresses for
other grades of steel for all loading conditions except flexural
compression, provided the grade of steel can be identified.
Identification is the contractor's responsibility, subject to
verification by the engineer. (See Chapter 9.)
Although the specifications allow higher working stresses when
higher strength steels are used, it should be noted that the
load-carrying capacity of steel beams will, in most cases, be-
limited by deflection, not stress. When deflection controls,
the use of high-strength steel will not be on any benefit since
the limiting deflection cannot be increased.
High-strength steel beams may provide a greater load-carrying
capacity in situations where beams are subjected to bi-axial
bending.
4-23 Revised 06/95

4-4.02 Bending Stresses

The bending stress formulas are:
f = MC/I or f = M/S
where f is the bending stress, M is the bending moment, c is the
distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber, I is the.
moment of inertia of the beam about the neutral axis, and S is
the beam section modulus.
If the compression flange is supported, these formulas may be
used to determine the section needed to carry the applied load
for a beam in which bending occurs in the vertical plane only.
However, bridge falsework differs from most other construction
in that falsework beams are usually set perpendicular to a
supporting cap, and the cap is placed parallel to the bridge
soffit rather than level. This construction configuration
causes the beam to deviate from a true vertical plane by an
angle which is equal to the soffit cross slope, and the result
is bi-axial bending in the beam. Bi-axial bending is discussed
in the following section.
If the compression flange of a beam is not supported, the
maximum allowable bending stress must be reduced to prevent
flange buckling. (See Section 4-4.04, Flange Buckling, for
additional information.)
4-4.03 Bi-Axial Bending
Figure 4-7 shows a beam set on a sloping surface. For such
beams, the theoretical centroid of the applied load P acts on
the top flange through the projected centerline of the web,
rather than through the center of gravity of the canted beam.
When a vertical load is applied to a canted beam, the load is
divided into two components: one acting through the web and one
acting along the top flange. This loading condition produces
bi-axial bending (i.e., bending in two planes) which decreases
the load a given beam is able to carry. The decrease in beam
capacity is a function of beam shape and soffit cross slope, and
it cannot be determined by inspection. Accordingly, the effect
of bi-axial bending must be investigated in all cases where
falsework beams are not set in a true vertical plane.
When a beam is set on a sloping surface, the load component
acting along the top flange causes the flange to deflect in the
downslope direction. For nominal cross slopes, this lateral
deflection is small and may be neglected. As the cross slope
increases, however, the lateral deflection increases as well,
and eventually becomes a factor for consideration since it can
adversely affect both form alignment and reinforcing steel
clearances.
4-24 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
FIGURE 4-7
For analysis of bi-axial bending, Division of Structures policy

provides for consideration of lateral deflection in all cases
where the falsework beam is canted more than 2 percent.
Example Problem 16 in Appendix D illustrates the procedure
for calculating stresses and deflections in beams subject to
bi-axial bending.
4-4.03A Beams Canted 2 Percent or Less
Refer to Figure 4-7 and note that for any beam subject to bi-
axial bending, the maximum bending stress (fb) is the sum of the
bending stresses in the x and y directions. The following
formulas may be used to calculate based on the moments of
inertia of the non-rotated section and the rotation angle
Calculate the actual vertical deflection by using the moment of

inertia about the 3-3 axis (I,) in the deflection equation. As
previously noted, for this case the lateral deflection may be
neglected.
As an alternative procedure, stresses and deflections may be
determined with respect to the strong X-X and weak Y-Y axis by
using the X and Y components of the applied load P. (See the
example problem in Appendix D.)
4-25 Revised 06/95

4-4.03B Beams Canted More Than 2 Percent

The maximum bending stress and vertical deflection are computed
in accordance with the procedure for beams canted 2 percent or
less as discussed in the preceding section. In addition, for
box girder structures, it is necessary to evaluate the effect of
lateral deflection as discussed herein.
For box girder structures, the net lateral deflection of false-
work beams under the weight of the bottom slab and girder stems
only is limited to 1.5 inches. This policy limitation is
considered necessary to mitigate the adverse affect of lateral
movement during the soffit and girder stem concrete pour on form
alignment and reinforcing steel placement and clearances.
Refer to Figure 4-8, which is a schematic depiction of the.
movement of a point (Point A) on the top flange of a beam which
is subject to bi-axial bending as it deflects under load.
AD = vertical deflection =
DB = lateral deflection =
CB = net lateral deflection
= DB - DC
FIGURE 4-8
The movement of point A to point B depicted in Figure 4-8 is the

combined vertical and lateral deflection of the bottom slab and
stems of a box girder structure as the concrete is placed.
While the vertical deflection can be compensated for by camber
strips, the lateral deflection DB will displace the bottom slab
and stems from the planned alignment (line AE) by the distance
CB, which is the net lateral deflection. The net deflection is
limited to 1.5 inches maximum.
For the lateral deflection calculation, the vertical load is the
dead load weight of the concrete in the soffit slab and girder
stems. Use the component values of the vertical load to deter-
mine beam deflections about both the X-X and Y-Y axis.
4-26 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
4-4 .I, 04 Flange Buckling

The compression flange of a beam may be visualized as a column
loaded along its length by increments of load transferred to it
by horizontal shear from the web. If the compression flange is
narrow compared to the depth of the beam, the flange may fail by
buckling in somewhat the same manner as a slender column.
Although methods for determining the critical buckling stress
are quite complex, in steel members many simplifications are
possible. Generally, the empirical formulas used are similar to
column formulas, except that the flange width "b" is used
instead of the radius of gyration.
The formula in our specification is:
but not more than 22,000 psi for unidentified steel or

steel conforming to ASTM Designation A36, nor more than
0. 6Fy for other identified grades of steel where is the
minimum yield stress.
In the formula, L is the laterally unsupported length, d is
the depth of the member and bt is the area of the compression
flange. All dimensions are in inches. This formula gives the
maximum allowable fiber stress in the beam. If the actual
stress exceeds the allowable, the flange must be supported or
the load reduced.
It is difficult to determine how much lateral support may be

developed by other falsework members. For example, friction
between the joists and top flange of a beam will provide some
restraint, but the amount is indeterminate. As a matter of
policy, therefore, friction between the joists and top flange
will be neglected when investigating flange buckling.
Since it is impossible to predict the direction in which the
compression flange will buckle, it is necessary to provide
positive restraint in both directions. This is an important and
often overlooked point. For example, the use of a tension tie
between two adjacent beams or welding a light structural steel
shape (such as a bar or angle) across the top flange of several
beams will not prevent lateral movement. Such measures merely
assure that all beams deflect in the same direction. Even when
tension ties are used in combination with a compression strut,
lateral restraint is not-effective because the restraining
components cannot assure that the beams will act as a unit when
a lateral force is applied.
4-23 Revised 06/95

Timber cross-bracing between adjacent beams is widely-used

for flange support in falsework construction. In this method
timber struts, in pairs, are set diagonally between the top
flange of one beam and the bottom flange of the adjacent beam
to form an X, and securely wedged into place. However, timber
cross-bracing alone will not prevent flange buckling because
timber struts can resist only compression forces.
Perhaps the most effective flange support method uses steel
tension ties welded, clamped or otherwise secured across the top
and bottom of adjacent beams in combination with timber cross-
bracing between the beams, as shown in Figure 4-9.
Tension tie (top and bottom)

or banding
Steel
beam
FIGURE 4-9
Many contractors use commercial steel banding material wrapped

around pairs of adjacent cross-braced beams. Steel banding is
less expensive and easier to install and remove than other types
of tension components, but banding is not effective unless it is
properly installed and tightened. Furthermore, when banding is
used as part of a flange support system, some means must be
provided to prevent an abrupt bend or kink at the point of
contact with the outer edge of the beam flange. This is an
important consideration because any kink or sharp bend in
commercial banding is, potentially, a point of stress concentra-
tion which can reduce the strength of the banding material. The
use of softeners will reduce this stress concentration.
Keep in mind that steel banding is a commercial product. If
there is any question as to the adequacy of banding installed in
a given situation, the contractor should be required to furnish
manufacturer's catalog data and instructions for use.
4-28 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
Bracing, blocking, steel banding, ties, etc., required for

lateral support of beam flanges must be installed at right
angles to the beam. Bracing in adjacent bays should be set in
the same transverse plane, if possible. If, because of skew or
other considerations, it is necessary to offset the bracing in
adjacent bays, the offset distance should not exceed twice the
depth of the beam.
Finally, when investigating flange buckling, keep in mind that
only a small force is needed to hold the compression flange in.
position. In steel design for permanent work, it is common
practice to use an assumed value of two percent of the calcu-
lated compression force in the beam flange at the point under
consideration as the design force for the supporting brace, and
this practice will be acceptable for bridge falsework.
Providing adequate flange support, when support is necessary to
prevent overstressing the compression flange, is an important
design consideration. The method of support, including all
construction details, must be shown on the falsework drawings.
4-4.05 Beam Shear
The shearing stress at any point in a steel beam is calculated

from the general formula for shearing stress. The general
formula is:
v = VQ/Ib
where v is the shearing stress on any given horizontal section

or plane through the beam, V is the vertical shear, Q is the
statical moment about the neutral axis of that portion of the
beam cross-section-which is outside of the plane where the
shearing stress is wanted, I is the moment of inertia of the
entire cross-section, and b is the width of the beam at the
point under consideration.
Since the web of a steel beam resists most of the shear, the
shearing stress is usually checked by the formula:
v = V/ht
where h is the overall depth of the beam (out-to-out of the beam

flanges) and t is the web thickness.
If a shearing stress occurs in one plane, an equal shearing
stress occurs in a plane through that point perpendicular to the
first plane. Therefore, the shear formula may be used to deter-
mine both vertical and horizontal shearing stresses.
4-29 Revised 06/95

4-4.06 Web Crippling
Rolled beams should be checked to see that the end reaction
and/or any concentrated load along the interior of the beam does
not produce a compressive stress at the web toe of the fillet in
excess of the allowable stress of 27,000 psi.
The following formulas are used to check web crippling:
For end reactions,
For interior loads,
In the formulas, f is the stress, in psi; R is the concentrated

load or end reaction, in pounds; is the web-thickness; k is
the distance from the outer face of the flange to the web toe of
the fillet; and a is the length of bearing, but not less than k
for end reactions. All dimensions are in inches.
If the actual value exceeds the allowable, the web must be
stiffened or the length of bearing increased,
When rolled beams require bearing stiffeners to prevent web
crippling, the stiffeners may be designed to resist only the
portion of the total load that is in excess of the load the beam
is capable of resistitig without stiffeners.
4-4.07 Steel Posts and Columns
The specified column formula limits the design axial load to
that which will not produce an average unit stress exceeding
P = 16,000 - 2
A
In the formula, r is the radius of gyration of the section and L

is the unsupported length. The limiting L/r value is 120.
In a column with pinned ends and no intermediate support, L is
the actual length. Columns with other end conditions require
the use of an effective length instead of the actual length.
The effective length is the length of column which actually
behaves as though it were pinned.
4-30 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
Determining the effective length of a column with restrained end

conditions is an unnecessary refinement for falsework design.
Accordingly, it is accepted practice to treat columns in false-
work bents as though they were pin-connected, which is conserva-
tive for columns with end restraint.
4-4.08 Steel Bracing
For bolted connections, the bolt design values may be taken from
the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, In accordance with AISC
design practice, the calculated bearing stress on the projected
area of the bolt in steel members may not exceed 1.35 times the
specified yield strength of the steel. For A36 Grade material,
the allowable bearing stress is 48,600 psi. This value may not
be increased for falsework construction.
The strength of fillet-welded connections may be approximated by
assuming a value of 1000 pounds per inch for each l/8-inch of
fillet weld. While this value would be considered conservative
for permanent work where welding is performed under controlled
conditions, it is realistic for the welding procedures commonly
used for falsework construction.
If the design of the connection is based on a higher weld value,
welding must conform to the quality standards associated with
permanent construction. (See Field Welding in Chapter 9.)
Structural steel components (angles, bars, etc.) are sometimes
used as diagonal bracing in timber bents. In such cases, the
bolt design values for parallel-to-the-grain loading in the main
member may be increased as discussed in Section 4-3.04A, Design
Values, No increase is allowed for perpendicular-to-the-grain
loading, however.
4-4.09 Miscellaneous Steel Components
The adequacy of miscellaneous components (such as anchor bolts,
column base plates, grillages, hangers, tie bars and similar
steel components) and hardware items, when used at locations
subject to analysis but not specifically covered by the False-
work Manual, will be determined in accordance with applicable
design procedure or recommended practice included in the AISC
Manual of Steel Construction.
4-31 Revised 06/95

Section 4-5 Cable Bracing Systems
4-5.01 Introduction
As used in this manual, the term "cable bracing system" means a
length of wire rope cable and an appropriate fastening device.
Cable bracing systems may be used to resist both overturning and
collapsing forces. (See Chapter 5 for a discussion of overturn-
ing and collapse as falsework failure modes.)
Cable systems are particularly effective in resisting the
overturning of high falsework, and when used for this purpose
they are relatively inexpensive as compared to other bracing
methods. Cable is also used extensively as temporary bracing to
stabilize falsework bents while they are being erected and/or
removed.
Less common is the use of cables as diagonal bracing to resist
internal collapse of a falsework bent. Design of cable systems
to resist internal collapse is a highly sophisticated exercise,
particularly with respect to such factors as the anticipated
cable elongation, the amount of preloading or cable tension
needed, the effect of cable tension on other falsework members,
and similar factors which affect system stability.
Division of Structures policy with respect to the use of cable
bracing systems, and the procedures and methodology to be used
by field engineers when reviewing the adequacy of cable designs,
are discussed in the following sections.
4-5.02 Required Information for all Cable Systems
When cable bracing is used, the cables and cable fastening
devices are an essential part of the falsework design. All
elements of the cable bracing system must be shown on the false-
work drawings in sufficient detail to permit a stress analysis.
In addition, the contractor must provide technical data showing
the strength and physical properties of the cable to be used.
(See Manufacturer's Technical Data and Required Cable Design
Data in Sections 4-5.03 and 4-5.07B, respectively.)
The following information is to be shown on the falsework draw-
ings for all cable systems:
l The cable diameter and, for internal bracing systems, the
preload value.
l The type and number of fastening devices (such as Crosby
clips, plate clamps, etc.) to be used at each connection.
4-32 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
l The method by which the cables may be tightened after

installation, if tightening is necessary to ensure their
continued effectiveness.
l For cables designed to resist overturning forces, the cable
anchorage must be shown. (See Section 4-5.09, Cable Anchor
Systems.)
l The location and method of attachment of the cable to the
falsework must be shown. This is a particularly important
feature of the design, since the connecting device must
transfer both horizontal and vertical forces to8
the cable
without overstressing any falsework component.
4-5.03 Manufacturer's Technical Data
For application of the falsework specifications, a cable bracing
system (i.e., the cable together with cable fastening devices)
is a manufactured assembly. Accordingly, the cable must be
installed in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations,
and the contractor must (if requested) furnish manufacturer's
technical data.
For all cable systems, technical data from the manufacturer must
include either the breaking strength (which may be identified as
a rated or nominal strength) or the safe working load of the
cable, the cable diameter, and enough descriptive information
(number of strands, number of wires per strand, core type, etc.)
to identify the cable in the field. Additional information is
needed when cable is used as diagonal bracing to prevent the
collapse of a falsework bent. (See Section 4-5.07, Review
Criteria for Internal Cable Bracing Systems.) Manufacturer's
technical data is also required for all cable fastening devices
(Crosby clips, turnbuckles, shackles, etc.)
Since the adequacy of a cable bracing design cannot be verified
without reference to the technical data provided by the cable
manufacturer, such data is an essential part of the falsework
drawing submittal. In any case where falsework drawings showing
a cable bracing system are not accompanied by technical data
from the cable manufacturer, the contractor should be informed
immediately. Pursuant to Division policy, any falsework drawing
submittal requiring technical data is not complete until such
data is provided. (See Chapter 2.)
8
When cables are used to prevent overturning of heavy duty
shoring, cable restraint must be designed to act through the
cap system. Cables should not be attached to tower components
unless the contractor has obtained written authorization from
the shoring system manufacturer. Such authorization must be
furnished before the drawings are approved. (See Chapter 6.)
4-33 Revised 06/95

WIRE ROPE CONNECTIONS

(As compared to Safe Loads on Wire Rope)
Figure Type of Connection Efficiency
Wire Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%

Sockets - Zinc Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
Wedge Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70%
Clips - Crosby Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80%
Knot and Clip (Contractors Knot) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50%
Plate CIamp - Three Bolt Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80%
Spliced Eye and Thimble:

l/4" and smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
3/8" to 3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96%
7/8" to 1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88%
l-1/8" to l-1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82%
1-6/8" to 2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75%
2-l/8" and larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70%
TABLE 4-1
4-34 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
In the absence of technical data, a load test will be required

to establish cable strength and physical properties. (See
Section 4-5.08, Cable Load Tests.)
4-5.04 Cable Connector Design
Cable connectors shall be designed in accordance with criteria
shown in Table 4-1 and Table 4-3. Connector efficiency assumed
in the design shall not exceed the values shown in Table 4-l.
If U-bolt (Crosby type) wire rope clips are used as connectors,,
the number used and the spacing must conform to the data shown
in Table 4-3, and must be shown on the drawings. Note that
forged clips have somewhat greater holding strength. Forged
clips are marked "forged" to permit positive identification, and
have the appearance of galvanized metal. Malleable cable clips
appear smooth and shiny.
4-5.05 Cable Elongation
Wire rope cable is an elastic material; consequently, it will
elongate or stretch when loaded. However, cable is a unique
elastic material in that its elongation is not uniform through-
out the elastic range. Additionally, it is subject to inelastic
deformation at loads well below the yield strength.
For descriptive purposes, the cable industry identifies the two
properties that contribute to the total elongation experienced
by a cable during its service life as "elastic" stretch and
"constructional" stretch.
In general, cable elongation will not be a falsework design
consideration for cable used as 'external bracing to prevent
overturning of the falsework system or a system component.
However, to ensure system stability, cable elongation must be
considered when cable is used as internal bracing to prevent
frame collapse, as discussed in Section 4-5.07, Review Criteria
for Internal Cable Bracing Systems.
4-5.06 Review Criteria for External Cable Bracing Systems
4-5.06A Cable Design Load
When cables are used as external bracing to resist overturning,
the horizontal design load to be resisted by the cable bracing
system will be calculated as follows:
When used with heavy-duty shoring, cable bracing shall be
designed to resist the difference between the total over-
turning moment and the resistance to overturning provided
by the individual falsework towers. (See Chapters 3 and 5
for overturning considerations.).
4-35 Revised 06/95

WIRE ROPE CAPACITIES
6 strands of 19 W ire S . Hemp Center
(SAFETY FACTOR Of 6)
WEIGHT SAFE LOAD DIAMETER WEIGHT SAFE LOAD

LBS/FT LBS. INCHES LBS/FT LBS.
l/4 .10 1.050 1 1.60 15.000

5/16 .16 1.500 5-1/8 2.03 18.600
3/8 .23 2.250 l-l/4 2.50 23.000
7/16 .31 3.070 l-3/8 3.03 26.900
1/2 .40 4.030 1-1/2 3.60 30.700
9/16 .61 4.840 l-6/8 4.23 36.700
6/8 .63 6.330 1-3/4 4.90 41,300
TABLE 4-2
APPLYING WIRE ROPE CUPS

The only correct methnod of attatching U-bolt wire rope clips to rope ends is shown in the illustration. The base (saddle) of the clip bears
against the live end of the rope, while the "U" of the bolt presses against the dead end. A useful method of remembering this is: "You
never saddle a dead horse.
rope diameters apart to give adequate holding power. A wire-rope thimble should
rope clips are used. The correct number of clips for safe application, and spacing
NUMBER OF CLIPS AND SPACING FOR SAFE APPLlCATION
3 3
4 3-1/2
4 4
5 4-1/2
5 5-1/4
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6 6
1-1/8 ............................. 6 6 6-3/4
1-1/4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7 7-1/2
1-3/8 ............................ 7 7 8-1/4
1-1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8 9
TABLE 4-3
4-36 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
l When used with pipe-frame shoring, cable bracing shall be

designed to resist the difference between the total over-
turning moment and the resistance to overturning provided
by the shoring system as a whole. (See Chapter 6 for
analysis of pipe frame shoring systems.)
l When used as external bracing to prevent overturning of all
other types of falsework, including temporary bracing used
to stabilize falsework components during erection and/or
removal, cable bracing shall be designed to resist the
total overturning moment.
4-5.06B Determining Allowable Working Loads
The maximum allowable load to be carried by a given cable will
be determined in accordance with the following criteria:
l If the cable is new or in uniformly good condition, and if
it can be identified by reference to a manufacturer's
catalog or similar technical publication, the allowable
cable load will be the breaking strength-of the cable as
shown in the manufacturer's catalog, multiplied by the
efficiency of the cable connector, and divided by a safety
factor of 2. (That is, allowable working load = breaking
strength x connector efficiency ÷ safety factor.)
While the technical data provided by the manufacturer will
in most cases show the breaking (or nominal) strength of
the cable; some manufacturer's catalogs show only a recom-
mended safe working load. Should this be the case, the
cable design load may not exceed the safe working load
value, unless the contractor elects to perform a load
test.9
l If the cable is used and still in serviceable condition,
but a manufacturer's catalog is not available, the con-
tractor may elect to perform a load test. In such cases,
the allowable working load shall not exceed the breaking
strength as determined by the load test, multiplied by the
connector efficiency factor, and divided by a safety factor
of 2.
9
It is important to note that, for a given cable, the safe
working load recommended by the manufacturer will be consider-
ably less than the allowable load determined from the breaking
strength of the cable. This is the case because the recommended
safe working load will be based on a safety factor of 5:l or
more in consideration of the dynamic loading to which cable is
ordinarily subjected, rather than the 2:l safety factor which is
appropriate for the static loading condition associated with
falsework construction.
4-37 Revised 06/95

l If the cable is used and still in serviceable condition,

and if the contractor does not perform a load test, the
allowable working load shall not exceed the wire rope
capacity shown in Table 4-2 multiplied by the cable
connector efficiency.
10
4-5.07 Review Criteria for Internal Cable Bracing Systems
4-5.07A Limitations and Conditions of Use
Division of Structures policy limits the use of internal cable
bracing systems to single tier falsework bents where the cable
is fastened to the bent cap and sill beam. The use of cable to
provide frame rigidity in multi-tiered bents, or in any bent
where the cable is attached to a post or column, will not be
permitted. (See Chapter 5 for definitions of single and multi-
tiered bents.)
For analysis of single tier cable systems, Division policy
limits the calculated horizontal deflection to a maximum value
numerically equal to one-eighth inch per foot of post height,
but not more than one-fourth of the post width measured along
the cap or sill beam, or in the case of pipe columns, not more
than one-fourth of the diameter of the pipe column.,
Limiting the horizontal deflection is necessary to prevent
undesirable frame distortion, and to ensure that the vertical
load reaction remains within the base width of the post or pipe
column. The limiting values in the preceding paragraph assure
this objective.
The calculated horizontal deflection must be based on cable
elongation due to both elastic and constructional stretch, as
discussed later in this section.
When used to provide internal stability in a timber bent, the
cable must be attached to the timber members with an appropriate
fastening device installed in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. Because of the need to accurately predict the
amount of lateral deflection in the system, Division policy does
not permit internal cable bracing to be looped around timber
members. 11
10
As used in this section, the term cable also means and
includes prestressing strand when prestressing strand is used
in an internal bracing system.
11
Looping of cables around timber members, while prohibited in
internal bracing systems, is an acceptable practice when the
cable is used to prevent overturning, such as in longitudinal
and/or temporary bracing systems.
4-38 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
4-5.07B Required Cable Design Data

When cable is to be used as internal bracing, the technical data
accompanying the falsework drawings must include the following
information:
l Cable description (including cable nominal diameter, number
of strands, number of wires per strand and core type,)
l Weight of the cable.
12
l Breaking or nominal strength.
l Net metallic area and modulus of elasticity.
l Maximum constructional stretch (percent of loaded length.)
4-5.07C Factor of Safety
As discussed elsewhere in this manual, the allowable (or design)
load-carrying capacity of a product or device, including cable
used to prevent overturning, is obtained by applying a factor of
safety based on the ultimate. strength of that-product or device.
(See, for example, Section 4-5.06, Review Criteria for External
Cable Bracing.) This approach is satisfactory for falsework
because, in general, system integrity will not be jeopardized by
inelastic deformation that may occur if a product or device is
subjected to a load that exceeds its yield strength, provided
the load is not greater than the ultimate strength. However,
this practice is not appropriate for cable used as internal
bracing because of the need to limit the total- cable elongation
to a predictable amount. In view of this reality, when cable is
used as internal bracing for falsework, the allowable working
load must be related to the yield strength of the cable.
While a safety factor of 2 based on yield strength is considered
satisfactory for falsework, it is noted that industry standards
established by the Wire Rope Technical Board require the-safe
working load for static loading conditions to be determined
using a safety factor of 3 based on the nominal (breaking)
strength of the cable. Since cables of the type used for
falsework have a yield strength of approximately 65 percent of
the nominal strength, the industry standard is consistent with
the use of a safety factor of 2 based on yield strength. In
view of this and to simplify the calculations, Division of
Structures review methodology uses a safety factor of 3 based on
the nominal (breaking) strength when determining the design
capacity of the cable units.
12
The Wire Rope Users Manual uses the term "nominal" strength
to describe the maximum load that a given cable may be expected
to carry, and this term may be used by the manufacturer as well.
4-39 Revised 06/95

4-5.07D Cable Preloading

After assembly, all cable units are to be preloaded to remove
any slack in the cable and connections. Preloading is necessary
to ensure that the cable units will act elastically when the
loads are applied. 13
Determining whether a given preload force is sufficient to
ensure that the cable bracing system will act elastically
involves a number of subjective considerations. In the past,
an arbitrary value of 1000 pounds has been commonly used as a
minimum preload force; however, the actual force needed to
remove cable slack is a function of both the length and weight
of the cable, and thus there is no single 14preload value that
will be appropriate for all installations.
To verify design adequacy, the Division of Structures uses the
relationship between preload force and the theoretical drape
of the cable hanging under its own weight. Refer to Figure 4-10
and note that dimension A is the midspan cable drape (i.e., the
drape at the midpoint of the horizontal distance between cable
connection points.)
For any given preload value, the drape may be calculated using
the Figure 4-10 formula. Pursuant to Division of Structures
policy, the preload force shown on the falsework drawings must
tension the cable unit sufficiently so that the calculated cable
drape, after the falsework is erected, will not exceed the
following values:
Cable Size Maximum Cable Drape (A)
3/8 1”
l/2 2”
l/2 2 3/4"
Experience has demonstrated that a preload force of less than
about 500 pounds may be insufficient to remove all cable slack.
Therefore, the minimum preload value shall not be less than 500
pounds, regardless of other considerations.
13
As used in this section, the term "cable unit" refers to all
cables acting to resist forces in the same direction, and the
term "cable" refers to each individual cable within the cable
unit.
14
This fact should be obvious since the required preload force
for large diameter cables used in a high falsework bent will be
significantly greater than the preload force required for a bent
where the cable length is relatively short and small diameter
cable is used.
4-40 Revised 06/95

In the equation:
q = cable weight per foot

X= horizontal distance
between cable
connection points
P = cable preload value
FIGURE 4-10
For bents where the top cap and bottom sill are not parallel, as
will be the case when the cap is set parallel to the bridge
soffit, post height Variation will produce a non-symmetrical
cable arrangement wherein the opposing cable units will have
different lengths, and thus different elongations under a given
preload force. However, the horizontal component of the cable
elongation at the top cap connection must be equal in both
directions to prevent distortion of the falsework bent. This
means that, except for symmetrical cable arrangements, opposing
cable units will have slightly different preload values.
Preload values are to be calculated by the contractor and shown
on the falsework drawings, along with the method by which the
required preload force is to be measured.
15
4-5.07E Determining Cable Elongation
For a given installation and design load, the total cable
elongation is a function of two independent factors. These
factors are "elastic" stretch and "constructional" stretch.
Elastic stretch is the result of the inherent elasticity, or
recoverable deformation, of the metal itself. Since the elastic
properties of a given cable can be determined, elongation due to
elastic stretch is predictable.
15
The assumptions and design policy discussed herein are based
on recommendations and design standards in the Wire Rope Users
Manual, Third Edition, issued by the Wire Rope Technical Board.
Industry recommendations and standards are modified as appropri-
ate for falsework considerations.
4-41 Revised 06/95

Constructional stretch occurs when cable is loaded for the first

time. When a cable is first loaded, the helically-wound wires
and strands are pulled more tightly together, compressing the
core and bringing all of the cable elements into closer contact.
This results in a slight reduction in diameter and a correspond-
ing increase in length.
Constructional stretch is influenced by several factors. These
include the type of core, the number of strands and the number
of wires in each strand, the manner in which the cable is wound,
and the magnitude of the applied load.
Because of the number of variable factors involved, there is no
mathematical constant applicable to all cable types from which
elongation due to constructional stretch may be determined. For
a given cable and load, however, the probable constructional
stretch can be approximated with sufficient accuracy for cable
design considerations.
4-5.07E(l) Determining Elastic Stretch
For an elastic material loaded within the elastic range, the
elastic deformation (i.e., the change in length, or stretch) is
directly proportional to the change in applied load, all other
factors remaining equal.
The general formula for elastic deformation is:
= Change in Load x Length

Area x Modulus of Elasticity
Unlike other elastic materials, cable elongation is not directly

proportional to the applied load over the full elastic range.
This is the case because the modulus of elasticity for a given
cable is significantly lower at low levels of applied load than
at loads nearer to the normal working strength of the cable.
To accommodate this unique physical characteristic, it is
standard practice in the cable industry to facilitate cable
elongation calculations by using a nominal E value and a reduced
E value, depending on the magnitude of the applied load. The
nominal E value is used for that portion of the total load which
exceeds 20 percent of the breaking strength of the cable. The
reduced E value (which is equal to 90 percent of the nominal
value), is used for the portion of the load between zero and 20
percent of the breaking strength.
4-42 Revised 06/95

If the cable design load is not greater than 20 percent of the
cable breaking strength, the elastic stretch may be determined
from the general formula for elastic deformation shown above,
using the reduced E value.
If the cable design load is greater than 20 percent of the
breaking strength, the total elastic stretch is the sum of
and as given by the following formulas:
(0.2 x Breaking Strength - Preload) (L)

A x 0.9E
In the equations, A values are in feet; L is the loaded length

of the cable, in feet; A is the net metallic area of the cable,
in square inches; E is the nominal modulus of-elasticity, in
pounds per square inch. Breaking strength, preload and cable
load values are expressed in pounds.
4-507E(2) Determining Constructional Stretch
As previously noted, constructional stretch occurs when a cable
is loaded for the first time. Constructional stretch is an
important design consideration for internal cable bracing
systems because, depending on cable type, a typical new wire
rope cable initially loaded to its design working strength will
undergo a permanent elongation of from l/2 to 1 percent of the
loaded length.
Industry design practice assumes that constructional stretch is
proportional to the applied load, and that all constructional
stretch occurs within the elastic range. (That is, the total
expected constructional stretch will have occurred when the
applied load reaches the yield point load, or 65 percent of the
cable breakingstrength.)
Constructional stretch is given by the following formula:
In the formula, is the constructional stretch, in feet; CS%

is the constructional stretch, in percent, given by the cable
manufacturer; and L is the cable length, in feet, between end
connections. Applied load and cable strength are in pounds.
4-43 Revised 06/95

The anticipated constructional stretch, expressed as a percent-

age will be included in the cable design data provided by the
manufacturer. If for some reason it is not provided and cannot
be obtained, the analysis may be based on assumed values of 3/4
and 1 percent for wire core and fiber core cables, respectively.
Some types of high strength cable, such as prestressing strand,
are commercially available with constructional stretch removed
by preloading at the factory. Such cable will conform to the
requirements for ASTM Designation A586 (structural strand) or
ASTM Designation A603 (structural rope), and will be clearly
identified as prestretched cable. When prestretched cable is
used, it is not
16
necessary to consider constructional stretch in
the analysis.
17
4-5.07F Procedure for Analysis
When cable is used to prevent internal collapse of a falsework
bent, the method used to evaluate the adequacy of the bracing
system differs from the traditional methods normally used for
frame analysis because of the need to consider-the effect of
cable elongation and frame deflection on system stability.
In a cable-braced frame, the cable elongates as the horizontal
design load is applied. Cable elongation allows the frame to
deflect, producing vertical load eccentricity which must be
considered in the analysis. Additionally, post reactions will
be affected by the vertical component of the cable load.
16
Note that cable conforming to ASTM Designation A586 or A603
may be either prestretched or non-prestretched. Prestretched
cable must be so identified in the cable design data furnished
by the manufacturer. If the cable is not clearly identified as
prestretched, constructional stretch must be considered in the
analysis, even though the cable may otherwise conform to the
referenced ASTM specifications.
17
The Division of Structures methodology for analysis of
internal cable bracing systems, as described herein, assumes
that the post or column is attached to the cap and sill by an
eccentric pinned connection, and that the eccentricity is
numerically equal to the horizontal movement of the cap due to
cable unit elongation. These assumptions are valid for typical
pipe column bents where the connections are not designed to
resist moment, and for all timber bents. However, it is theo-
retically possible to design a pipe column frame with fixed
connections. Any such designs will require a rigorous analysis
by the contractor (with supporting calculations) and similar
review by the engineer. In such cases, the engineer should
contact the Sacramento Office of Structure Construction for the
procedure to be followed.
4-44 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
The following procedure (illustrated in Example Problem 17) is

used to evaluate system adequacy:
1 . Determine cable lengths, post heights, and the vertical
distance between the plane of the cable connection at the
cap and the plane of the cable connection at the sill
beam.
2 . Calculate the horizontal design load. For analysis of
cable systems, the horizontal design load is the larger
of (1) the wind load acting on the bent or (2) two percent
of the total dead load based on the full superstructure
cross section.
3. Calculate the capacity of the cable units, using a factor
of safety of 3 based on the breaking (nominal) strength of
the cable. (See Section 4-5.07C, Factor of Safety:)
4. Check the cable preload values shown on the falsework
drawings.
5 . Using the horizontal design load from step 2, calculate
the cable unit design load.
6. Compare the cable unit design load from step 5 and the
cable unit capacity determined in step 3. If the design
load exceeds capacity, the system must be redesigned.
7. Calculate the cable unit elongation, which is the sum
of the elongations due to elastic and constructional
stretch. 18
(a) Calculate the elastic stretch, using the formulas
shown in Section 4-5.07E(l), Determining Elastic
Stretch.
(b) Calculate. the constructional stretch. Constructional
stretch is expressed as a percent of the loaded length
of the cable. For falsework bents, the loaded length
is the length between end connections. Follow the
procedure explained in Section 4-5.07E(2), Determining
Constructional Stretch.
(c) Add the elastic stretch and constructional stretch to
obtain the total elongation for the cable unit.
18
As previously noted, Division of Structures policy requires
a consideration of both elastic and constructional stretch when
calculating the expected cable elongation, unless the cable to
be used has been preloaded at the factory to remove the con-
structional stretch.
4-45 Revised 06/95

8. Calculate the horizontal displacement of the top cap due

to cable unit elongation. For this calculation, all posts
are assumed to rotate about their bases, and their tops
move laterally the same distance as the cap, as depicted
in Figure 4-11.
FIGURE 4-11
Refer to Figure 4-11 and note that the vertical distance between
the cap and sill cable connection points at the location of the
cap cable connection (vertical line a) may be used to complete.
triangles for the preloaded (b) and fully loaded (b') cables,
The law of cosines may be used to determine angles, since the
dimensions of all three legs of the triangles will be known.
Once the angle of rotation of the posts has been determined,
the horizontal displacement at the tops of the posts can be
calculated.
9 . Compare the calculated horizontal displacement and the
allowable horizontal displacement.
The calculated horizontal displacement is limited to one-
eighth inch per foot of post height, or one-fourth of the
post width or diameter, whichever is the smaller value.
(See Section 4-5.07A, Limitations and Conditions of Use.)
If the calculated horizontal displacement exceeds the
allowable displacement, the system must be redesigned.
4-46 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
4-5.07F(l) Completion of Analysis for Box Girder Structures

The Standard Specifications provide for an intermediate load-
ing consideration for box girder structures, so that the method
of analysis for box girder structures differs from the method of
analysis for other structure types.
For box girder structures there are two load combinations,
designated in the specifications as Case I and Case II.
Case I. Design live load, plus total design dead load
excluding the weight of the concrete in the deck
slab, plus total horizontal design load, plus the
vertical component of the cable unit design load.
For analysis, all vertical loads act on the false-
work in its deflected position.
Case II. Design live load, plus total design dead load,
plus the total horizontal design load. For
analysis, both the live load and the dead load act
on the falsework in its Case I deflected position,
The procedure for box girders structures is as follows:
10. Calculate the post loads and the bending moment in the cap
and sill beam for both the Case I and the Case II loading
conditions.
Except for symmetrical cable configurations, it will be
necessary to determine vertical load eccentricity and
post reactions in both transverse directions to find the
maximum loads and stresses in the individual posts.
11. Investigate post adequacy for both Case I and Case II
loading conditions;
(a) Calculate the axial compressive stress ( = P/A) at
each post.
(b) Determine the allowable compressive stress for
each post.
(c) Calculate the bending stress due to eccentricity (fb)
at each post using the formula:
fb = Pe/S
where P is the post load calculated in step 10; e is
the vertical load eccentricity, which is numerically
equal to the horizontal displacement calculated in
step 8; and S is the post section modulus.
4-47 Revised 06/95

(d) Use the combined stress expression to evaluate post

adequacy. For this application, the expression is:
In the expression, is the axial compressive

stress, is the bending stress produced by
vertical load eccentricity, and Fa and are the
allowable axial compressive and bending stresses,
respectively.
For many cable-braced bents, stresses in the cap and sill beam
may be determined by analysis in the usual manner; that is,
using the Case II load combination. This procedure is usually
satisfactory because the Case I load combination rarely governs
cap or sill beam design. However, if the cables are attached
near the end of a cap cantilever supporting a lightly loaded
exterior beam, the Case I load combination, which includes the
vertical component of the cable design load, may produce the
maximum cap bending moment, and this should be kept in mind when
reviewing cable-braced falsework bents.
4-5.07F(2) Completion of Analysis for Other Structure Types
The procedure described in the preceding section for box girder
structures is generally applicable to slab and T-beam structures
as well, except that for these structure types it is unnecessary
to investigate system adequacy for an intermediate loading
condition.
For the steps 10 and 11 calculations, the design load combina-
tion is the design live load, plus the design dead load, plus
the vertical component of the cable unit design load, plus the
horizontal design load.
For calculating post loads and stresses, all vertical design
loads act on the falsework in its deflected position;
4-48 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
4-5.08 Cable Load Tests

In the absence of sufficient technical data to identify the
cable and establish its safe working strength, the contractor
may elect to perform one or more load tests. Judgment will be
required as to the total number of tests needed.
For example, if the cable can be identified as to type and if it

is in uniformly good condition, a single test may be sufficient
for all cable of the same type. However, if the cable cannot be
identified, or if it is old and obviously worn, it may be
necessary to test each reel or drum furnished.
If a load test is needed to determine the physical properties of
cable to be used in an internal bracing system, the test must be
performed in a qualified testing lab. Field test results are
not acceptable because determining cable properties such as the
modulus of elasticity, the elastic stretch and the net metallic
area of the cable requires precise measurements obtainable only
with specialized testing equipment.
See also Section 4-6.02, Load Tests, for additional information
pertaining to all types of load testing.
4-5.09 Cable Anchor Systems
In most cases cables will be secured by fastening the end to a
concrete anchor block, although CIDH piles are sometimes used
when relatively large forces must be resisted.
Concrete anchor blocks must be proportioned to resist both
sliding and overturning. When checking anchor block stability,
the weight of the anchor block must be reduced by the vertical
component of the cable tension to obtain the net or effective
weight to use in the anchorage computations.
For dry service conditions, the coefficient of friction assumed
in the anchor block design should not exceed the following:
Anchor block set on sand 0.40
Anchor block set on clay 0.50
Anchor block set on gravel 0.60
Anchor block set on pavement 0.60
The tabulated friction values should be multiplied by 0.67 if it
is likely the supporting material will become wet during the
construction period.
For either concrete anchor blocks or CIDH piles, the method of
connecting the cable to the anchorage is part of the design.
The connecting device must be designed to resist both vertical
(uplift) and horizontal forces.
4-49 Revised 06/95

If CIDH piles are to be used as cable anchors, the falsework

drawings should show the pile diameter and length, the cement
factor for concrete design, reinforcing steel details and cable
anchor device. Additionally, since the load resisting capacity
of a CIDH pile is dependant on the characteristics of the soil
into which the pile has been cast, the contractor's design
calculations should be given a cursory review to determine
whether the assumed soil pressure and soil properties are
consistent with the type of soil at the job site, and whether
the design procedure follows recommended practice for piles
subject to both uplift and lateral forces. Any inconsistencies
should be brought to the contractor's attention immediately,
19
and
supplemental details and/or calculations requested.
The adequacy of CIDH pile cable anchors should be evaluated
in accordance with the methodology explained in Falsework
Memo 9.
4-5-10 Splicing Cable
Because of the uncertainties associated with cable splicing,
Division of Structures policy prohibits the use of splices in
any cable used as falsework bracing.
19
Design of piles to resist combined uplift and lateral forces
is a sophisticated design procedure, which is sometimes ap-
proached superficially in the falsework design. However, the
specification requirement for design calculations applies to
piles and well as other elements of the falsework system. In
the absence of calculations to support the design, the false-
work submittal is not complete and the contractor should be so
informed.
4-50 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
Section 4-6 Manufactured Assemblies
4-6.01 Genera1 Information

In the specification context, the term "manufactured assembly"
means any commercial product the use of which is governed by
conditions and/or restrictions imposed by the manufacturer.
Manufactured assemblies routinely used in falsework construction
include products such as jacks, hangers, clips, brackets and
similar hardware products as well as all types of manufactured
shoring systems. When approved for use, such products may be
incorporated into the falsework design, and upon construction of
the falsework, they become a clearly identifiable component of
the falsework system.
The specifications limit the load on, and/or the deflection of,
any commercial product to the maximum recommended or allowed by
the manufacturer of the product. Allowable loads and conditions
or limitations of use must be shown in a catalog or technical.
manual published by the manufacturer, or in a-statement of use
compliance pertaining to a particular project.
A compliance statement, if furnished in lieu of catalog data,
may be shown on a working drawing or included in a letter, but
to be acceptable it must be signed by the manufacturer of the
product under consideration, not by a material supplier or the
contractor.
The specifications require the contractor to furnish technical
data for manufactured assemblies, but only when such data is
requested by the engineer. Therefore, the engineer should not
hesitate to request catalog data or other technical information
if it is needed to verify the load-carrying capacity of any
manufactured product proposed for use in the falsework system.
Keep in mind that some manufacturer's catalogs are very brief
and Show only general details. The engineer must be able to
verify that the item is used as the manufacturer intended.
Accordingly, if there is any question as to whether a device
or product is being used properly, the contractor should be
requested to furnish substantiating technical data or a state-
ment of use compliance signed by the product manufacturer.
4-51 Revised 06/95

4-6.02 Load Tests

In any case where the falsework drawings show or describe a
manufactured product or device which cannot be found in any
catalog, the engineer should require a load test to establish
the safe load-carrying capacity of that product or device.
The load test should be performed under conditions which will
closely simulate the intended field use, particularly as to the
method of support. If possible, the device should be tested to
failure, in which case the safe working load may be assumed as
one-half the ultimate load. This will provide a factor of
safety of two, which is consistent with manufacturer's ratings
for concrete form accessories. If it is not possible to test to
failure, the working load used for the design should not exceed
one-half of the maximum load carried during the test.
The procedure discussed herein for load testing of manufactured
products or devices will also apply to noncommercial items,
such as homemade deck overhang brackets, fabricated by the
contractor. Note, however, that the required safety factor
is increased to three for noncommercial products.
Load tests should be witnessed by the engineer and test results
noted in the job records, since they form the basis of the
determination of the allowable values to be used in the false-
work design review.
When authorizing a load test, the engineer should keep the
purpose of load testing in mind. Load testing is intended to
determine or verify the load-carrying capacity of a commercially
available product or device. Load testing should not be used to
establish that a particular design detail or method of construc-
tion, although overstressed when stresses are calculated in the
usual manner, is nevertheless capable of withstanding the
imposed load without failing.
4-6.03 Beam Hangers
Beam hangers are hardware items which are placed transversely
across the top flange of a beam or girder. Steel rods or bolts,
which are inserted into threaded wire loops at the hanger ends,
hang vertically to support the deck slab falsework or diagonally
outward to support a deck overhang bracket.
Unbalancedloading (loading only one side of the hanger) will
materially reduce the load-carrying capacity of the hanger
unless it is of a type designed to be loaded on one side at a
time, or unless special measures are taken to hold the hanger in
place. Special measures may include welding to studs or shear
4-52 Revised 06/95

STRESS ANALYSIS
connectors. In no case, however, should beam hangers be welded

to the top flange of a steel girder or to precast-prestressed
girder stirrups.
4-6.04 Deck Overhang Brackets
Several types of metal brackets specifically designed to
support cantilevered deck overhangs are available commercially.
Typically, these brackets will be supported at the top by beam
hangers, or by form bolt inserts cast into concrete girder
stems, or by threaded rods or bolts extending through holes
drilled in the web of steel plate girders. Rotation of the
bracket is prevented by a diagonal leg braced against the
exterior girder.
The specifications governing steel construction include certain
restrictions which affect the design of falsework supporting
deck overhangs on steel girder bridges. (See Chapter 3.)
4-6.05 Steel Joist Assemblies
Joist assemblies are essentially steel beams which can be
adjusted to provide a wide range of span lengths. Catalog
data should be consulted to determine the safe load-carrying
capacity. and the allowable deflection. Note that when joist
assemblies are used to support deck slabs between girders,
design load deflection is limited to the maximum deflection
allowed by the manufacturer, which in some cases may exceed
1/240 of the span. At all other locations, the specification
limit (l/240 of the span) applies.
4-53 Revised 06/95

CHAPTER 5. FALSEWORK STABILITY
5-1.Ol Introduction
The term "stability" as it is used throughout this manual
means resistance to overturning or collapse of the falsework
system as a whole or that portion of the falsework system
under consideration. Resistance to both overturning and
collapse is provided by the falsework bracing system, which
must be designed to withstand all forces resulting from
application of the horizontal design load.
Note that the term "falsework bracing system" as it is used in

the specifications includes bracing designed to resist over-
turning, bracing designed to resist collapse, and struts,
ties, anchor blocks and similar features used to prevent the
overturning or collapse of any falsework component. Regard-
less of function, however, all elements of the falsework
bracing system must be designed to resist all forces generated
by the horizontal design load.
It is important to recognize the distinction between "over-

turning" and "collapse" as these terms are used to describe
the failure modes when falsework is subjected to horizontal
forces. Overturning is used when the falsework bracing
provides sufficient rigidity to the falsework system as a
whole, or to the element of the system under consideration, so
that the system or element acts as a single, rigid unit. In
such cases the falsework will fail by overturning, or rotation
about its base. If, however, the bracing cannot prevent dis-
tortion of the falsework when it is subjected to horizontal
forces, the system will collapse internally rather than
overturn. The two failure modes are shown schematically in
Figure 5-1.
OVERTURNING FAILURE COLLAPSING FAILURE
FIGURE 5-l
As a point of interest, bracing whose primary purpose is to

prevent collapse is often referred to as "internal" bracing,
whereas bracing whose purpose is to prevent overturning is
called "external" bracing.
When investigating stability, keep in mind that the specifi-

cations do not require the falsework to carry the horizontal
design load from its point of application through all
members of the falsework system to the ground or other
point of support. If the "falsework bracing system" will
resist the overturning and collapsing forces produced by the
horizontal design load, the falsework-design complies with
the intent of the specifications.*
When following the provisions and procedures in this manual,
stresses in falsework members produced by the application of a
horizontal force need not be combined with stresses produced
by vertical forces except in unusual cases where combining is
necessary to ensure stability. For example, pile bents
supporting falsework for structures over waterways often will
be braced only above the waterline. In this type of design
the bracing must be adequate to resist the horizontal design
load in accordance with the general design criteria for
falsework bracing systems, and the bent so braced will be
considered as being rigid to the bottom of the bracing. Below
the bracing, individual falsework piles will be subject to
bending; consequently, horizontal as well as vertical forces
must be considered and the resulting stresses combined to
determine the actual stress.
Similar situations in which bending should be considered in

the analysis will from time to time occur. The engineer
will be expected to recognize all such situations and to
combine stresses whenever this procedure is necessary to
ensure the stability of the falsework system as a whole.
(See Section 5-1.08, Combining Stresses, for additional
information.)
* The rationale for the specification concept is the belief

that a failure due to the action of horizontal forces will
occur as a consequence of the overturning or toppling of a
falsework member, or the internal collapse of a braced
element of the system. Failure is not expected to occur as
a consequence of one falsework member sliding across
another. This is not to say that such a sliding failure
could not occur under any combination of forces however
unique, but the possibility is so remote it may be neglected
for falsework design.
5-2
FALSEWORK STABILITY
5-1.02 I
.nternal Stability
Some falsework systems have inherent stability by reason of
thenature of the materials used in their construction.
For example, timber falsework bents have a degree of
internal resistance to collapse, particularly where large,
heavy posts are used. This "internal stability" is due to
restraint at the top and bottom of the post, which, in turn,
produces a resisting moment.
Since the amount of internal resistance actually developed

under a given loading condition is a very intangible factor,
it is Division of Structures policy to neglect the inherent
ability of a falsework frame to resist collapsing forces in
all cases where the height of the falsework post exceeds three
times the post width. When post height exceeds the limiting
ratio, resistance to overturning and/or collapse must
be provided by diagonal bracing, or by blocking, ties or
other means approved by the engineer.
5-l.03 Diagonal Bracing

In conventional falsework systems, the individual posts making
up the falsework bent are stabilized against collapse by
diagonal cross-bracing. The diagonal braces are installed
across two or more vertical posts and securely nailed or
bolted in place to make a single, rigid unit capable of
resisting the collapsing forces produced by horizontal loads.
Because of the indeterminate nature of a diagonally-braced

falsework bent, investigation of bracing adequacy using
conventional methods of analysis is a difficult and time-
consuming process. Furthermore, rigorous studies of the
behavior of braced falsework bents have revealed that the
actual load imposed on the compression members, under certain
loading conditions, may be as much as two times greater than
would be indicated by a conventional analysis.
As a horizontal load is applied to a diagonally-braced timber
frame, the tension and compression members will each con-
tribute to the resisting capacity until the design capacity
of the compression members is reached. As additional load is
applied, the overstressed compression members may yield or
buckle, and therefore they may be incapable (theoretically)
of contributing to the ultimate strength of the frame. In
view of this reality and to ensure the compatibility of
results obtained by our procedure with results obtained by a
rigorous frame analysis, it is Division of Structures policy
5-3
to limit the contribution of the compression members, and the

compression member connections, to one-half of their
theoretical contribution when calculating the resisting
capacity of the bracing system.
In consideration of the foregoing, the Division of Structures

has developed a review procedure which simplifies the analysis
and at the same time minimizes the risk of detrimental over-
stressing of the compression members. This simplified pro-
cedure, called the "resisting-capacity" method of analysis,
assumes that the collapsing force produced by the horizontal
design. load will be resisted by the sum of the horizontal
components of the allowable load-carrying capacities of the
diagonals. To ensure stability, the sum of the horizontal
components (i.e., the "resisting capacity" of the diagonal
braces) must be numerically equal to or larger than the
collapsing force.
When compression members have intermediate fasteners to reduce

the unsupported length for design, Division policy requires
the fasteners to be capable of resisting a force equal to five
percent of the theoretical design capacity of the member, but
not less than 250 pounds, applied at right angles to the
member.
To ensure uniformity, Division of Structures policy requires
the adequacy of diagonal bracing to be checked by the
"resisting-capacity" method. The procedure depends on the
number of vertical stories, or tiers, of bracing used in the
bent, as discussed in the following two sections.
5-1.03A Analysis of Single-Tier Framed Bents

For single-tier bracing, the resisting capacity of the
diagonal bracing system is calculated as follows, regardless
of the type of fastener (nails, bolts or lag screws) used in
the connection:
1. Determine the strength of the connection between brace

and post. The strength value will be the same for
both tension and compression members. (For this
calculation, follow the procedure in Section 4-3, Timber
Fasteners, for the type of fastener used.)
2. Determine the strength of the diagonal braces in
tension.
3. Compare the two strength values. The smaller of these

two values is the strength of the tension members.
5-4
FALSEWORK STABILITY
4. Calculate the horizontal component of the strength value

found in step 3. The horizontal component is the
resisting capacity of the tension members.
5. Determine the strength of the diagonal braces in

compression, as limited by the L/d ratio.
6. Compare the strength of the connection (calculated

in step 1) and the strength of the braces in com-
pression. The smaller of these two values is the
theoretical strength of the compression members. One-
half of the theoretical strength is the allowable
strength of the compression members.
7. Calculate the horizontal component of the allowable

strength (step 6) to obtain the resisting capacity of
the compression members.
8. Add the resisting capacity of all tension members and
all compression members to obtain the total resisting
capacity of the diagonal bracing system.
To check bracing adequacy, compare the total resisting
capacity of the diagonal bracing system, determined as
provided above, and the collapsing force applied to the
falsework bent.
For the comparison, the collapsing force is assumed as numer-

ically equal to the horizontal design load acting on the bent.
The collapsing force is further assumed as acting in the same
plane as the horizontal forces making up the resisting
capacity of the bracing system, but in the opposite direction.
The resisting capacity of the bracing system must equal or
exceed the collapsing force applied in either direction; other-
wise the bracing is not adequate.
The "resisting-capacity" method of analysis is illustrated in
example problems in the appendix.
5-1.03B Analysis of Multi-Tiered Frame Bents
When the diagonal bracing system consists of more than a

single tier, the collapsing resistance of the frame may be
limited by the resisting capacity of any individual tier of
bracing within the frame. Consequently, the resisting
capacity of the bracing in each tier must be evaluated
independently of the other tiers to ensure that each
independently-braced element of the bent (i.e., each tier) can
withstand the collapsing force applied to that element.
5-5
The resisting-capacity concept as a means of checking the

adequacy of diagonal bracing has been verified by subjective
analysis of mathematical models of typical and atypical false-
work configurations. These analytical studies reveal that a
horizontal brace between the tiers in a multi-tiered frame makes
only a marginal contribution to the total resisting strength of
the frame, and under some loading conditions may actually
decrease (although only slightly) the effectiveness of the
compression members as compared to similar frames in which no
horizontal braces are used. Since horizontal braces appear to be
redundant members of the system, their effect on frame capacity
may be neglected when checking diagonal bracing by the resisting-
capacity method in all cases where the diagonals are capable of
resisting compression. (Note, however, that a horizontal brace
will be required between tiers in a multi-tiered frame in those
cases where the diagonal braces can carry tension forces only.)
Bent B Bent C
Bent A
FIGURE 5-2
TO understand the analysis, consider the diagonally-braced

falsework bents shown schematically in Figure 5-2. Evaluating
the adequacy of the bracing in Bent A, where the bracing
system is the same in each tier, is simplified by symmetry.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Calculate the resisting capacity of the diagonal

bracing in either tier. (The values are the same for
both tiers.) Follow the procedure discussed in
Section 5-l.O3A, Analysis of Single-Tier Framed Bents.
2. Compare the total resisting capacity calculated in

step 1 and the collapsing force produced by the
horizontal design load. If the resisting capacity
5-6 6/88
FALSEWORK STABILITY
equals or exceeds the collapsing force, the bracing in

that tier is adequate, and therefore the bent bracing
system is adequate as well.
The procedure for evaluating bracing adequacy when the bracing

system is the same in each tier, as described herein for a two-
tiered bent, will also apply to bents with three, or more,
identical tiers of bracing.
When the tiers are of different heights or are otherwise dis-

similar, the collapsing resistance provided by the bracing in
me tier may not be the same as the collapsing resistance
provided by bracing in other tiers. As previously noted, the
resisting capacity of the bracing in each tier must be
evaluated independently of the bracing in the other tiers.
Falsework Bent B in Figure 5-2 shows a-frame with unequal tier

heights. The resisting capacity of the frame is determined
as follows:
1. Calculate the resisting capacity of the bracing in

Tier 2, following the procedure in Section 5-1.03A,
Analysis of Single-Tier Framed Bents.
2. Compare resisting capacity and collapsing force. For

this comparison, the collapsing force (i.e., the
horizontal design load) is assumed as acting in a
plane through the upper connections in the Tier 2
bracing, as shown in Figure 5-2. The resisting
capacity of the bracing in Tier 2 must equal or
exceed the collapsing force.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for Tier 1.

If the resisting capacity of the diagonal bracing in each tier
will withstand the collapsing force applied to that tier, the
diagonal bracing system is adequate. If, however, the resist-
ing capacity of either tier is less than the collapsing force,
the bracing system is not adequate; hence the falsework design
nay not be approved. (Note that excess resisting capacity in
one tier may not be used to compensate for a deficiency in the
capacity of any other tier.)
If the tiers of diagonal bracing are closely-spaced verti-

cally, as is the case in Bents A and B in Figure 5-2, the
effect of bending in the posts between the connections is
small and may be neglected when investigating post capacity.
If the tiers are separated, however, as are the tiers in
Bent C, then bending may be an important factor.
5-7 6/88
To ensure uniformity, the effect of bending on post capacity

will be investigated in accordance with the following
policy:
1. If neither the vertical distance between tiers of

bracing nor the unbraced post length extending above
or below the tiers exceeds four times the post width,
bending may be neglected.
2. If either the vertical distance between tiers of

bracing or the unbraced post length extending above
or below the tiers is greater than four times the
post width, bending in the post including secondary
effects due to horizontal deflection (i.e., the
effect) must be considered. The analysis should
follow the procedure for evaluating the adequacy of
timber pile bents (see Chapter 7) except that the
posts will be considered as pinned at both the top
and bottom.
External cable bracing-will not prevent horizontal deflection
at the top of a multi-tiered frame, even though the cable
system is properly designed to resist overturning. Therefore,
cables designed to prevent overturning may not be used to
reduce the horizontal design load when investigating member
adequacy under combined vertical and horizontal forces.
When bending is a factor for investigation, as discussed in

subparagraph (2) above, the contractor's design calculations
must consider the effect of horizontal deflection on member
stresses, including the effect.
5-1.03C Steel Bracing

The resisting-capacity method of analysis, as discussed in the
preceding sections, is also applicable when steel bracing is
used with either steel or timber posts.
When bolted connections are used, the bolt values may be. taken
from the AISC Manual of Steel Construction. The calculated
bearing stress on the projected area of the bolt may not
exceed 1.5 Fu where Fu is the specified minimum tensile
strength of the steel. For A36 grade steel, Fu is 58 ksi.
The strength of welded connections may be approximated by

assuming a value of 1000 pounds per inch for each 1/8-inch
of fillet weld. While this value may appear conservative for
permanent work where welding is performed under controlled
conditions, it is a realistic value for the techniques and
procedures commonly used when welding falsework components.
5-8 6/88
FALSEWORK STABILITY
If a higher weld value is required by the design, welding

procedures must conform to the quality standards normally
associated with permanent construction. See Section 9-1.05,
field Welding.
Structural steel elements (angles, channels, bars, etc.) are
used occasionally as diagonal cross-bracing in timber bents.
In such cases the NDS bolt design values for parallel-to-
grain loading may be increased 75 percent, as provided in NDS
Paragraph 8.5.6.3. No increase is allowed for perpendicular-
to-grain loading, however.
5-1.04 Longitudinal Stability
To ensure longitudinal stability, it is necessary to provide

a system of restraint that will prevent the falsework bents
from overturning when the horizontal design load is applied
in the longitudinal direction. This can be accomplished by
diagonal bracing between pairs of adjacent bents, or by
transferring the horizontal load from one falsework span to
the next falsework span ahead without allowing any horizontal
force to reach the bent between the two spans.
Consider, for example, the falsework system shown schemat-
ically in Figure 5-3. Longitudinal forces generated by the
horizontal design load are carried in either direction across
unbraced bents D and E to the point of longitudinal restraint
at bents C and F. The falsework system is stabilized by
diagonally-braced bents B-C and F-G, which are each designed
to resist one-half of the total horizontal load acting on the
system.
FIGURE 5-3
The adequacy of longitudinal cross-bracing used to stabilize

adjacent bents will be determined in accordance with the
procedure discussed in Section 5-1.03, Diagonal Bracing.
5-9 6/88
The method by which the horizontal design load is carried

across an unbraced bent should be carefully scrutinized to
ensure that horizontal forces cannot reach the bent under any
loading condition. Many designs will take advantage of
frictional resistance between stringer and cap to transfer at
least a part of the total longitudinal force acting at the
bent. When investigating the load transfer capability of such
designs with the falsework in an unloaded condition, keep in
mind that friction will not be developed until a vertical load
is applied, Therefore, in the unloaded condition do not allow
more frictional resistance than will be developed by the dead
load of the falsework members plus an allowance for the weight
of forms and reinforcing steel.
If frictional resistance alone is not sufficient to withstand

the horizontal design load, some positive means of restraint
must be provided to carry that portion of the total load in
excess of the maximum allowable frictional resistance. The
term "positive means of restraint" includes blocking, bracing,
dowels, clips, cables and similar mechanical connecting
devices which are capable of transferring horizontal
forces in the absence of a vertical load, but it does not
include "C" clamps when such devices are proposed for use as a
means of increasing the friction between stringer and cap or
other adjacent falsework members.
Devices used to transfer horizontal forces across an unbraced

bent must be spaced far enough apart transversely so as to
prevent eccentric loading on the restraining member. In
general, this will require at least two points of mechanical
transfer for each independent element of the falsework
system. One-point transfer may be acceptable under unusual
circumstances such as a case where the force to be transferred
is small when compared to the total horizontal load, or where
each independent element is relatively narrow. This is a
matter of engineering judgment. In case of doubt, two points
of load transfer should be required.
5-1.05 Overturning
If the falsework system, or the element of the system under

consideration, is adequately braced to prevent collapse, the
system or element may nevertheless fail by overturning, or
rotation about its base, when the horizontal design load is
applied. Overturning failure will occur unless the falsework
is inherently stable against overturning by reason of its
configuration, or is externally braced to prevent overturning.
If stability analysis, it is assumed that the horizontal

design load produces a moment that acts to overturn the false-
work system or element of the system under consideration. For
descriptive purposes, this moment is called the "overturning"
moment.
5-10 6/88
FALSEWORK STABILITY
When calculating overturning moments, the moment arm will be

measured from a plane at the top of the falsework member that
is set on the ground, and the horizonal design load will be
applied to the falsework in accordance with the following:
Actual loads (such as those due to construction equipment

or to the concrete placing sequence) will be considered
as acting at the point of application to the falsework.
Wind loads will be considered as acting at the centroid

of the wind impact area for each height zone. When wind
loads govern the design, however, the horizontal design
load (to be used in calculating the overturning moment)
is applied in a plane at the top of the falsework post or
shoring. See Section 3-1.05, Wind Loads.
All other horizontal loads, including the minimum load

when the minimum load governs, will be assumed as acting
in a plane at the top of the falsework posts or shoring.
When calculating the moment acting on other elements of the
falsework where stability is a factor for consideration, such
as a pony bent system, the moment arm will be measured from
the base of that particular falsework element. Actual loads
and wind loads will be applied in accordance with the criteria
in the preceding paragraphs. All other horizontal loads will
be assumed as acting in a plane at the top of the element of
the falsework system under consideration.
5-1.05A Calculation of Resisting Moments
When a horizontal load is applied to a falsework frame or

tower, the overturning moment thus produced will be resisted
up to a point by a resisting or righting moment generated by
the weight of the falsework and the total supported dead
load. If the resisting moment is greater than the overturning
moment, the falsework is stable against overturning and no
external bracing will be required. If the resisting moment is
less than the overturning moment, the difference must be
resisted by bracing, cable guys or other means of external
support .*
* For falsework analysis it is not necessary to provide a

factor of safety against overturning. In accordance with
Division of Structures policy, if. a falsework frame or tower
is theoretically stable (no uplift in any post or tower
leg) external bracing is not required.
When calculating resisting moments for falsework in the

"unloaded" condition, the total supported dead load will
include the weight of falsework beams, forms and reinforcing
steel, but not concrete. In the "loaded" condition, the
weight of the concrete actually in place will be included as
well.
To facilitate analysis, the weight of forms and reinforcing

steel in pounds per square foot of bridge soffit may be
estimated. Use a factor of 1.5d for prestressed structures
and 2.33d for conventionally reinforced structures, where "d"
is the superstructure depth in feet.
5-1.05B Effect of Overturning on Post Loads

When external bracing is not required to resist overturning,
do not overlook the effect of the overturning moment on post
loads when the falsework is fully loaded, Consider the bent
in Figure 5-4.
In the loaded condition the theoretical post load (dead load

plus live load) of 50 kips will be increased or decreased by
the post reaction created by the overturning moment, or the
vertical component of the resisting couple acting through the
post. In the bent shown, the reaction is 4 kips and the post
design load is 54 kips.
9 5’t 50 K
5OK
UNLOADED
FIGURE 5-4
5-12
FALSEWORK STABILITY
In a stable bent with more than two falsework posts, the post reactions are
proportional to their distances from the center of rotation, and may be obtained by
algebraic summation.
5-1.06 Pony Bent Systems
The stability of pony bent systems should be given special consideration. Pony bents
should be independently braced, and the bracing must be capable of resisting the
overturning moment produced by the horizontal design load acting at the top of the
pony bent.
Pony bents are usually erected on and supported by a platform constructed at the
top of the primary load-carrying members.
The platform functions as a horizontal diaphragm, and thus stabilizes the entire
falsework system.
If a stabilizing platform is not incorporated into the falsework design, the individual
bents must be braced or tied together in some manner to prevent lateral
displacement at the bottom of the pony bent system.
5-1.07 Multiple & Built up Cap Systems
Multiple cap systems are inherently less stable than single cap systems. Similarly,
cap systems that are poorly constructed by utilizing an excessive amount of built-up
material between the supporting foundation and cap beam are more vulnerable to
stability problems.
When investigating the stability of a multiple cap system, it is important to

remember that the stability of the system will decrease as the distance between the
supporting members and the top of the cap/sill beam increases. Cap and sill beam
assemblies (as defined below) should adhere to a maximum height to width ratio of
2:1 unless the falsework designer determines that a more conservative approach is
needed. In addition, multiple layers of supporting material must be equal or greater
in width than the previous layer, hence forcing a pyramid shape. These
requirements are illustrated in the following Figures 5-5,5-6 and 5-7.
The following cap/sill beam definitions shall be used for purposes of checking the 2:1
ratio.
In the overturning direction perpendicular to the centerline of the

falsework bent, a sill beam assembly shall include all material from the top
5-13 Revised 07/01

flange of the sill beam to the top of the pad (See Figures 5-5 and 5-6). A cap
beam assembly shall include all the material from the top flange of the cap
beam to the top of the post.
In the overturning direction parallel to the centerline of the falsework

bent, a sill beam assembly shall include all material from the bottom flange
of the sill beam to the top of the pad (See Figure 5-7). A cap beam assembly
shall include all the material from the bottom flange of the cap beam to the
top of the supporting member (e.g. post).
The 2:1 height to width criteria shall be strictly enforced during both falsework plan
review and construction phases. Often multiple capping or excessive stacking of
material is done to correct grade errors discovered during falsework construction.
This is an unacceptable construction practice and shall not be allowed.
On occasion a situation may arise where the falsework designer chooses to engineer
a cap/sill assembly that does not meet the 2:1 height to width criteria. In general
cap/sill assemblies that do not meet the 2:1 ratio should be strongly discouraged and
alternatives should be explored. However, the 2:1 criteria may be exceeded if the
falsework cap/sill assembly is externally stabilized. The external stabilizing
support system must be designed to withstand the greater of the horizontal wind or
construction load or a minimum 2% of the falsework dead load force (similar to the
longitudinal stability analysis) applied to the top of the upper most cap/sill beam.
In addition, the stabilizing support system must be designed to accommodate both
grading adjustments and bent settlement without inducing additional horizontal
loads into the cap system.
w1 = bf
Sill Beam h5 = total height of the sill beam

h1 assembly
h2
h3
h4 Wedges
h5 Sand Jack
Misc. Material
Corbel
Pad
w2
w3
w4
w5
Stability Requirement (Overturning direction perpendicular to the falsework bent)

hi < 2wi (wi > w(i –1) > bf )
Figure 5-5
5-14 Revised 07/01

Falsework Stability
Post
Sill Beam
h1
h2 h5 = total height of the sill beam
h3 assembly
Wedges
h4 Sand Jack
h5
h6
Lower Sill Beam
Misc. Material
Corbel
Pad
w1 = w2 = w3 = w4
w5
w6
Stability Requirement (Overturning direction perpendicular to the falsework bent)

hi < 2wi (wi > w(i –1) > bf )
Figure 5-6
Post
w1
Stable support for top beam (i.e.,

h1 more than 2 supports)
h3 h2
h4 Pad
w2
w3 = w4
Stability Requirement (Overturning direction parallel to the falsework bent)

hi < 2wi
Figure 5-7
5-15 Revised 07/01

5 – 1.08 Combining Stresses
As noted elsewhere in this manual, stresses produced by the simultaneous

application of horizontal and vertical forces need be combined only in those
situations where bending must be considered to prevent overstressing of an axially-
loaded member of the falsework system. Examples of such situations will include
pile bents over water where the bracing extends only to the water surface and
multi-tiered frame bents where the bracing system, although adequate to resist the
collapsing force, does not fully support the vertical members in the bent and/or
cannot prevent side sway.
The ability of a falsework member to resist the combined effect of bending and axial
compression is evaluated by the combined stress expression. The combined stress
expression, or interaction formula as it is sometimes called, establishes a limiting
relationship between bending and compressive stresses such that the sum of the
actual/allowable ratios of the two stresses may not exceed 1. In formula form the
combined stress expression is:
fb/Fb + fc/Fc < 1
Where fb and fc are the calculated bending and compressive stresses, respectively,
and Fb and Fc are the allowable values for bending and axial compression as listed
in the specifications.
The combined stress expression may be used to determine the adequacy of

falsework members to resist bending and axial compression in all cases except
driven timber piles. Timber piles should be evaluated in accordance with the
procedures discussed in Chapter 7.
5-16 Revised 07/01

CHAPTER 6. STEEL SHORING SYSTEMS
6-1.01 Introduction
As used in this manual, the term "steel shoring system"

describes falsework consisting of individual components which
may be assembled and erected in place to form a series of
internally-braced steel towers of any desired height. The
tower legs, either directly or through a cap system, support
the main load-carrying members.
From a design standpoint, shoring "towers" are indeterminate
space frames; consequently, they cannot be analyzed by the
general formulas applicable to statically determinate framed
structures. Instead, determining the ability of steel shoring
to safely carry a given load involves the use of empirical
criteria developed from a consideration of the effect of such
factors as tower height, differential leg loading, sidesway
and method of external support.
Depending on load-carrying capacity, steel shoring systems are

classified as pipe-frame systems, intermediate strength
systems and heavy-duty systems. This chapter discusses the
criteria and procedures to be followed when reviewing steel
shoring systems for compliance with the falsework specifi-
cations.
6-1.02 Safe Working Loads
Steel shoring is a "manufactured assembly" within the meaning

of this term as it is used in the specifications. Therefore,
the maximum load to be carried-may not exceed the safe
working load recommended by the manufacturer for any given
loading condition.
Safe working loads for all shoring systems now in use have
been determined empirically from full-scale load tests. In
all cases of record, maximum values were obtained during tests
in which the legs of the test tower were loaded uniformly and
concentrically, the tower was supported on a concrete pad to
ensure an unyielding foundation, and the top of the tower was
externally braced to prevent appreciable lateral movement.
Results of tests in which the towers were loaded eccentrically
and/or lateral movement was allowed indicate a substantial
reduction in capacity.
Shoring capacity as shown in catalogs or brochures published

by the manufacturer should be considered as the maximum load
which the shoring is able to safely support under ideal.
loading conditions. These maximum values should be reduced
6-l
for adverse loading conditions often encountered in bridge

falsework. For example, horizontal loads, eccentricity due
to unbalanced spans or pouring sequence, and uneven foundation
settlement are but a few of the loading conditions typical of
bridge falsework which differ from the loading conditions upon
which the manufacturer's ratings are based.
Finally, the maximum allowable safe working load as recom-

mended by the manufacturer is based on the use of new
material, or used material in good condition. If shoring
components are not in good condition, the maximum allowable
working load must be reduced by the contractor in accordance
with contract requirements.
6-l-03 Pipe-Frame Shoring Systems

As the name implies, the various components which make up a
pipe-frame shoring system are fabricated from sections of
steel pipe of various diameters. The basic unit is the base
frame, which consists of two vertical members; or legs; and
connecting braces welded together to make a single, rigid
unit.
Base frames, which are six feet in height, are erected in

pairs and fastened together with pin-connected diagonal
braces. Pairs of braced base frames are stacked one above the
other to form the falsework towers. Typically, the towers are
four feet wide (which is the width of a base frame) and eight
feet long.
Two types of base frames are in general use. These are the
ladder type and the cross-braced type. In the ladder type,
frame rigidity is provided by horizontal struts between the
vertical legs, whereas in the cross-braced type rigidity is
enhanced by diagonal cross-bracing between the legs.
Extension frames are used with cross-braced base frames to

extend the height of the tower, in one-foot adjustments, up to
five feet. Extension frames, which are the same width as the
base frames, may be used at either the top or the bottom of a
tower. Minor height adjustments are accomplished with screw
jack extensions at the top and bottom of each tower leg.
The height of ladder-type frames is adjusted in 4-inch incre-
ments up to five feet by means of a single-post extension
staff at the top of each tower leg. Screw jacks are used at
the bottom of the base frames for minor adjustments.
6-2
STEEL SHORING SYSTEMS
Pipe diameter is the same for both types, Typically, 2.375-

inch pipe is used for the base frames and 1.90-inch pipe for
extension frames and staffs.
6-l.03A Allowable Loads for Cross-Braced Frames
The load-carrying capacity of shoring constructed of cross-
braced frames is governed by the strength of the frame legs.
When loaded, the legs act as short, pin-connected columns
having an unsupported length equal to the height of the frame
plus the height of the screw jack.
The maximum allowable load per leg for pipe-frame shoring
(cross-braced type) is limited by the height of the extension
frame and the type of screw jack (swivel or fixed head) used
at the top of the frame. If swivel-head screw jacks are
used, maximum allowable leg loads are as shown in the
following tabulation:
Maximum Allowable Leg Load in Pounds
Extension frame height 2'0" 3’0” 4'0" 5'0"
Screw height 12" or less 11000 11000 10000 9400
Screw height exceeds 12" 8200 8200 8000 7800
If fixed-head screw jacks are used at the top of the extension
frame, the allowable load per leg will be 11,000 pounds for
all extension frame heights up to five feet for screw jack
height of 12 inches or less. No increase will be permitted
in the tabulated values when screw jack height exceeds
12 inches, regardless of the type of jack used.
Extension frames must be braced. Side cross-braces are
required for extension heights up to 2'O". Both side and end
cross-braces are required for 3'0" to 5'0" extension heights.
The allowable design loads are va1id only if the materials
are in good condition, and only if the shoring is properly
braced and erected in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations and the criteria set forth in Section
6-l.03C, Analysis of Pipe-Frame Shoring Systems.
6-l.03B Allowable Loads for Ladder-Type Frames
The load-carrying capacity of shoring constructed of ladder-
type frames may be governed by the height of the tower or, if
used, by the height of the extension staff.
Because of its substantially lower load-carrying capacity,

shoring constructed with ladder-type frames is not practical
for use as bridge falsework, If it should be encountered, the
maximum allowable design load will be limited by Division of
Structures policy to the following values, regardless of any
conflicting information which may be found in manufacturer's
catalogs or brochures:
If the shoring system consists of a single tier of braced

base frames, leg loads shall not exceed 10,000 pounds.
If the shoring system consists of two or three tiers of
base frames, leg loads shall not exceed 7,500 pounds.
If an extension staff is used, the maximum allowable leg
load shall be reduced to 6,000 pounds.
Maximum allowable leg loads as set forth above will apply when
fixed-head screw jacks are used, or when swivel-head jacks are
used at either the top or the bottom of the tower. Screw jack
extension is limited to 12 inches. The use of swivel-head
screw jacks at both-top and bottom of ladder-type frames is
not permitted.
For any combination of base frames or base frames with staff

extension, the total height of the shoring shall not exceed
20 feet overall, including screw jack extensions.
6-1.03C Analysis of Pipe-Frame Shoring Systems

The use of pipe-frame shoring as bridge falsework must conform
to the criteria set forth in this section. Review procedure
is as follows:
1. Investigate Tower Leg Loads
Tower leg loads should not exceed the limiting values

under any loading condition or sequence. As previously
noted, these values are based on the use of new material,
or material in good used condition.
The maximum load on one leg of a frame should not exceed
four times the load on the other leg under any given
loading condition or sequence.
The maximum load on one of the two frames making up a

tower should not exceed four times the load on the
opposite frame under any given loading condition or
sequence.
6-4
2. Determine Supplemental Bracing Requirements *

In the transverse direction (the direction parallel to
the frame) no supplemental bracing is required for tower.
heights of 20 feet or less. For heights exceeding 20
feet, the individual towers making up the shoring system
cannot resist the combined effect of both vertical and
horizontal loads without overstressing the tower com-
ponents unless supplemental bracing is provided. There-
fore, when the shoring height reaches four frames,
including an extension frame if used, one horizontal
brace and one diagonal brace must be attached to each
tower face, for every three frames of shoring height.
The lowest horizontal brace should be located near the
top of the third tower frame, and any additional hori-
zontal braces spaced no farther than three frames apart.
The diagonal braces should be located on opposite tower
faces, and should run in opposite directions.
When superelevation exceeds six percent, a transverse
brace shall be attached to one tower face of the top
frame. This brace shall be in addition to bracing
required by the preceding paragraph.
In the longitudinal direction, no bracing is required
when shoring height is less than six frames. When
shoring height is six frames or more, a horizontal brace
is required on one face of each tower, with the lowest
brace located no higher than the fourth frame and any
additional braces spaced no farther than four frames
apart.
Supplemental bracing, when required by the criteria set
forth herein, must be shown on the falsework drawings.
Design details, Including the method and exact location
of the connecting devices, must be in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations.
3. Investigate System Stability
When continuous caps or joists are used, pipe-frame
shoring will be considered as capable of resisting all
horizontal forces, including wind, provided the shoring
* Supplemental bracing requirements apply only to pipe-frame

shoring systems with cross-braced base frames because, as
previously noted, the height of shoring constructed with
ladder-type frames is limited to 20 feet.
is property braced in accordance with the criteria set

forth in the preceding paragraphs, and provided the
shoring system is stable against overturning. As used
herein, the term "shoring system" means the full width of
the properly-braced falsework supporting continuous caps
or joists.
If the height-to-width ratio of the shoring system, as

defined above, is 1.0 or less, the system will be con-
sidered as stable against overturning and further
analysis will not be required.
If the height-to-width exceeds 1.0, overturning stability
should be investigated. For analysis, the resisting
moment will be assumed as acting about the downwind edge
of the system. If the resisting moment of the system
exceeds the overturning moment, the falsework is stable
against overturning. If the resisting moment is less
than the overturning moment, the difference must be
resisted by cable guys or other means of external
support. (See Section 5-1.05, Overturning.)
4. Investigate Foundation Support
The specifications do not include any express provisions

governing the design of foundations for pipe-frame
shoring; however, the method of foundation support is
part of the falsework design and should receive the same
consideration as the foundation for a conventional
falsework system.
6-1.04 Intermediate Strength Shoring
Steel shoring consisting of cross-braced tubular members

capable of carrying 25 kips per tower leg with a 2-l/2 to 1
safety factor is marketed commercially as "WACO SHORE 'X' 25K"
vertical shoring.
This shoring system has had only limited use in California.

In concept and design it is similar to the cross-braced pipe-
frame shoring system described in the preceding section; how-
ever the individual components are larger.
The use of the Shore "X" 25-kip system will be governed by the
following conditions and limitations:
1 . The maximum load carrying capacity of 25 kips per leg

is based on the use of fixed head screw jacks at the
top and bottom of the towers. If swivel-head screw
6-6
jacks are used at either the top or bottom of the

tower, the maximum load must be reduced to 20 kips
per tower leg.
Maximum screw-jack adjustment may not exceed 14

inches.
Extension frames must be braced. Side cross-braces

are required for all extension-frame heights. In
addition, end cross-braces (braces across the face of
the extension frame) are required for extension frame
heights of 3'0" or more.
The maximum load on one leg of a frame, or on one

frame of a tower, should not exceed four times the
load on the opposite leg or frame under any given
loading condition or sequence.
When tower height reaches four frames, including an
extension frame if used, supplemental bracing must
be provided in accordance with the criteria in
Section 6-1.03C. Analysis of Pipe-Frame Shoring
Systems, except that no supplemental bracing will be
required in the longitudinal direction.
When investigating system stability, follow the
procedure in Section 6-l.O3C, Analysis of Pipe-Frame
Shoring Systems.
The use of WACO 25-kip shoring, when designed and erected in

conformance with the criteria set forth above, is authorized
for tower heights up to 37'-4", which is five frames plus a
fully-extended extension frame plus the maximum allowable
screw-jack adjustment. For any proposed use exceeding this
limiting height, the contractor must furnish a statement
signed by the shoring manufacturer covering the specific
installation. The statement must expressly provide that the
shoring will carry the loads to be imposed without over-
stressing any shoring component or reducing the required
safety factor. Note that the statement is a condition of
approval of the falsework design. If the contractor cannot or
does not furnish the statement, the falsework drawings will
not be approved.
The method of foundation-support is relatively more important
for intermediate strength shoring than for pipe-frame shoring
because the leg loads are considerably higher. Accordingly,
the foundation design should be scrutinized to ensure that the
vertical loads are uniformly distributed and differential
settlements are minimized.
6-7
6-1.05 Heavy-Duty Shoring Systems

Heavy-duty shoring is capable of carrying up to 100 kips per
tower leg. Two systems are in general use in California.
These are the WACO and PAFCO Shoring Systems, both of which
are designed and manufactured to carry a 100-kip leg load with
a 2-l/2 to 1 safety factor.
The criteria for review of heavy-duty steel shoring, as set

forth in this manual, were developed by the Division of
Structures from a subjective evaluation of manufacturer's
published test data together with an analysis of mathematical
models of both the WACO and PAFCO towers. Accordingly, the
criteria will apply only to the WACO and PAFCO Systems.
Should some other type of heavy-duty shoring be proposed for
use, the engineer should consult with bridge Headquarters for
the review procedure to be followed.
Review of the falsework design to verify contract compliance

will be based on the criteria in the following section, except
that designs based on alternative criteria may be approved
provided the contractor furnishes a written statement from the
shoring manufacturer coveting said alternative criteria. The
statement must refer to the specific project on which the
alternative criteria will apply, must set forth the conditions
under which the particular alternative criteria may be fol-
lowed, and must expressly provide that a design based on the
alternative criteria will not overstress any shoring component
nor reduce the required safety factor.
Finally, when reviewing heavy-duty shoring designs, keep in
mind that the criteria set forth in the following section are
based on the assumed use of a propriatory shoring system
which, during its lifetime, has not been altered or modified
in any way. This is an important point, because both WACO and
PAFCO shoring in which components have been modified to fit a
particular job situation is known to exist. Such modified
shoring, if used on a California contract, would have been
covered by a manufacturer's statement certifying the modifi-
cation and use. Once modified, however, any subsequent use
must be covered by a new statement certifying that the
modified shoring will carry the actual loads to be imposed
without overstressing any tower component or reducing the
required safety factor.
6-1.O5A Review Criteria
If tower legs, including an extension unit if used, are

utilized as single-post shores braced in one direction only,
the shores should be analyzed as individual steel columns.
6-8
Since the unsupported column length will be the total height

of the shore, measured from bottom of base plate to cap, the
computed allowable load (based on the column formula) may be
substantially less than the safe working load recommended by
the manufacturer,
If the total height of the shoring does not exceed the height
of a single tower unit, including an extension unit if used,
and if both the base and extension units are fully braced in
both directions in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations, individual tower legs may be considered as
capable of carrying the safe working load recommended by the
manufacturer without regard to the load on adjacent legs.
If the shoring system consists of two or more units stacked

one above the other, either with or without an extension unit,
the differential leg loading within a given tower unit should
not exceed the following limitation:
Maximum load on any Maximum to minimum

leg in the tower unit load ratio
10 kips or less 10 to 1
11 kips to 50 kips 6 to 1
51 kips to 75 kips 5 to 1
76 kips or more 4 to 1
In any case where the actual loading condition during any

construction stage will produce a differential leg loading in
excess of the ratio shown, the contractor must furnish documen-
tation that the actual loads are in accordance with the shor-
ing manufacturer's recommendations. The documentation must be
in the form of a written a statement by the manufacturer
covering the specific installation, and must expressly provide
that the towers will withstand the actual loading differential
without overstressing any tower component or reducing the
required safety factor. In the absence of such supporting
documentation, the falsework drawings will not be approved.
Steel beams used as continuous caps over two or more tower

units require a complete stress analysis to determine the
effect of continuity on tower leg loads. In many cases, and
particularly where large skews are involved, the falsework
stringers will not be supported directly over a tower leg;
consequently, both positive and negative bending moments will
occur in the cap. Resulting moment shear must be added to or
subtracted from the simple beam reaction to obtain the actual
leg load, and this may produce-a significant load differ-
ential. Also, do not overlook the effect of differential leg
loads, and the resulting differential settlement, on actual
unit stresses in the cap itself.
6-9
The use of "double legs" in which lateral support of the

supplemental leg is provided by the main tower leg rather than
independent bracing will be permitted with no reduction in
tower load-carrying capacity, provided the proposed double-leg
configuration is shown in the manufacturer's catalog or tech-
nical data furnished by the contractor. However, the use of
"triple legs" will not be approved unless the contractor
furnishes a statement from the manufacturer covering the
specific installation. The statement must expressly provide
that the use of supplemental legs will not overstress any
tower component, nor reduce the required safety factor.
In any case where the maximum leg load within a given tower
exceeds 30 kips, the specifications require the tower founda-
tion to be designed and constructed to provide uniform settle-
ment under all legs of the tower under all loading conditions.
This requirement is included in the specifications to prevent
distortion of the tower components as a consequence of unequal
leg settlement.
The method of foundation support must be shown on the false-
work drawings in sufficient detail to permit a stress
analysis. When reviewing the foundation design, keep in mind
that timber pads or cribbing, while generally adequate for
conventional falsework construction, may not ensure uniform
settlement under the heavier loads carried by heavy-duty
shoring systems. When asked, tower manufacturers will gen-
erally recommend concrete to ensure an unyielding foundation.
Under adverse foundation conditions, CIDH piles may provide
the most economical solution.
The effect of unequal leg settlement becomes increasingly
severe as leg loads increases, consequently, the tower
foundation design, including the method employed to ensure
uniform settlement, is relatively more important when leg
loads are high.
In the case of high falsework, differential leg shortening may

be an important consideration and should be investigated.
Note that differential leg shortening (which will OCCUr under
a differential leg load condition) has the same effect on a
continuous cap as differential leg settlement, and will result
in a further distribution of vertical forces.
The adverse effect of lateral movement at the top of a tower

(sidesway) on total load-carrying capacity is not subject to
precise analysis, as the calculations involved are highly
indeterminate. In theory, both the PAFCO and WACO 100-kip
shoring systems in use today can tolerate some sidesway with-
out overstressing the tower components; however, the amount of
6-10
acceptable movement depends on total tower load, tower height

and other variable factors so that limiting values become
difficult to establish.
In view of this, it is Division of Structures policy to

require heavy-duty shoring to be cable-guyed or otherwise
externally supported at the top unless the towers are stable
against overturning as defined in Section 5-1.O5A, Calculation
of Resisting Moments. Division policy further provides that
falsework towers which are stable against overturning, or
which are externally braced or cable-guyed to prevent over-
turning, will be considered as stable against internal
collapse as well. This approach, while not academically
exact, is conservative and will greatly facilitate analysis.
The total resisting moment of a falsework bent composed of two
or more towers having a common or continuous cap will be
assumed as equal to the sum of the resisting moments of the
individual towers. In such cases the cap will be considered
as capable of distributing horizontal forces- equally between
towers, but not capable of-applying moment to a tower.
In a multiple-tower bent where a continuous cap is not used,
each tower must be independently braced to resist the
horizontal load applied to that tower because the supported
falsework above the towers is not capable of transferring
horizontal forces.
When investigating the stability of a multiple-tower bent, any

advantage gained from the theoretical transfer of the point of
application of the vertical forces as the towers start to tip
will be neglected.
When designing external bracing, including cable bracing,
particular attention must be given to the method by which the
bracing is connected to the falsework. Connections must be
designed to transfer horizontal and vertical forces from the
falsework to the bracing system without overstressing any
tower component.
The importance of adequate external bracing, when external

bracing is required to ensure the stability of a falsework
tower, cannot be over-emphasized. The bracing system,
including all construction details, must be shown on the
falsework drawings, and should be reviewed for compliance
with contract requirements in the same manner as all other
components of the falsework system.
6-11
CHAPTER 7. FALSEWORK FOUNDATIONS
Section 7-1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the methods and procedures used by the

Division of Structures to evaluate the adequacy of falsework pad
and pile foundations. Also included is a brief discussion
of other foundation systems occasionally encountered on bridge
projects in California.
To an extent, the Division's procedures are approximations,
having been developed from a subjective evaluation of the actual
manner in which falsework pads and piles react when loads are
applied. Although empirical in some cases, the procedures give
results that are acceptable in the light of falsework require-
ments. To ensure uniformity, the Division's procedures are to be
followed by bridge field personnel in all cases when reviewing
the contractor's falsework design for structural adequacy and
compliance with contract requirements.
From an administrative standpoint, the elements of the falsework
system comprising the foundation differ from other elements of
the system in one important aspect. The specifications permit
the contractor to place falsework pads and drive falsework piles
before the falsework design has been reviewed and the drawings
approved. Division policy requires pad placement and pile
driving to be inspected, to the extent necessary to ensure
adequate foundation support, at the time the work is done. Any
inconsistencies and differences between the falsework drawings
and the work being performed in the field should be brought to
the contractor's attention immediately.
Section 7-2 Timber Pads
7-2. 0l Genera1
Falsework posts may be supported by individual pads, which may be
square or rectangular, or several posts may be supported by a
continuous pad. Additionally, a falsework pad may consist of a
single member or of several members set side-by-side.
Corbels are short beams which are used to distribute the post
load across the top of the individual pads in a multiple pad
system. In a typical timber system the corbel will be a timber
member of the same dimensions as the post it supports; however,
steel wide-flange beams are often used as corbels when the post
load is relatively high or in any case where steel posts or pipe
columns ace used to carry the vertical load. Additionally, when
the vertical design load is very high, as is often the case for a
falsework bent adjacent to a wide traffic opening, it is often
necessary to use two or more closely spaced corbels to adequately
distribute the load over the falsework pad.
7-1 Revised 05/92
As a general design procedure, a falsework pad may be viewed as a

cantilever beam extending from the face of the post or corbel.
With the beam loaded uniformly with the soil pressure, bending
and shear stresses may be calculated. Keep in mind, however,
that this approach will not give exact values because the assumed
uniform load distribution does not occur in actual practice.
To facilitate analysis of timber pad systems, the Division of.
Structures has developed an empirical procedure which provides
sufficient pad rigidity to assure a reasonably uniform load
distribution. The Division's procedure is explained in the
following sections, and illustrated in several example problems
in Appendix D.
In the formulas, is the theoretical effective length of the

pad in feet, t is the post width in inches, S is the pad section
modulus in inches cubed, and P is the post load in kips.
FIGURE 7-l
7-2 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
7-2.02 Definitions
The term "theoretical effective length" means the maximum length
over which a falsework pad is capable of distributing the post
load uniformly, all other factors being equal.
The term "limiting length" means the length over which a specific
falsework pad will actually distribute the post load uniformly at
the post location under consideration.
7-2.03 Analysis of Continuous Pad Systems
In a continuous pad system where the posts are uniformly spaced,
the theoretical effective length of the pad is equal to the post
width plus twice the length of a cantilever extending from the
face of the post or corbel a distance such that the calculated
bending stress in the pad equals the allowable stress.
Figure 7-1 shows the formulas that are used to calculate the
theoretical effective length at an interior post when the post
spacing is uniform along the pad. Note that the theoretical
effective length is measured along the pad in the direction of
the wood grain, the cantilever length is measured from a point
midway between the center and edge of the falsework post, and
the effective length formulas are derived by applying the soil
pressure load uniformly.
The two formulas shown in Figure 7-l are derived from quadratic
equations, and their use requires a cumbersome calculation. To
expedite the falsework design review, the Division has developed
a simplified formula that may be used for the symmetrical loading
condition that occurs when the post spacing is uniform. The
simplified formula gives results that are accurate within one
percent for the range of post loads and member sizes commonly
used for falsework construction in California. For descriptive
purposes, the simplified formula is designated the "SYM" formula.
The SYM formula is:
where L SYM is the theoretical effective length in feet; t is the

width of the post or corbel in inches; Fb is the allowable bend-
ing stress in psi; S is the pad section modulus in inches cubed;
and P is the post load in kips.
When the allowable bending stress value is substituted for
the formula reduces to:
7-3 Revised 05/92

FIGURE 7-2
When the post spacing is not uniform, the pad is asymmetrical for
analysis. For the asymmetrical condition, the limiting length of
the pad on one side of a post will not equal the limiting length
on the opposite side, and the two respective lengths must be
determined independently. Furthermore, the calculations are
complicated by the fact that it has not been possible to develop
a simplified formula for the asymmetrical loading condition.
Refer to the asymmetrical load shown in Figure 7-2 and note the
following:
L 1 is the limiting length on the short side, in feet.
L 2 may not exceed the smaller of (1) one-half of the post
spacing on the short side, or (2) one-half of the length
determined by the SYM formula.
the limiting length on the long side, if feet.
L 2 may not exceed the smaller of (1) one-half of the post
spacing on the long side, or (2) the length given by the
long side effective length formula for the asymmetrical
loading condition. For identification, this formula is
designated the "ASYM" formula, The ASYM formula is:
It is important to note that the length given by both the SYM and
the ASYM formulas is the pad length at which the actual bending
stress i&the pad equals the allowable bending stress. Since the
formulas are based on bending, it is not necessary to calculate
the bending stress when evaluating system adequacy because, for a
7-4 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
given post load, any pad length less than the length given by the
formulas will produce a bending stress that is less than the
allowable stress.
For the asymmetrical loading condition, pad bearing length, soil
pressure and the horizontal shear in the pad on the long side are
given by the following formulas:
In the preceding formulas, P is the post load in kips; S is the

pad section modulus in inches cubed; is the allowable bending
stress; t is the width of the post or corbel in inches; b is the
pad width in inches; and d is the pad thickness in inches.
7-2.03A Pad Analysis at Interior Posts
Figure 7-3 shows a falsework bent where the post spacing is

uniform along a continuous pad and the post load is distributed
across the pad by a single corbel. In the figure, "PS" is the
post spacing (and also the corbel spacing) and is the
theoretical effective length given by the SYM formula.
FIGURE 7-3
7-3 Revised O5/92

When the post spacing is uniform, the bearing length is symmetri-

cal. System adequacy is evaluated as follows:
1. For a given post, calculate the theoretical effective
length of the pad using the SYM formula.
2 . Compare the length from step 1 and the post spacing. The
shorter of these two lengths is the limiting length, or the
length to be used in the analysis.
The bearing length in the Figure 7-3 example is determined
by post spacing. In general, this will be the case for
falsework bents on California projects, However, when
relatively light members are used as pads, post spacing may
not be the determining factor; therefore, the step 2
comparison must be made in all cases.
3 . Using the post spacing (or the effective length if the
effective length governs) calculate the soil pressure.
4. If the soil pressure does not exceed the allowable soil
bearing value, calculate the stress due to horizontal shear.
For this calculation, consider the pad as a continuous beam
loaded uniformly with the soil pressure over a length equal
to the bearing length determined by the step 2 comparison,
and calculate the stress at a distance "d" from the face of
the post or corbel where "d" is the pad thickness.l
When the post spacing is not uniform, the contribution to system
adequacy made by the pad on one side of a post must be determined
independently of the contribution made by the pad on the opposite
side.
Refer to the system shown in Figure 7-4, System adequacy is
evaluated as follows:
1 l Use the SYM formula to calculate the theoretical effective
length of the pad at the post under consideration.
2 l Compare one-half of the length from step 1 and one-half of
the post spacing to the left of the post. The shorter of
these two lengths is the limiting length (the length that
actually contributes to system adequacy) on the left side.
In this example the left side comparison is made first
because, for the post configuration shown in Figure 7-4,
the post spacing to the left of the post is less than the
spacing to the right:
1
See Chapter 4, Section 4-2.05, Horizontal Shear, for a
general discussion of horizontal shear in timber beams.
7-6 Revised 05/92
FOUNDATIONS
3 . If the limiting length on the short side of the post is

one-half of the theoretical effective length as determined
by the SYM formula, the bearing length is symmetrical for
analysis. (Note that this is not the case in Figure 7-4.)
If the bearing length is symmetrical, calculate the soil
pressure and the stress due to horizontal shear following
the procedure explained above for the symmetrical analysis.
4 . If the limiting length on the short side is one-half
of the post spacing, as shown in the Figure 7-4 example,
the bearing length is asymmetrical.
For the asymmetrical analysis, calculate a new effective
length on the long side using the ASYM formula. (The ASYM
formula is shown on Page 7-4)
5 . Compare the long side effective length from step 4 and one-
half of the post spacing on the long side. The shorter of
these two lengths is the limiting length the long
side. (The long side is the right side in Figure 7-4.)
7-7 Revised 05/92

6 . The sum of the limiting lengths found in steps 2 and 5 is

the bearing length at the post under consideration.
3. Using the bearing length from step 6, calculate the soil
pressure. If the soil pressure does not exceed the allow-
able soil bearing value, calculate the stress due to hori-
zontal shear on the long side using the formula shown on
Page 7-5.
7-2.03B Pad Analysis at Exterior Posts
For exterior posts, the contribution to system adequacy made by
the length of pad on the outside of the post must be determined 2
independently of the contribution made by the pad on the inside.
Figure 7-5 shows the post configuration for an exterior post in
a typical continuous pad system. System adequacy is evaluated
as follows:
1. Use the SYM formula to calculate the theoretical effective
length of the pad at the exterior post.
2 . Multiply the calculated length by a stiffness coefficient
of 0.8 to obtain an adjusted effective length. (Note that
this step is necessary because the pad length on the out-
side of an exterior post resists the applied loads in the
same manner as an individual falsework pad. See the dis-
cussion in Section 7-2.04, Analysis of Individual Falsework
Pads.)
3 . Determine the limiting length on the outside of the post by
comparing one-half of the adjusted effective length and the
distance from the center of the post to the end of the pad.
The smaller of these two values is the limiting length
on the outside of the post.
4 . Determine a preliminary limiting length on the inside of
the post by comparing one-half of the theoretical effective
length calculated in step 1 and one-half of the distance
(post spacing) to the first interior post. The smaller of
these two values is the preliminary limiting length on the
inside of the post.
2
For typica1 bent configurations and post spacing, the pad
length on the inside of the post will be the long side for the
analysis. Keep in mind, however, that the procedure for
evaluating system adequacy as explained herein is also valid in
any case where the long side length is on the outside.
7-8 Revised 05/922
FIGURE 7-5
5 l If the step 3 and step 4 limiting lengths are equal, the

bearing length is symmetrical and pad adequacy may be
evaluated using the procedure for uniformly spaced interior
posts. (But note that this is unlikely to occur in actual
practice.)
6 l If the step 3 and step 4 lengths are unequal, the bearing
length is asymmetrical. For the asymmetrical loading it is
necessary to calculate the effective length of the pad on
the inside of the post (the long side) using the ASYM
formula.
Compare the length obtained from the ASYM formula and the
preliminary limiting length from step 4. The shorter of
these two lengths is the limiting length on the inside
of the post.
7 . Add the limiting length on the outside and the limiting
length on the inside to obtain the bearing length.
8 . Using the bearing length from step 7, calculate the. soil
pressure and the stress due to horizontal shear in the pad
on the long side using the formulas on Page 7-5.
7-9 Revised 05/92

FIGURE 7-6
7-10 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
7-2.03C Multiple Corbel Systems

The term "post spacing" has been used in the preceding section to
facilitate understanding of the Division's procedure for pad
analysis in continuous pad systems. But as previously noted,
when the falsework pad is made up of two or more individual
members placed side-by-side, as is typically the case, corbel
beams are used to distribute the post load uniformly across the
top of the pad. As a design. concept, then, the limiting length
determination actually involves consideration of the corbel
spacing rather than the post spacing, even though in many cases
the two distances are the same.
This distinction is not of any practical consequence when each
post has its own individual corbel; however, when the vertical
load is distributed to a continuous pad through a system of two
or more closely spaced corbels, the procedure for evaluating pad
adequacy for the asymmetrical loading condition as discussed in
the preceding section gives limiting lengths that are shorter,
and soil bearing values that are higher, than is actually the
case. This circumstance occurs because, as the-corbel spacing
approaches the corbel width, the pad distributes the total load
as though it were actually imposed by a single corbel having a
width along the pad of approximately the distance between the
outside faces of the adjacent corbels.
In view of the manner in which falsework pads respond to loads
applied by closely spaced corbels, the Division has developed an
alternative procedure for evaluating pad adequacy in a multiple
corbel system. The alternative procedure should be used when the
clear distance between adjacent corbels is equal to or less than
twice the thickness of the falsework pad.
Figure 7-6 shows a typical multiple corbel system, When the post
spacing is uniform, as is the case at post (a), bearing length is
symmetrical and pad adequacy is evaluated as follows:
1 . Calculate the theoretical effective length of the falsework
pad using the SYM formula. For this calculation, use the
post load, not the load applied by the corbel.
Note that it is necessary to use the post load because the
pad responds to loads applied by a system of closely spaced
corbels as though the loads were actually applied by a
single corbel.
2 . Compare one-half of the length from step 1 and one-
half of the corbel spacing. (Corbel spacing is designated
as "CS" in Figure 7-6.) The shorter of these two lengths
is the limiting length on both sides of the system.
7-11 Revised 05/92

The limiting length at post (a) in Figure 7-6 is determined

by the corbel spacing, and this is usually the case for
falsework designs on California projects. However, if the
pad is made up of relatively light members, corbel spacing
may not be the determining factor; therefore, the step 2
comparison must be made in all cases.
3 l Determine the bearing length. The bearing length is the
sum of the limiting lengths on either side of the corbel
system plus the distance between the corbel centerlines.
(The distance between the corbel centerlines is designated
as "m" in Figure 7-6.)
4 . Calculate soil pressure and the stress due to horizontal
shear.
Because of bearing length symmetry, the limiting lengths on each
side of the system will be equal; consequently, the procedure may
be simplified as follows:
1 . Calculate the theoretical effective length of the pad using
the SYM formula and the post load. Compare this length and
the corbel spacing. The shorter of these two lengths plus
the distance "m" is the bearing length.
2 . Using the bearing length from step 1, calculate soil pres-
sure and the stress due to horizontal shear.
When the system is asymmetrical, as is the case at post (b) in
Figure 7-6, the procedure is as follows:
1 l Calculate the theoretical effective length of the falsework
pad using the SYM formula and the total post load.
2 l Compare one-half of the length from step 1 and one-half of
the corbel spacing on the short side of the system. The
shorter of the two compared lengths is the limiting length
on the short side. (In Figure 7-6, the short side is the
left side and the limiting length is one-half of the corbel
spacing to the left of the post.)
If the limiting length on the short side is one-half of the
theoretical effective length, the bearing length will be
symmetrical for analysis. In such cases, pad adequacy may
be evaluated by the procedure previously explained for the
symmetrical loading condition. (As previously noted, how-
ever, this is not usually the case, and it is not the case
in the Figure 7-6 example.)
3 . If the limiting length on the short side is one-half of the
corbel spacing, as is the case at post (b) in Figure 7-6,
the bearing length is asymmetrical. For the asymmetrical
condition it is necessary to calculate the effective pad
7-12 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
length on the long side using the ASYM formula and a ficti-
tious limiting length on the short side. As shown in
Figure 7-6, for descriptive purposes the fictitious limit-
ing length is designated as
will be numerically equal to one-half of the effective
length calculated in step 1 but not more than one-half of
the corbel spacing on the short side plus the distance "m".
(In the Figure 7-6 example is equal to one-half of the
effective length because this length is less than one-half
of the corbel spacing on the short side plus "m".)
4. Calculate the theoretical effective length on the long side
using the ASYM formula and from step 3.
5 . Compare one-half of the theoretical effective length from
step 1, the long side effective length from step 4 and one-
half of the corbel spacing on the long side. The shortest
of these three lengths is the limiting length on the
long side. (In the Figure 7-6 example, is one-half of
the theoretical effective length.)
6. Determine the bearing length. The bearing length is the
sum of the short side limiting length from step 2, the long
side limiting length from step 5, and the distance "m".
See Figure 7-6.
7 . Using the bearing length from step 6, calculate the soil
pressure. If soil pressure does not exceed the allowable
soil bearing value, calculate the stress due to horizontal
shear in the long side of the pad.
The procedures described above for two corbel systems are also
applicable when three (or more) corbels are used to distribute
the vertical load. In such cases, the length "m" is the distance
(measured centerline-to-centerline) between the two outermost
corbels in the system.
In some cases the load from two (or more) posts will contribute
to the total vertical load to be distributed through the corbel
system. For this configuration, the total load applied to the
system must be used to calculate the effective length of the pad.
7-2.03C(2) Multiple Corbel Analysis at Exterior Posts
Figure 7-7 shows a multiple corbel configuration at an exterior
post. When the short side is on the outside of the post, as is
the case in Figure 7-7, system adequacy is evaluated as follows:
l . Calculate the theoretical effective pad length-using the
SYM formula and the post load.
7-13 Revised 05/92

CALIFORNIA- FALSEWORK MANUAL
CS
FIGURE 7-7
2 . Multiply one-half of the length from step 1 by a stiffness

coefficient of 0.8 to obtain. an adjusted effective length
of pad on the outside of the exterior post. (This step is.
necessary because the pad on the outside of an exterior
post resists the applied loads in the same manner as an
individual falsework pad. See Section 7-2.04, Analysis of
Individual Falsework Pads.)
3 . Determine the limiting length on the outside of the post by
comparing the adjusted effective length from step 2 and the
distance from the center of the outside corbel to the end
of the pad, The smaller of these lengths is the limiting
length on the outside of the exterior post system.
4 l Determine a preliminary limiting length on the inside of
the post by comparing one-half of the theoretical effective
length calculated in step 1 and one-half of the corbel
spacing. The smaller of these lengths is the preliminary
limiting length on the inside of the exterior-post.
7-14 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
5 l If the step 3 and step 4 limiting lengths are equal, the

bearing length is symmetrical and pad adequacy may be
evaluated by the procedure for uniformly spaced interior
posts explained in the preceding section.
6 . If the step 3 and step 4 lengths are unequal, the bearing
length is asymmetrical. For the asymmetrical condition it
is necessary to calculate the effective pad length on the
inside of the post (the long side) using the ASYM formula
and a fictitious short side limiting length. (See in
Figure 7-7.)
will be numerically equal to one-half of the adjusted
effective length calculated in step 2, but not more than
the outside edge distance plus the distance "m". (In the
Figure 7-7 example, is the numerical equivalent of one-
half of the adjusted effective length.)
7. Calculate the theoretical effective length on the long side
using the ASYM formula and from step 6.
8 l Compare the long side effective length from step 7 and the
preliminary limiting length from step 4. The shorter of
these two lengths is the limiting length on the inside
of the post.
9. Determine the bearing length. The bearing length is the
sum of the outside limiting length from step 3, the inside
limiting length from step 8, and the distance "m". See
Figure 7-7.
10. Using the bearing length from step 9, calculate the soil
pressure. If soil pressure does not exceed the allowable
soil bearing value, calculate the stress due to horizontal
shear in the pad on the inside of the post,
The same general procedure applies when the short side is on the
inside of an exterior post. For such cases the limiting lengths
are determined as follows:
1 . The limiting length on the inside of the post is the
shorter of one-half of the effective length calculated by
the SYM formula or one-half of the inside corbel spacing.
2 . The fictitious limiting length (FLl) is one half-of the
effective length calculated by the SYM formula, but not
more than one-half of the corbel spacing plus "m".
3 . The limiting length on the outside of the post is the
length calculated by the ASYM formula but not more than the
shorter of the edge distance or one-half of the effective
length multiplied by the stiffness coefficient.
7-15 Revised 05/92

7-2.04 Analysis of Individual Falsework Pads
Application of the Division's review procedure to individual pads

requires an accommodation to account for the greater rigidity
inherent in continuous pad systems. This is accomplished by
multiplying the length given by the SYM and ASYM formulas by a
stiffness coefficient of 0.8 to obtain an adjusted (shorter)
length to use in the individual pad analysis. Use of the stiff-
ness coefficient gives an effective length that reflects the load
distribution actually achieved by an individual pad, and thus
assures that the procedures used to evaluate the adequacy of
continuous and individual falsework pads are compatible.
In other respects, the procedures used to evaluate individual
pads are similar to those used in the analysis of continuous
pads, as discussed in the following sections.
7-2.04A Analysis of Symmetrical Pads
Figure 7-8 shows an individual falsework pad where the bearing
length is symmetrical about the post centerline. For the sym-
metrical loading, pad adequacy is verified as follows:
1 . Calculate the theoretical effective length of the pad using
the SYM formula.
2 . Multiply the theoretical effective length by the stiffness
coefficient of 0.8 to obtain an adjusted effective length.
The adjusted effective length may not exceed the actual
pad length. Therefore, if the adjusted effective length
is greater than the actual length, use the actual length
in the remaining calculations. (See Figure 7-8.)
3 . Using the governing length (adjusted effective length or
actual length) from step 2, calculate the soil pressure.
4 l If the soil pressure does not exceed the allowable soil
bearing value, calculate the stress due to horizontal
shear. For this calculation, consider the pad as a beam
loaded uniformly with the soil pressure over the length
determined in step 2.
7-16 Revised 05/92

7-2.04B Analysis of Asymmetrical Pads
Refer to Figure 7-9 which shows a non-symmetrical loading. Pad
adequacy is evaluated as follows:
1 . Calculate the theoretical effective length using the SYM
formula. Multiply the calculated value by the stiffness
coefficient (0.8) to obtain the adjusted effective length.
2 . Compare one-half of the adjusted effective length and the
actual length of the pad cantilever on the short and long
sides of the post. The shorter of the two compared lengths
on each side of the post is the limiting length on that
side. (See Figure 7-9)
3 l If the limiting length on the both sides of the post is
one-half of the adjusted effective length, the bearing
length is symmetrical. In such cases system adequacy may
be evaluated by the procedure described in steps 3 and 4
for symmetrically loaded pads.
4 . When the limiting length on the short side is the pad
length, as shown in the Figure 7-9 example, the bearing
length is asymmetrical. For the asymmetrical loading
condition, calcu1ate a new effective length on the long
side using the ASYM formula.
5 . Multiply the length given by the ASYM formula by the stiff-
ness coefficient (0.8) to obtain the limiting length on the
long side.
7-17 Revised 05/92

FIGURE 7-9
6. Add the short and long side limiting lengths to

obtain the bearing length. (In figure 7-9 is the actual
pad length and is the adjusted effective length from the
ASYM formula.)
7 l Using the bearing length from step 7, calculate the soil
pressure. If the soil pressure does not exceed the
allowable soil bearing value, calculate the stress due to
horizontal shear in the pad on the long side using the
formulas on page 7-5.
For some asymmetrical loading configurations, the adjusted
ASYM length will be shorter than the length, in
which case the stress due to horizontal shear will be
calculated on the side. (See Example Problem 1lB.)
7-2.05 Joints and Joint Location in Continuous Pads
To ensure the uniform load distribution assumed in the analysis,
joints (that is, points of pad discontinuity) are not permitted
within the limiting length of any continuous falsework pad,
unless doubler pads or supplemental pads are provided.
7-18 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
If, because of the post spacing or other design consideration,

joints must be located within the limiting length of a continuous
pad, and if neither supplemental pads nor doubler pads are to be
used, the interior posts adjacent to the joint must be viewed as
exterior posts for analysis. If the falsework pad meets the
exterior post criteria, the system is adequate at that location,
Joint location, because it directly affects the ability of a
continuous pad to distribute the post load uniformly, is an
important design consideration. Joint location must be planned
in advance and shown on the falsework drawings, unless either
doubler pads or one or more supplemental pads are to be used.
Any intended use of supplemental or doubler pads must be shown
7-2.05A Supplemental Pads
To facilitate construction, some contractors intentionally over-
design a continuous pad system by providing a greater overall pad
width, and a correspondingly greater number of-individual pad
members, than would be required by theoretical design considera-
tions. The redundancy provided by the supplemental pads allows
greater flexibility in joint location.
When supplemental pads are provided, joints may be located within
the limiting length of a continuous pad system, subject to the
following restrictions:
1 . Joints in adjacent members must be staggered.
2 . At any given joint location, the net width of the continu-
ous pad system may not be less than would be required if
supplemental pads were not used. (Net width is the width
remaining after deducting the width of all pads having
joints at the location under consideration.)
3 . Joints in individual members comprising the net width of
the continuous pad system, as defined above, may not be
located closer to the joint in the supplemental pad than
the limiting length at that joint location.
Since supplemental pads are not considered in the analysis, they
must be clearly identified as such on the falsework drawings.
7-2.05B Doubler Pads
A doubler pad, which is a second pad placed on top of the main
pad, may be used to carry the post load across a joint located
within the limiting length of the main pad.
A doubler pad may be an individual pad at a given post location
or a continuous pad placed between two or more posts. To
7-19 Revised 05/92

2 pad thicknesses
Case I Case I I Case III
FIGURE 7-10
maintain the integrity of a continuous pad system, doubler pads

must be of the same width and thickness as the main-pad, and they
must be installed as provided in the following paragraphs,
Refer to Figure 7-10 and note that length is the adjusted
effective length of a symmetrically loaded phantom pad designed
in accordance with Section 7-2.04. Analysis of Individual Pads.
Use of doubler pads must conform to the following criteria:
1 . If a joint in the main continuous pad falls within the zone
established by length either an individual doubler pad
or a continuous doubler pad may be used. If an individual
pad is used, it must be long enough to completely cover the
zone. (See Case I in Figure 7-10.) If the doubler pad
is continuous, it must extend past the adjacent post to the
edge of the zone. (Case II in Figure 7-10.)
2 . If a joint in the main continuous pad falls beyond the
zone but within the limiting length of the main pad, a
continuous doubler pad must be used, and it must extend
past the posts on either side of the joint at least two pad
thicknesses. (Case III in Figure 7-10.)
7-2 .06 Corbels
Corbels are short beams used to distribute the post load across
the top of the individual pads in a multiple pad system.
When a corbel is used, Division of Structures policy requires
that it extend across the full width of the pad even though
extension of the corbel to the outside of the pad may not be
required by theoretical design considerations.
7-20 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
The Division's procedure for evaluating corbel adequacy is based

on the following assumptions:
1 . The post load is applied symmetrically and is uniformly
distributed across the full width of the pad.
The assumed symmetry may not be valid in the case of a
continuous pad system where one or more supplemental pads
are used to facilitate joint location. However, assuming a
symmetrical load distribution will give a conservative
result when supplemental pads are used, and the assumption
greatly simplifies the calculation.
2 . When resisting the load applied by the pad, the corbel acts
like a cantilever beam.
3 . For timber corbels, the point of fixity of the cantilever
beam (and the point of maximum bending moment) is located
mid-way between the centerline and outside face of the
post.
4. For steel beam corbels, the point of fixity (and the point
of maximum moment) is located in a vertical plane at the
outside face of the post.
5 . If a round post is used, the post width to be used in the
analysis is the length of the side of an equivalent area
square post.
7-2.06A Timber Corbels
Figure 7-11 shows a typical timber corbel system where the post
is rectangular. System adequacy is evaluated as follows:
1 . Calculate the perpendicular-to-grain bearing stress at the
interface between post and corbel.
If the calculated stress exceeds the allowable stress, the
system must be redesigned to reduce the post load or the
load must be distributed over a larger bearing area by
means of a steel plate. If a steel plate is used, the
analysis is based on the assumption that the post width is
numerically equal to the length of the steel plate.
2 . Calculate the vertical shear at a distance from the face of
the post equal to the depth of the corbel. Calculate the
horizontal shearing stress at this location.
3 . If horizontal shearing stress does not exceed the allowable
stress, calculate the bending moment and the bending
stress. The system is adequate if the calculated bending
stress does not exceed the allowable stress.
7-21 Revised 05/92

FIGURE 7-11
7-2.06B Steel Corbels

For steel beam corbels the procedure is as follows:
1 . Calculate the web crippling stress under the post using the
total post load.
If the calculated stress exceeds the allowable, the length
of bearing must be increased or the beam web stiffened.
2 . Calculate the shear stress on the beam web using one-half
of the total post load.
3 . Calculate the bending moment and the bending stress. (For
steel beam corbels, the cantilever length is measured from
the face of the post.)
4 . Calculate the perpendicular-to-grain bearing stress at the
interface between corbel and pad.
7-22 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
Section 7-3 Pile Foundations
7-3.01 Genera1
In general, pile foundations will be required whenever site
conditions preclude the use of timber pads or concrete footings,
Typically, piles are used to support falsework for structures.
over water, for falsework such as heavy duty shoring where leg
loads are high and/or where differential settlement must be
prevented, and for any type of falsework where a conventional
foundation is not feasible because of poor soil conditions.
In most cases timber piles will provide the most economical pile
foundation. However, the design load on timber piles is limited
to 45 tons; consequently, steel piles may be more economical when
large loads are to be carried. Regardless of other considera-
tions, steel piles may be the better choice at any location where
difficult driving conditions are anticipated.
Driven piles may be cut off and capped near the-ground line, in
which case the superstructure load will be carried by braced
bents erected on top of the pile cap. In this configuration the
piles will be supported throughout their length; therefore, they
will be subjected to axial loading only. Unless driven by a drop
hammer, such piles may be considered as capable of carrying a
load equal to the bearing value given by the ENR formula, but not
more than 45 tons for timber piles.
If a drop hammer is used, the ENR bearing value should be divided
by a safety factor of 1.5 to obtain the allowable pile capacity.
Also, unless the hammer weight is clearly evident, the contractor
should be required to substantiatethe weight used in the bearing
calculations.
Occasionally, site conditions will dictate the use of pile bents
extending above the ground surface. Such bents may be unbraced,
partly braced or fully braced depending on site conditions. Most
pile bent designs will use timber piles; however, steel piles are
also used when warranted by site or design considerations.
7-3.02 Capacity of Timber Piles in Pile Bents
The load-carrying capacity of timber piles in a pile bent is a
function of many variable factors. For example, the type of
soil, the depth at which the piles are fixed in the ground, the
deviation of the piles from their theoretical position, and the
contribution to system stability provided by diagonal bracing all
affect the ability of timber pile bents to resist the applied
loads, and all must be considered in the analysis.
7-23 Revised 05/92

Furthermore, the procedures used to evaluate pile capacity differ

from those used in the analysis of other components of the false-
work system because the pile analysis must consider the combined
effect of vertical loads, horizontal loads and eccentric loading
conditions to ensure that allowable stresses are not exceeded.
The factors that influence pile capacity are discussed in detail
in the following sections.
7-3.02A Required Pile Penetration
The Division's procedure for analysis of timber pile bents is
valid only if the piles penetrate the subsurface soils to the
depth necessary to develop a point of contraflexure in the
embedded pile. (In a driven pile, the point of contraflexure, or
the point of pile fixity as it is called in the pile analysis, is
the location below the ground surface where the pile shaft may be
considered as "fixed" against rotation when it is subjected to a
bending moment.)
Other factors being equal, the depth of embedment needed to
develop pile fixity is a function of soil type. Obviously, soft
soils require a deeper-penetration than firm soils, but
determining the actual penetration required is a matter of
engineering judgment.
The Division of Structures uses the ratio of the depth of pile
penetration to the height of the pile above ground (expressed as
D/H) as the criterion to ascertain whether a given pile is
embedded deeply enough to develop a point of fixity. For the
stress analysis, piles are considered fixed at the predicted
depth below the ground surface when the D/H ratio is 0.75 or
more.
When the D/H ratio is less than 0.75, the piles are not embedded
deeply enough to develop the fixed condition; consequently, they
will rotate to a degree when loads are applied. The amount of
rotation is a function of the restraint developed by the actual
pile embedment. The degree of restraint decreases and rotation
increases as the D/H ratio becomes smaller.
When rotation occurs, bending stresses are reduced but overall
pile capacity is reduced as well, and in a disproportionate
amount. The procedure used by the Division of Structures to
estimate pile capacity when the embedded length is insufficient
to develop the fixed condition is discussed in Section 7-3.04,
Field Evaluation of Pile Capacity.
As noted above, the Division's method of analysis assumes that
pile embedment is sufficient to develop the fixed condition.
This is not an unreasonable assumption because, for most soil
types, the penetration needed to obtain bearing will develop pile
fixity as well. However, while this assumption may be true in
7-24 Revised 05/92
FOUNDATIONS
general, it is not true in all cases; consequently, when timber

pile bents are to be used, Division of Structures policy requires
that approval of the design be contingent on the piles actually
penetrating to the depth assumed in the analysis. 3
7-3.02B Point of Pile Fixity
Assuming adequate penetration, the depth to the point of fixity
is a function of soil stiffness and the diameter of the pile at
the ground line. The relationship is:
y = (k) (d)
where y is the distance (depth) from ground line to the point of

fixity, k is the soil stiffness factor, and d is the diameter of
the pile at the ground line.
A widely accepted rule-of-thumb assumes that the point of fixity
is located about four pile diameters below the ground surface for
soil conditions ranging from medium hard to medium soft, and this
assumption has been verified by recent load tests. Accordingly,
assuming the depth of-pile fixity as four pile diameters (which
corresponds to a k factor of 4.0) will be satisfactory for most
soil types. For soft, yielding soils such as bay mud, this
figure should be increased up to a maximum of six diameters.
Consideration may be given to raising the assumed point of fixity
when piles are driven into very firm soils; however, caution is
advisable because the driving of piles into any type of soil will
tend to disturb the top few feet of the surrounding material.
An alternative approach uses information obtained from the Log of
Test Borings sheet. The average of the penetrometer readings for
the portion of the log equal to the depth of pile penetration,
adjusted by eliminating spikes, gives an indication of the
relative soil stiffness. With this average value, a soil stiff-
ness factor can be obtained graphically from the Soil Factor
Chart shown in Figure 7-12. As a precaution, however, keep in
mind that while this method may appear sophisticated, it does
not ensure a more accurate result. As a practical approach, use
of the four-diameter rule-of-thumb will simplify analysis without
sacrificing accuracy except in the case of very soft soils.
3
As an example, if the above-ground height of a given bent.
is 20 feet, approval of the design should be contingent on the
piles penetrating at least 15 feet when they are driven, and this
condition of approval should be noted on the falsework drawings.
7-25 Revised 05/92
703.02C Driving Tolerance

Unless the piles are carefully driven, it will be necessary to
pull the top of each pile into line before setting the pile cap.
Pulling the top of a pile from its driven position to its final
position under the cap produces a bending moment which must be,
considered in the analysis. If the piles are appreciably out
of line, the resulting bending stress may reduce pile capacity
substantially.
Similarly, any deviation of the top of the pile in its final
position from a vertical line through the point of pile fixity
will result in an eccentric loading condition that also reduces
pile capacity. Vertical load eccentricity, often referred to as
pile "lean", does not necessarily occur because a pile is pulled.
It is an independent loading condition that occurs whenever the
top of a pile in its final position under the cap is not centered
around a vertical line through the point of pile fixity.
When investigating pile capacity, keep in mind that pile pull and
pile lean are independent loading conditions. Either condition
has the potential to reduce pile capacity substantially, and the
adverse effect of both conditions must be considered in the
design of timber pile bents. To ensure that they are considered,
the specifications require the allowable driving tolerance for
both conditions (maximum pull and maximum lean) to be shown on
the falsework drawings.
7-3.02D Soil Relaxation Factor
The force required to pull the top of a pile from its driven
position to its final position under the cap causes the pile
to bend, which in turn produces pressure on the soil below the
ground surf ace. With time, the soil will yield under this
pressure, allowing the pile to straighten to a degree. The
yielding of the soil, called soil relaxation, lowers the point
of fixity, which lengthens the pile column and reduces the
bending stress proportionally.
In the analysis, the effect of soil relaxation is accounted for
by a soil relaxation factor. The value of the soil relaxation
factor in a given situation is a function of soil type and the
length of time between the initial pull and application of the
vertical load. These relationships are shown graphically in the
Soil Factor Chart in Figure 7-12.
For the typical bridge project, a duration of time of about one
month between the initial pull and application of at least a part
of the vertical load is a reasonable expectation. As shown on
the Soil Factor Chart, for a one-month duration Of time, the soil
7-26 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
Soil Factor Chart
relaxation factor, "R", is about 1.25 for soil conditions ranging

from hard to medium soft. For softer soils the value may be
increased, up to a maximum of 2.0 for very soft, yielding soils
such as bay mud.
If it is known ahead of time that the piles will remain unloaded
for an extended period after being pulled, consideration may be
given to increasing the numerical value of the soil relaxation
factor. As shown on the Soil Factor Chart, the recommended
increase-is proportional to time, from 10 percent for two months
up to a maximum of 50 percent for four months or longer.
7-27 Revised 05/92

7-03.02E Modulus of Elasticity

The specifications establish the upper
6
limit for the modulus of
elasticity for timber at 1.6 x l0 psi. This is a reasonable
value for the seasoned material typically used for falsework
construct ion; however, a lower value may be more realistic for
timber piles if relatively green material will be used.
When the nature of the material is unknown
6
when the analysis is
made, assume a value for E of 1.6 x l0 psi. This value gives
conservative results for unseasoned timber; therefore, its use is
appropriate when the actual character of the pile material (green
or seasoned) is not known
If green piles will be used, and if the contractor so requests,
the analysis may be based on a lower E value. Keep in mind,
however, that the modulus of elasticity of a given material can
be determined only by a load test; it cannot be determined by
observation. Accordingly, Division policy requires load test
data to be furnished by the contractor to verify the actual
modulus value in any case where a value less than 1.6 x l06 psi
is to be used.
7-3.02F Pile Diameter
Division of Structures policy requires falsework drawings to
include enough information to enable the engineer to make a
stress analysis, and this requirement applies to pile bents as
well as other elements of the falsework system. In the case of
timber piling, however, the exact dimensions may not be known
ahead of time. In view of this, it is customary to base the
design on minimum dimensions (minimum tip and butt diameter,
minimum penetration, etc.) and to show these minimum dimensions
When investigating pile capacity using contractor-furnished
minimum dimensions, keep in mind that pile bents respond to
applied loads in a different manner than other components of the
falsework system. For example, if the actual diameter of the
driven piles is larger than the diameter assumed in the analysis,
vertical load-carrying capacity will be increased, as will the
ability of the piles to withstand the adverse effect of pile
lean. Other factors being equal, however, a large diameter pile
cannot be pulled as far as a smaller pile. If the bending stress
caused by pulling is a significant factor in the analysis, any
pile having a larger ground line diameter than originally assumed
may, in reality, have a lower overall load-carrying capacity.
Pile diameter has a greater influence on pile capacity than any
other single factor, and the value used in the analysis should be
selected with this fact in mind.
7-28 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
7-3.03 Analysis of Timber Pile Bents

To facilitate analysis of timber pile bents, the Division of
Structures has adopted an empirical procedure which is based on
the results of research involving full-scale load tests on driven
timber piles. The test report concludes that evaluation of pile
capacity using ultimate load factors will provide a higher degree
of correlation with test results than will conventional analysis
using a fixed level of working stresses.
To avoid a forced compliance with working stress values that
appear overly conservative in the light of falsework require-
ments, the Division has developed a modified combined stress
expression which, when used with an empirical procedure to
determine the effect on pile capacity when driven piles are
pulled into line, gives results that are in reasonably close
agreement with the test results. Applicability of the Division's
procedure has been confirmed by mathematical analysis using the
computer pile shaft program currently used to design pile founda-
tions in permanent work.
In essence, the Division's procedure is as follows:
1 . Calculate the bending stress in the pile at the time the
pile is pulled into position, using the maximum allowable
pile pull value shown on the falsework drawings. (This
stress is called the "initial" bending stress.)
2 . Calculate the bending stress remaining in the pile after
soil relaxation has taken place. (This stress is called
the "relaxed" bending stress.)
3 . Calculate the bending stress caused by vertical load eccen-
tricity, using the maximum allowable value for pile lean
shown on the falsework drawings.
4 . Calculate the bending stress caused by the horizontal
design load; calculate the lateral deflection of the pile
bent and the bending stress caused by additional vertical
load eccentricity resulting from that deflection. (This
step is not required unless the L/d ratio exceeds 8. See
Section 7-3.03C, Effect of Horizontal Loads.)
5 . Calculate the P-delta deflection for the horizontal design
load and, if applicable, for pile lean; calculate the bend-
ing stress resulting from the P-delta deflection. (This
step is not required unless the L/d ratio exceeds 15. See
Section 7-3.03D, Effect of P-delta Deflection.)
6 . Calculate the compressive stress in the pile.
7 l Enter the appropriate values in the combined stress
expression to verify the adequacy of the design.
3-29 Revised 05/92
7-3.03A Effect of Pile Pull

Determining the bending stress that occurs when a pile is pulled
is a two-step process. The first step calculates the stress
produced by the initial pull. The second step calculates the
stress remaining in the pile when the loads are applied.
7-30 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
Refer to Figure 7-13 for formula nomenclature and definition of

terms used in the analysis. The procedure is as follows:
1 . Assume a ground line diameter using the minimum butt and
tip diameters shown on the falsework drawings, the height
of the bent from ground line to cap, and the estimated pile
penetration. (See Section 7-3.02F, Pile Diameter.)
2 . Using the assumed ground line diameter, calculate the
cross-sectional area, section modulus, and moment of
inertia.
3 . Assume a value for the modulus of elasticity. (Caution:
see Section 7-3.02E, Modulus of Elasticity.)
4. Determine the depth below ground line to the initial point
of pile fixity. (See Section 7-3.02B, Point of Pile Fixity.)
5 . Determine the soil relaxation factor to be used in the
analysis. (See Section 7-3.02D, Soil Relaxation Factor,)
In the formulas, is the length of the pile column when

the pile is pulled initially, is the depth to the
initial point of fixity, is the length of the column
after soil relaxation takes place, and is the depth to
the relaxed point of fixity. (Note that multiplied
by the soil relaxation factor.)
where the value for is the -maximum allowable distance the

top of the pile may be pulled, in inches, as shown on the
falsework drawings, E is 1,600,OOO psi (unless a lower
value has been selected for the analysis) and I is the
moment of inertia from step 2.
8 l Calculate the initial bending stress in the pile.
where S is the section modulus from step 2.
7-31 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
produce a bending moment. It is evident, then, that the ability

of a pile bent to resist the horizontal design load is a function
of the contribution to frame rigidity provided by the diagonal
bracing and the stiffness of the individual piles.
Other factors being equal, the effect on system stability of
bending stresses produced by the horizontal design load is a
direct function of the unsupported length of the pile column.
(For this case the unsupported length is the vertical distance
between the relaxed point of pile fixity and the bolted
connection at the bottom of the lowest tier of diagonal bracing.)
To ensure uniformity, Division policy requires consideration of
the bending stress produced by application of the horizontal
design load in all cases where the ratio of the unsupported
pile length to the pile diameter. at the ground line (expressed
as exceeds 8. For typical pile diameters and average soil l
conditions, this value corresponds to a distance of about two

feet between the ground surface and the bottom of the bracing.
7-3.03D Effect of P-delta Deflection
When an unsupported pile is subjected to both horizontal and
vertical loads, the pile will deflect laterally in the direction
of the applied horizontal load, This lateral deflection moves
the original point of application of the vertical -load, and the
resulting horizontal displacement produces an eccentric loading
condition. (See "x" in Figure 7-15 on page 7-40.)
The total vertical load eccentricity that occurs when the-pile
column is deflected laterally is the sum of the deflection caused
by the horizontal load and the additional deflection caused by
bending which occurs as a consequence of the vertical load acting
on the pile in its deflected position. The additional deflection
of the pile column under the applied vertical load, and the
corresponding increase in the bending stress, is often referred
to as the "P-delta" effect.
The total deflection resulting from the combined action of a
horizontal and a vertical load cannot be calculated directly
since it is the sum of a converging mathematical series. How-
ever, it may be approximated by incremental addition using the
iterative procedure and formulas shown in Figure 7-15. (See also
Example Problem 14C in Appendix D.)
Additional bending due to the P-delta effect also occurs when a
vertical load is applied to an unsupported pile that is leaning
in any direction. When the load is applied, the pile column will
deflect laterally in the direction of the pile lean. In this
case the deflecting force is the horizontal component of the
vertical load reaction acting along the axis of the out-of-plumb
pile.
7-33 Revised 05/92

In the column formula, is the maximum allowable com-

pressive stress parallel to the grain; is the unbraced
length, in inches; and d is the least dimension, in inch-
es, measured normal to the plane of bending.
Note that the column formula was developed for a square
or rectangular section. For a round section such as a
timber pile, the least dimension "d" is the length of the
side of a square having the same cross-sectional area as
the pile under consideration -- not the pile diameter.
(See Chapter 4, Section 4-2.08, Timber Posts, for the
derivation of the column formula.)
Pile area should be calculated using the ground line
diameter. It is unnecessary to refine the calculation by
considering pile taper.
The column formula given in the specifications is valid
only when the modulus of elasticity for the member under
consideration is 1,600,OOO psi. If a lower value is
being used in the analysis, the allowable stress given by
the formula must be reduced by the ratio of the modulus
value being used to 1,600,OOO.
When E is 1,600,OOO psi the column formula will give an
allowable compressive stress value below 1600 psi for
ratios greater than about 17.3. The limiting ratio
will be reduced below 17.3 for lower E values.
5 Enter the appropriate values and solve the combined
l
stress expression.
7-3.03E(2) Type II Pile Bents
Type II pile bents are bents where all bracing conforms to the
criteria in Section 7-3.03B, Adequacy of Diagonal Bracing, and
the ratio of the pile column is greater than 8 but not more
than 15. For Type II bents it is necessary to consider the
effect of horizontal forces but not P-delta deflection,
When calculating stresses and deflections in the pile column, the
bent will be considered as a braced frame within the vertical
limits of the bracing, and the horizontal design load will be
applied in a plane through the bolted connections at the bottom
of the bracing.
For analysis, the unsupported length of the pile column is the
vertical distance between the relaxed point of pile fixity and
the connections at the bottom of the lowest tier of bracing, and
the pile column is assumed to be fixed against rotation and
translation at the relaxed point of fixity and free to rotate and
translate with the frame at the connection at the bottom of the
bracing.
7-36 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
FIGURE 7-14
Figure 7-14 is a schematic representation of a pile in a Type II

pile bent before and after the horizontal design load is applied.
Design adequacy is evaluated as follows:
1 l Calculate the bending stress remaining in the pile after
soil relaxation takes place, the bending stress produced
by vertical load eccentricity due to pile lean and the
stress due to axial compression and, if necessary, the
allowable compressive stress. For these calculations
follow the procedure for Type I bents explained in the
preceding section.
where fbH is the bending stress; H is the horizontal

design load, in pounds; is the unsupported length of
the pile column, in feet; and S is the pile section
modulus.
7-37 Revised 05/92

3. Calculate the lateral displacement that occurs when the

horizontal design load is applied to the pile column.
(See "x" in Figure 7-14.)
where x is the displacement, in inches; E is the modulus

of elasticity; and I is the moment of inertia of the pile
column.
4 . Calculate the bending stress due to additional vertical
load eccentricity caused by the horizontal displacement.
(The additional vertical load eccentricity is numerically
equal to the horizontal displacement. See Figure 7-11.)
where is the bending stress; is the vertical de-

sign load, in pounds; and e2 is the additional vertical
load eccentricity caused by the horizontal displacement,
in inches.
5 . Enter the stress values and solve the combined stress
expression. For this case the expression becomes:
where is the bending stress produced by the horizontal

design load and is the bending stress produced by
vertical load eccentricity resulting from lateral
displacement of the pile at the point of application of
the horizontal design load.
As shown in the combined stress formula, all bending stresses are
additive. This occurs because, when evaluating the adequacy of
pile bent designs, the horizontal design load is assumed to act
in the direction that produces the highest combined bending
stress in the pile column.
7-3.03E(3) Type III Pile Bents
Type III pile bents are bents where all bracing conforms to the
criteria in Section 7-3.03B, Adequacy of Diagonal Bracing, and
the ratio of the pile column exceeds 15. For Type III
bents it is necessary to consider the bending stress produced
by P-delta deflection. The procedure is as follows:
1 . Calculate the bending stress remaining in the pile-after
soil relaxation takes place and the bending stress due to
pile lean.
7-38 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
2 . Calculate the bending stress due to application of the

horizontal design load. (See step 2 in the preceding
section.)
3 . Calculate the horizontal component of the vertical load
reaction when the vertical load is applied to the pile in
its initial leaning position.
where is the horizontal component, in pounds; is the

vertical load, in pounds; is the maximum allowable pile
lean shown on the falsework drawings, in inches; and is
the length of the pile when is applied, in feet.
4. Both the horizontal design load [H] and the horizontal
component of the vertical design load act on the pile
to produce additional vertical load eccentricity. There-
fore, these two forces are added to obtain the horizon-
tal force to use in the P-delta calculation.
5 . Using the total horizontal force from step 4, calculate
the total horizontal displacement (e3) following the
procedure explained in Section 7-3.03D, Effect of P-delta
Deflection, and illustrated in Figure 7-15 Example
Problem 14C in the appendix.
6 . Calculate the bending stress produced by the horizontal
displacement calculated in step 5.
where is the bending stress; is the vertical de-

sign load, in pounds; e3 is the P-delta deflection due to
the combined effect of the horizontal design load and
pile lean, in inches; and S is the pile section modulus.
7. Calculate the stress due to axial compression.
8 . Determine the allowable compressive stress using the
column formula given in the specifications. (See the
discussion in Section 7-3.03E(l), Type I Pile Bents.)
9 . Enter the stress values and solve the combined stress
expression. For this case the expression becomes:
7 - 3 9 Revised 05/92
The value for "H" is the actual horizontal force being used
in the analysis. In the formulas, all horizontal force
values are in pounds. The iteration may be discontinued when
the calculated total displacement exceeds the previously
calculated total displacement by less than 5 percent.
7-40 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
7-3.03F Investigation of Longitudinal Stability

The discussion in Sections 7-3.03E(2) and 7-3.03B(3) has focused
on the procedures used to evaluate the adequacy of Type II and
Type III pile bents, respectively, when subjected to horizontal
forces applied in the transverse direction, or parallel to the
plane of the bracing. However, the falsework system must be
capable of resisting horizontal forces applied in any direction;
therefore, the pile bent analysis must consider longitudinal
stability as well.
In most falsework designs, longitudinal stability is achieved by
carrying the horizontal design load across the falsework bents to
a point of external support, such as an abutment or column that
is part of the permanent structure. Such designs must comply
with the provisions in Section 5-1.04, Longitudinal Stability.
When pile bents are designed in accordance with Section 5-1.04,
longitudinal application of the horizontal design load need not
be considered in the pile analysis. If, however, longitudinal
stability is provided by some other means, such-as diagonal
bracing between two or more adjacent bents, the ability of the
piles to resist the horizontal design load must be investigated.
Diagonal bracing used in the longitudinal direction must comply
with the provisions Section 7-3.03B, Adequacy of Diagonal
Bracing, including the requirement for a horizontal member
between the connections at the bottom of the bracing. The
horizontal member must be sized to carry the horizontal design
load as a column. If the member is not so designed, or if the
bracing fails to comply with Section 7-3.03B in any other aspect,
the bent will be considered "unbraced" for analysis in the
longitudinal direction.
When the longitudinal bracing is adequate, the horizontal design
load will be applied in a plane through the connections at the
bottom of the bracing, and the stresses and deflections in the
pile column below the bracing will be calculated as provided in
Sections 7-3.03E(2) and 7-3.036(3) for Type II and Type III
bents, respectively. However, there are several additional
factors that must be kept in mind when making the longitudinal
analysis, as discussed in the following paragraphs.
First, when the connections at the bottom of the longitudinal
bracing are not located in the same horizontal plane as the
connections at the bottom of the transverse bracing, the length
of the pile column below the bracing will be different for the
longitudinal and transverse directions, and this may result in
different bent types in the two directions. For example, a given
bent may be Type II for analysis in the transverse direction, but
because of the bracing location, the bent may be Type III when
viewed in the longitudinal direction.
7-41 Revised 05/92

Second, all bents that are connected by longitudinal bracing will

deflect together when the horizontal design load isapplied in
the longitudinal direction; consequently, the total horizontal
design load acting on the system must be apportioned between the
bents. When the piles in each bent have similar properties, each
bent will resist one-half of the total load, but this will result
in a different design load longitudinally than transversely
unless each bent carries the same vertical load.
Consider the bent and bracing arrangement shown schematically in
Figure 7-16. For braced bent D-E, the horizontal design load in
the transverse direction is 0.02P and 0.03P at bents D and E,
respectively. In the longitudinal direction, however, the design
load is (l/2)(0.02) (P + 1.5P) = 0.025P at both bent D and bent E.
Even where the vertical load is the same at all bents under
consideration, the horizontal design load is not necessarily the
same. For example, at bent A-B in Figure 7-16, the horizontal
design load in the transverse direction is the same for both
bents. In the longitudinal direction, however, some portion of
the horizontal load generated by the vertical load applied to
free-standing bent C will be carried over to bent B, and this
produces a greater horizontal design load longitudinally than
transversely at each -bent in the A-B system.
Finally, differences in the applied vertical load on adjacent
braced bents may create a situation where the piles in the two
bents will have different physical properties, as would be the
case at bents D-E and F-G, for example, if bents E and F require
a larger diameter pile to carry the heavier vertical load. In
such bents, the total horizontal load acting on the system must
be apportioned between the bents in a manner that reflects the
relative stiffness of the piles in each bent, rather than equally
between the bents.
FIGURE 7-16
7-42 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
7-3.03G Analysis of Unbraced Bents

An unbraced bent is any bent where diagonal bracing is not used
and which is not stabilized by external support. For analysis,
the term "unbraced bent" also includes any braced or partly
braced bent where the bracing does not meet the criteria in
Section 7-3.03B, Adequacy of Diagonal Bracing.
When calculating the deflection and bending moment in an unbraced
bent, the horizontal design load will be applied in a plane at
the top of the piles, and the piles will be analyzed as unsup-
ported cantilevers extending from the relaxed point of pile
fixity to the pile cap.
Except for the point of application of the horizontal design
load, the adequacy of unbraced bents is evaluated in the same
manner as braced bents. Follow the procedure for the appropriate
pile bent type as discussed in Section 7-3.03E, Adequacy of
Braced Bents.
7-3.04 Field Evaluation of Pile Capacity
Because of the construction uncertainties associated with pile
driving, piles in the driven position do not always attain the
penetration assumed in the analysis. Additionally, unanticipated
driving and/or site conditions may cause a driven pile to deviate
from its planned position to a significantly greater degree than
the allowable deviation assumed by the contractor and shown on
From a contractual standpoint, any pile that fails to reach the
required penetration, or which deviates from its theoretical
position to a greater extent than the allowable deviation shown
on the falsework drawings, or which fails to meet any other
design assumption, may be rejected without further evaluation
because the construction work represented by that pile is not in
conformance with the approved falsework drawings.
The above policy notwithstanding, circumstances may arise which
in the engineer's judgment would warrant an evaluation of the
actual load-carrying capacity of a particular pile in its driven
condition. It is emphasized, however, that field personnel are
not authorized to undertake any unilateral investigation of
driven pile adequacy. When driven piles are not in conformance
with design assumptions shown on the falsework drawings or noted
on the drawings as a condition of design approval, no further
evaluation is required or expected unless the contractor requests
an evaluation, and submits a revised falsework drawing with
supporting calculations showing that the pile or piles in the
non-conforming as-driven condition are nevertheless capable of
resisting the design loads.
7-43 Revised 05/92

The procedures used by the Division of Structures to estimate the

capacity of piles which do not attain the penetration necessary
to develop pile fixity, or which in their driven position exceed
the allowable driving tolerances shown on the falsework drawings,
are explained in the following sections.
Section 7-3.04A Failure to Attain Required Penetration
As discussed in Section 7-2.02A, Required Pile Penetration, the
Division of Structures uses the ratio of the depth of pile
penetration to the height of the pile above the ground surface
(expressed as D/H) as the criterion to ascertain whether a given
pile is driven deeply enough to develop the fixed condition. For
analysis, pile fixity is assumed when the D/H ratio is 0.75 or
more.
When driven piles do not attain the penetration necessary to
assure the fixed condition, the procedure for analysis discussed
in the preceding sections of this manual is not valid. However,
the Division has developed an alternative procedure that may be
used to estimate the load-carrying capacity of such piles.
The Division's alternative procedure assumes that any pile having
a D/H ratio of less than 0.75 will rotate to a degree when the
loads are applied. The amount of rotation is a function of the.
restraint developed by the pile embedment actually obtained. The
degree of restraint decreases and rotation increases as the D/H
ratio becomes smaller; consequently, the procedure depends on the
actual D/H ratio in4 a given situation, as explained in the
following Sections.
7-3.04A(l) Analysis for D/H Ratios Between 0.75 and 0.45
When the D/H ratio is less than 0.75 but not less than 0.45,
the piles are capable of resisting some bending. The amount
of bending resistance developed by a given pile is an inverse
function of the degree of rotation. As the D/H ratio decreases
between the limiting values, rotation increases and bending
resistance and overall load-carrying capacity are reduced.
4
Reference to the chart in Figure 7-17 reveals that pile
rotation will reduce the relative stiffness of a pile for all D/H
ratios below 1.0, although the stiffness coefficient is too small
to have an appreciable influence on pile capacity until the D/H
ratio decreases to about 0.75. For this reason, the Division of
Structures has selected 0.75 as a practical limiting D/H ratio
for the fixed-condition assumption.
7-44 Revised 05/92
FOUNDATIONS
To account for the reduced overall load-carrying capacity when

rotation occurs, the analysis applies a stiffness reducing
coefficient when calculating the depth to the point of pile
fixity. The stiffness reducing coefficient, or "Q", is obtained
graphically from the chart in Figure 7-17, which shows Q values
for D/H ratios from 0.45 to 1.0 for average and soft soils.
The procedure for estimating pile capacity is as follows:
1 . Determine the actual D/H ratio using the as-driven pile
penetration. Using the actual D/H ratio, select "Q" from
the chart in Figure 7-17.
2 . Using the Q value from step 1, calculate a new value.
where is the previously calculated depth to the relaxed l
point of pile fixity and the expression (Q)(Y2) is the

depth to an adjusted point of fixity used in the
analysis.
FIGURE 7-17
7-45 Revised 05/92

Note that it is unnecessary to calculate a new value

because it is unnecessary to recalculate the bending
stress that occurs during the initial pile pull. The
smaller D/H ratio results in a longer column, which in
turn produces a lower initial bending stress.
3. Using the new calculate a new unsupported length and a
new (adjusted) ratio. (The new unsupported length is
the vertical distance between the bottom of the bracing
and the ground surface plus the depth to the adjusted
point of pile fixity [Q x Y2] from step 2.)
Use the new ratio to determine the bent type for the
pile capacity analysis.
4 . For a Type I bent use the new length and calculate new
values for and
5 . For a Type II bent, use the new to calculate new values
for and and the new to calculate new
values for and
1 . For a Type III bent use the new to calculate new values
for and and the new to calculate new values
for and
Enter the new values obtained in steps 4, 5 or 6 as the case may
be in the appropriate combined stress expression. The pile is
adequate if the value of the expression is not greater than 1.0.
For D/H ratios below about 0.45, the ability of a given pile to
resist pullback bending decreases rapidly and, as the theoretical
point of contraflexure approaches the pile tip, pile restraining
capability becomes highly subjective. Furthermore, as pile
embedment decreases, the type of soil has a significantly greater
influence on the ability of a pile to resist rotation.
For these reasons, piles having a D/H ratio of less than 0.45 are
considered as incapable of developing a true point of fixity.
When subjected to. a bending moment, such piles are assumed to be
free to rotate but restrained against lateral translation at or
very near the pile tip.
In view of the uncertainties associated with low D/H ratios,
Division policy assumes that any pile having an actual D/H ratio
less than 0.45 will be capable of carrying axial loads only, For
such piles, any vertical load eccentricity and all horizontal
forces must be resisted by bracing, external support or other
piles in the system.
7-46 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
Section 7-3.04B Failure to Meet Driving Tolerances

In accordance with Division policy, bending stresses produced by
the allowable driving tolerances (pile pull and pile lean values
shown on the falsework drawings) are added when reviewing false-
work designs for compliance with contract requirements. This
procedure is necessary to ensure that the piles are not over-
stressed under the most adverse loading combination.
In practice, however, the pile pull direction may be opposite to
the vertical load eccentricity caused by pile lean, in which case
the adverse loading combination assumed in the analysis will not
occur. When the pile pull direction is opposite to the vertical
load eccentricity, the two bending stresses are compensating.
Depending on the actual as-driven position, excessive pile pull
in one direction may be offset by excessive lean in the opposite
direction, so that the resulting combined stress is less than the
allowable stress.
Refer to Figure 7-18 and note that and "e" are the actual
pull and lean distances for the driven position of a pile in a
braced bent. Both distances exceed their respective allowable
values for pile pull and pile lean shown on the approved false-
work drawings. (Note: for the following general discussion, the
direction of pile pull and the direction of pile lean are assumed
to be in the same vertical plane.)
When calculating bending stresses for the as-driven position of a
given pile, follow the procedures explained in Section 7-3.03,
Analysis of Pile Bents, but use the actual pile pull and pile
lean distances. Note, however, that for the as-driven analysis,
it is also necessary to determine whether the bending stress
values are positive or negative before solving the combined
stress expression.
In accordance with standard sign convention, stress values are
positive or negative depending on the direction of the bending
moment applied at the relaxed point of pile fixity. A clockwise
moment produces positive bending stress. Conversely, a counter-
clockwise moment produces negative bending stress. Therefore, in
a Type I bent, the combined stress expression for the general
case is:
The vertical lines on either side of the bending stress fraction

indicate that the absolute value of the fraction is to be used
when solving the expression.
7-47 Revised 05/92

FIGURE 7-18
Refer to Figure 7-18 and note that the pile pull, because it is
clockwise, produces a positive bending stress. The vertical load
eccentricity due to pile lean applies a counter-clockwise moment;
therefore, the stress it produces is negative. For the pile in
Figure 7-18, the combined stress expression looks like this:
Summarizing, when the as-driven position of a pile in a Type I

bent exceeds the driving tolerances shown on the falsework draw-
ings, the capacity of that pile may be estimated as follows:
1 . Calculate the initial bending stress due to pile pull
using the actual pull distance. If the calculated stress
is less than the allowable stress of 4000 psi for the
initial pull, calculate the relaxed bending stress.
2 . Calculate the bending stress due to pile lean using the
actual eccentricity distance.
3 . Determine the direction of the applied bending moment at
the relaxed point of pile fixity and the sign (positive
or negative) of the two bending stresses.
7-48 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
4. Determine the stress due to axial compression. (Axial

compression is not affected by the excessive pile pull or
pile lean; consequently, the value to be used in this
analysis is the value calculated for the design review.)
5 l Enter the stress values and solve the combined stress
expression. The load-carrying capacity of the pile in
its driven position is satisfactory if the value of the
combined stress expression is not greater than 1.0.
When the pile to be evaluated is in a Type II bent, it is also
necessary to consider the effect of horizontal deflection. For a
pile in a Type II bent, then, the combined stress expression for
the general case is:
As shown in the expression, both the relaxed bending stress

and the stress due to pile lean may be either posi-
tive or negative depending on the direction of bending, while the
sum of the bending stresses produced by the horizontal design
load is positive. (Note that the H load bending
stresses are always positive because, even though the horizontal
design load may act from either direction, for analysis the
horizontal load is applied from the direction that produces the
highest combined bending stress.)
When the pile to be evaluated is in a Type III bent, the final
term in the numerator of the bending stress fraction is replaced
by to account for the additional vertical load eccentricity
produced by P-delta deflection.
The preceding discussion has assumed that pile pull and pile lean
(and horizontal deflection, if applicable) are in the same plane.
In actual practice, this would be an unlikely occurrence.
When the bending forces due to pile pull and pile lean act in
different vertical planes, it is necessary to add the bending
stress vectors geometrically and enter the resultant stress in
the combined stress expression.
The procedure for evaluating pile capacity using vector analysis

is explained in the following section. Keep in mind, however,
that an analysis based on the assumption that pile pull and pile
lean are in the same plane is conservative since, for a given
pile, it gives a larger combined stress expression value than an
analysis that considers the actual direction of application of
the bending forces. Therefore, stress vectoring should not be
necessary in all cases.
7-49 Revised 05/92

Determining in advance of analysis whether the relative direction

of application of the bending forces is of sufficient importance
to warrant consideration is a matter of engineering judgment. AS
a guide, if the angle between the two bending planes is small,
say less than about 30 degrees, same plane bending may be assumed
and the evaluation made on this basis. If the value of the
combined stress expression is less than 1.0, the pile under
consideration is adequate.
If the calculated value of the combined stress expression is
greater than 1.0, judgment is required to determine whether
reevaluation using vector analysis will result in a satisfactory
condition. Generally, if the value is greater than 1.0 but only
slightly greater, pile capacity should be reevaluated based on
the actual direction of load application.
7-3.04B(l) Vectorins of Stresses
Figure 7-16 is a schematic plan view showing the location of the

bottom of a pile, the top of the same pile in its driven and
final (pulled) position under the cap, and the direction of pull
and the direction of lean after pulling. Also-shown are stress
vectors for the relaxed bending stress and the bending
stress due to pile lean and the resultant of these two
vectors. Note that the stress resultant is designated
In a braced bent, the procedure for evaluating pile capacity
using stress vectoring is as follows;
1 Determine the direction of pull and the pull distance.
l
2 . Calculate the initial bending stress due to the pile pull

using the actual pull distance. If the calculated stress
is less than the allowable stress of 4000 psi for the
initial pull, calculate the relaxed bending stress.
3 Determine the direction of lean after the pile is pulled,
l
and the magnitude of the lean.

4 . Calculate the bending stress produced by vertical load
eccentricity resulting from the pile lean using the
actual eccentricity distance.
5 Multiply the value obtained in step 4 by the load factor
l
coefficient of 2 to obtain the stress value to use in the

resultant calculation.
7-50 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
FIGURE 7-19
6 . Plot the stress vectors as shown in Figure 7-19. Note

that the vectors are plotted outward from the center of
the pile in the direction of pull and lean.
While plotting is not essential to the calculation, it
has two important advantages. First, a graphical portra-
yal of the problem provides a visual check on the direc-
tion and magnitude of the resultant. Second, if the
vectors are plotted on a large enough scale, the resul-
tant stress value may be scaled with sufficient accuracy
to use in the remaining calculations.
7 . Calculate (or scale.) the resultant bending stress.
Axial compression is not affected by the excessive pile pull or
pile lean; consequently, it is unnecessary to recalculate the
compressive stress.
7 - 5 1 Revised 05/92
For a Type I bent, the combined stress expression is:
When the pile to be evaluated is in a Type II or Type III bent,

the effect of horizontal deflection must be considered. However,
since the bending stress produced by the horizontal load is not
affected by excessive pull and/or excessive lean, the bending
stress values to be used in the combined stress expression are
the values previously calculated for the design review. Also,
since the horizontal design load may act in any direction, for
the analysis it is assumed to act in the same direction as the
resultant force [fbR] because this will produce the highest
stress. (See Figure 7016.) Therefore, all bending stresses will
be additive.
For a pile in a Type II bent the combined stress expression is:
When the pile being evaluated is in a Type III bent, it is a also

necessary to consider the P-delta effect, and the combined stress
expression becomes:
7-3.05 Capacity of Steel Piles and Steel Pile Bents

Occasionally, anticipated hard driving or a particular site
condition will dictate the use of steel piles for falsework
support, Additionally, steel piles may be used where foundation
loads are of such high magnitude that timber piles, because of
their lower load-carrying capacity, are not feasible.
For analysis, steel piles which are cut off and capped near the
ground line may be considered as laterally supported against
buckling. Accordingly, the load-carrying capacity of such piles
will be equal to the driving resistance determined as provided in
Section 7-3.01, Introduction, but not more than the pile can
carry when analyzed as a short column.
7-52 Revised 05/92

FOUNDATIONS
As a general premise, subsurface conditions that dictate the use

of steel piles will not be conducive to the development of a true
point of contraflexure in the pile. Accordingly, it is Division
of Structures policy to consider the piles in a steel pile bent
as columns pinned at the pile tip. For analysis, the tip may be
assumed as fixed against lateral translation
5
but free to rotate
when subjected to a bending moment.
Depending on the design; some frame stiffness may be developed by
the connection at the top of the pile. For example, if the piles
are welded to a steel cap, the connection will be fixed; however,
the degree of rotational restraint provided by the cap and the
extent to which the fixed connection will influence pile stiff-
ness are not readily determined. In view of the indeterminate
nature of the problem, the piles should be assumed as pinned at
the top, as well as the tip, when making the frame analysis.
The absence of pile fixity will have a significant effect on
frame stability, since all horizontal forces must be resisted by
the bracing system. Therefore, when investigating the ability of
the bracing to prevent frame collapse, the horizontal force
produced by vertical load eccentricity (pile lean) must be added
to the collapsing force generated by the horizontal design load
to obtain the total horizontal force to be resisted by the false-
work bracing system.
Depending on their configuration, steel pile bents may provide
little or no inherent resistance to overturning. Accordingly,
overturning resistance will be an important consideration, since
the frame must be stable against overturning as well as stable
against collapse. (See Chapter 5 for stability considerations.)
When investigating overturning stability, any theoretical uplift
resistance provided by the piles will be neglected.
Evaluating the adequacy of steel pile bents involves the con-
sideration of factors that are not subject to precise analysis;
consequently, some subjective judgment is required. In view of
this, the falsework drawings should not be approved until the
engineer is satisfied that the design assures frame stability
under all anticipated loading conditions.
5
The procedures used by the Division of Structures for
analysis of timber pile bents were developed empirically from an
evaluation of the actual load-carrying capacity of timber piles,
and thus they are not applicable to steel pile bents.
7-53 Revised 05/92
CHAPTER 8 AUGUST 2012
Chapter 8: Traffic Openings
8-1.01 Introduction
The specifications include special requirements, which apply only to falsework over or
adjacent to traffic. These requirements are included to ensure higher standards of design
and construction at locations where public safety is involved.
Falsework posts are considered to be adjacent to roadways or railroads (RR) if the post
supports members that cross over the roadway or railroad, or if it is located such that the
horizontal distance from the traffic side of the falsework to the Edge of Roadway or to a
point 10 feet from the Centerline of RR Track is less than the height of the falsework and
forms.
Edge of Roadway 10 ft
Centerline of RR
Track
h h
I I
x x
Note: Post is adjacent to roadway or railroad if x < h.

Figure 8-0
8-1.02 Horizontal and Vertical Clearances
The minimum width and height of each opening to be provided through the falsework
will be shown in the special provisions.

When checking horizontal clearances, keep in mind that the "width" of a vehicular
opening is the distance between the temporary railings. The clear distance between
falsework posts will be considerably greater than the width shown in the special
provisions.
For a vehicular opening, no portion of the falsework may encroach into the "clearance
zone" established by a vertical plane located three inches (for K-Rail anchored to
pavement), or two feet (for K-Rail not anchored to pavement) behind the back edge of the
temporary K-Rail at its base and extending upward to a horizontal plane at the top of the
rail, and a second vertical plane located nine inches behind the first plane and extending
from the horizontal plane at the top of the rail upward to the falsework stringer. See
Figures 8-1. For anchor details see Caltrans Standard Plans.1
Bottom of Stringer
Bottom of Stringer
Clearance Zone
Clearance Zone
9”
9”
2’
3”
K-Rail anchored to pavement K-Rail not anchored to pavement
Figure 8-1(a) Figure 8-1(b)
Figure 8-1
When checking vertical clearances, keep in mind that deflection of the falsework
stringers under the dead load of the concrete will reduce the theoretical clearance, and
this must be considered in the falsework design.
8-1.02A Minimum Vertical Clearance Calculations/Measurement at Falsework

Openings
Calculating anticipated vertical clearance prior to falsework erection, and measuring

actual vertical clearance after falsework erection is required to ensure Traffic Operations
is aware of impaired clearances. Traffic Operation uses this information to issue
transportation permits. The Structure Representative completes form SC-12.6.1 Report
of Falsework Clearance and submit to the Resident Engineer (RE). Using this
1
Standard Plans 2010, Sheet T3B

information the RE completes form TR-0019 Notice of Change in Clearance or Bridge

Weight Rating or TR-0029 Notice of Change in Clearance or Bridge Weight Rating.
Example 18, Clearances at Falsework Openings, (Appendix D) illustrates proper

methodology for calculating the anticipated minimum vertical clearance. The following
specific factors should be considered:
 Falsework stringer (bottom of flange) elevations over the roadway during all
stages of construction.
 Verify if the point of minimum vertical clearance is over the roadway or behind
the K-Rail during construction.
 Whether or not falsework is skewed, etc.
With the use of tunnel beam configurations it is important to ensure that the lowest
stringer, point of minimum temporary vertical clearance, over the roadway is used.
Figure 8-2 shows that the point of minimum vertical clearance of the structure may not be
the same for the falsework during construction.
Falsework bent
Stringers New construction.

Skewed or curved Traffic
structure. opening
Point of final
minimum vertical
Falsework stringers perpendicular to traffic opening
clearance
Plan
Point of minimum
temporary vertical
clearance
Section A-A
Figure 8-2
.

8-1.03 Requirements at Traffic Openings
The special requirements discussed in this section apply to falsework openings for both
highway and railroad traffic. Additional requirements that apply only to railroad
openings are discussed in Section 8-1.04.
Each falsework post must be mechanically connected to its supporting footing or

otherwise laterally restrained so as to withstand a 2000-pound force applied at the base of
the post. When administering this specification, the term "supporting footing" will be
interpreted as meaning the element of the falsework system that is set on the ground.
The 2000-pound force will be applied at the base of each post regardless of its size,
spacing or, loading; however, it will be assumed as acting on only one post at a time.
Lateral restraint must be effective parallel to and also away from the roadway or railroad
track. For a bent in a highway median, restraint must be effective in all four directions.
Many contractors prefer to adjust falsework to grade by wedging or jacking at the bottom
of a falsework bent, rather than at the top. In such designs, two or more posts will be
supported by a bottom cap or sill beam which, in turn, will be supported by wedges or
wedges over sand jacks set on the falsework footing. See Figure 8-3.
2000 lbs at base of each

post
Sill Beam
Jacks or Wedges approx

equals 2000 lbs total between
beam and footing applied at
any point along beam
2000 lbs applied any point

along beam
Figure 8-3
Although contractors may install an additional sill beam atop the bottom sill beam to
make up grade differences, this stacking of sill beams or double sills is not desirable and
poses stability concerns as discussed in Chapter 5. However, if used, any type of double-
sill in a falsework bent adjacent to traffic needs to have each post mechanically connected
to the sill to withstand a force of at least 2,000 pounds. Note that the design force does
not accumulate along the sill beam, so the connection between the beam and the
falsework footing is only required to resist 2000 pounds total, regardless of the number of
posts supported. Note also that a single point of restraint will not provide adequate

resistance in the transverse direction (2000-pound force applied perpendicular to the

beam) for both, single sill beam or double sill beam, unless the connection is capable of
resisting moment as well as shear. The most practical solution is to restrain the sill beam
at both ends, and both connections must be designed to resist (transfer) 2000 pounds.
As an alternative means of providing lateral restraint, the 2000-pound force may be

carried from the sill beam directly to the ground in the manner shown at A and B in
Figure 8-3.
Each falsework post must be mechanically connected at its top to the falsework cap, and
the connection must-be designed to resist a l000-pound force acting in any horizontal
direction.
When double caps are used at the top of a falsework bent, they must be connected or
restrained in some manner to prevent differential movement in both the longitudinal and
transverse directions. The total force to be applied to each pair of caps is 1000 pounds,
regardless of the number of posts in the falsework bent. Note, however, that the l000-
pound force is actually a couple since it acts simultaneously in planes at the top of the
lower cap and the bottom of the upper cap. Therefore, when analyzing the connection
between double caps, it is necessary to consider moment as well as shear to ensure the
stability of the double-cap system. For couple application on double caps see Figure 8-4.
OVERLAPPING STRINGERS
NOT SHOWN
Longitudinal Section Transverse Section

Figure 8-4
For falsework over traffic, the specifications require certain stringers to be mechanically
connected to the falsework cap. The connection must be capable of resisting a force in
any direction, including uplift, of not less than 500 pounds. These connections must be
installed and functional before traffic is permitted to pass under the falsework span.
Details showing the connection between stringer and cap, cap and post, and post and
footing, must be shown on the falsework drawings. Such details will be reviewed for
contract compliance in the same manner as all other details of the falsework design,
except that a load duration factor of 2.0 (for impact loading) may be used to determine
the allowable value of nails and bolts used in the connection. However, other connection
components must be so designed that the specified maximum allowable stresses in
bending, shear and bearing are not exceeded.

The specifications require bolted connections when timber members are used to brace
falsework bents adjacent to traffic. This requirement applies to bracing in the
longitudinal as well as the transverse direction. Substitution of bolts with coil rods is
permitted if the root area of the coil rod is greater or equal to the required bolt gross area.
Also the substituted coil rods shall provide the capacity required for the connection.
Also, when timber members are used as longitudinal bracing, the brace must be bolted at
both ends. It is not acceptable practice to use a bolt at one end of a brace and nails or lag
screws at the other end. For purposes of this discussion, a coil rod includes threaded coil
rods, as well as threaded rods.
All components of the falsework system which contribute to horizontal stability and
resistance to impact, except for bolts in bracing, must be installed at the time each
element of the falsework is erected. Therefore, friction cannot be considered as
contributing to the strength of the connection, at either the top or the bottom, because
frictional resistance is not developed until a load is applied.
The provision that bolts need not be installed when the falsework is erected is included in
the specifications to facilitate adjusting of the falsework to grade. However, if the
contractor elects to use nails in lieu of bolts as a temporary expedient, the nailed
connection must be shown on the falsework drawings, and the connection must be
designed to resist either the theoretical wind load or two percent of the total dead load to
be supported while the connection is in use, whichever results in the larger force.
When nails are used as a temporary connection to facilitate grade adjustment, they should
be replaced by bolts as soon as feasible, and in any case prior to placing concrete.
The vertical load used for the design of posts and towers which support falsework over
traffic openings must be increased to at least 150 percent of the load calculated in the
usual manner. This "modified design load" is used to determine the stresses in vertical
load-carrying components in the falsework bent, but it will not be applied to caps or
footings, nor will it be used to check soil pressure.
In the case of towers, “the modified design load” will be applied to all tower legs when
the end reaction of the member over traffic is distributed through a cap system to all legs,
as shown in falsework Tower A in Figure 8-5. If the entire end reaction is carried by the
tower legs adjacent to traffic, then the modified design load is applied only to those legs.
See Tower B in Figure 8-5.
If the load on falsework adjacent to or over a traffic opening will be increased by load-
transfer due to prestressing, the design vertical load for posts and towers will be either the
actual (unmodified) load plus the additional load due to prestressing or 150 percent of the
actual load, whichever is larger.
The “modified design load” requirement is included in the specifications because both
theory and experience have demonstrated that the downward force exerted by the bridge

superstructure does in fact increase after the deck concrete is placed. The increased force
is the result of deck shrinkage during the curing period; consequently, it will be larger at
falsework bents located near the center of the bridge span than at bents near the
abutments or columns.
Furthermore, the increased force is of greater concern in the case of cast-in-place

prestressed structures (which have little load-carrying capacity until tensioned) than in
conventionally-reinforced concrete structures. 2
Tower A Tower B
Figure 8-5
While the falsework system as a whole will remain relatively stable as the downward
force increases, individual components may not. In any falsework design, vertical
members are the least stable elements in the system and therefore the most vulnerable;
consequently, the specification directly addresses posts and towers. This is not to say,
however, that other members will not be affected, since the increased load must be
carried from the bridge soffit to the ground through all components of the falsework bent.
The engineer should be aware of this and look for points of potential instability. As an
example, the method of grade adjustment should be scrutinized, particularly where a
double-cap system is used. Wedges will remain stable under the added load; screw jacks
may not.
Stresses calculated by applying the modified design load may not exceed the allowable
stresses listed in the specifications.
When pipe-frame or tubular steel components are used as falsework shoring adjacent to a
traffic opening, either as individual posts or as legs in a tower bent, the specified
minimum section modulus for steel columns will apply to the post or tower leg, but not to
the screw jack extension.
2
As a point of interest, field research conducted in the past revealed that -- depending on falsework
configuration, type of structure and construction sequence -- the maximum load imposed on the falsework
varied from as little as 110 percent to as much as 200 percent of the load measured approximately 24 hours
after deck concrete placement. Maximum load was reached in four to seven days. The 150 percent figure
in the specifications recognizes that some increase will occur in virtually all instances.

Finally, the specifications require the installation of temporary bracing during erection
and removal of any falsework whose height exceeds its clear distance to either the edge
of any sidewalk or shoulder of any roadway which is open to the public, or to a point 10
feet from the centerline of any railroad track. When administering this specification,
keep in mind that while wind loads are to be considered in the design, the basic
requirement is that the bracing must be adequate to "withstand all loads imposed". Under
the specifications, then, the contractor must determine the design load, which may not be
less than the specified wind load for the height of falsework under consideration.
Details showing the temporary bracing, or other means of support provided to meet the
intent of the specifications, must be shown on the falsework drawings. Such details are a
part of the falsework design and must comply with all contract requirements even though
the bracing or other means of support may be only "temporary" restraining devices.
8-1.04 Additional Requirements at Railroad Openings
The design of falsework which is over or adjacent to railroad traffic must comply with all
of the special requirements for falsework at traffic openings and must meet other
requirements which are unique to railroad openings.
All the falsework stringers that span over a railroad must be mechanically connected to
the caps. The mechanical connection shall be capable of resisting a load in any direction,
including uplift on the stringer.
The principal design requirement is that bracing for falsework bents located within 20
feet of the track centerline must be designed to resist the assumed horizontal load or 5000
pounds, whichever is greater. This requirement applies to both transverse and
longitudinal bracing. In the specification context, the term "bent" means the overall
length of the falsework bent regardless of the number of posts used. As a point of
information, the 5000-pound load will govern the design only in the case of relatively
narrow structures where the bent consists of five, or fewer, falsework posts.
When the 5000-pound load governs the design, the duration of load factor in the
connection analysis is determined as follows:
If in the absence of the 5000-pound design load requirement, the design would
have been governed by the wind load, a load duration factor of 1.33 may be used.
In all other cases the factor will be 1.25, unless the anticipated load duration
factor dictates the use of a lower factor.
The design of falsework at railroad openings is subject to review and approval by the
railroad company involved. To expedite approval, falsework drawings submitted for
railroad company review should conform to the following procedural requirements:

All design and construction details must be shown. If a reference is made to a

standard plan or to a detail shown on a previously submitted drawing for another
structure in the contract, such plans or drawings must accompany the submittal to
the railroad.
When submitting only that portion of the falsework which is over or adjacent to
the railroad, details of the adjacent falsework spans must be shown, as these spans
will affect the design of the bents at the railroad opening.
Design features or details for more than one structure shall not be shown on the
same drawing.
The drawings should include a sketch showing the location of the temporary
minimum horizontal and vertical clearance to the falsework.
Soffit and deck overhang forming details should be included.
For timber construction, all connections must be made with bolts. Substitution of
bolts with coil threaded rods or threaded rods are permitted if the root diameter
equal to that of the shank of a 5/8-inch-diameter bolt. Also the substituted rods
shall provide the capacity required for the connection.
When timber stringers are used, the railroad will require solid end blocking,
regardless of the height-to-width ratio of the timber stringers.
To ensure that Structure Construction is fully informed of all matters relating to

falsework over a railroad facility, correspondence to and discussions with the railroad
company must be handled by the Falsework Specialist in the Headquarters Structure
Construction (HQ SC) office. Neither bridge field personnel nor contractor personnel are
authorized to communicate directly with the railroad. An exception must be approved by
the Chief of Structure Construction. Structure Representative / reviewer must complete
the railroad check list which is located at the following web link:
Link: http://onramp.dot.ca.gov/hq/oscnet/downloads/forms.htm
Also, check that the “Right-Of-Entry” and “Service Contract” are fully executed between
Caltrans and railroad authorities. Verify that they are not expired because normally they
expire after three years. This verification must be done before sending the railroad
submittal to HQ SC office.
Restricted temporary horizontal and vertical clearances require Public Utilities

Commission (PUC) approval. The bridge engineer should make certain PUC approval
has been granted before approving the falsework drawings.

(This page left intentionally blank.)
CHAPTER 9. INSPECTION
9-1.01 Introduction
The field engineer's role during the construction phase is one of

inspection of the falsework as it is erected to ensure that
construction is in accordance with the approved falsework
drawings, that only sound materials are used and quality work-
manship employed, and that all specific specification require-
ments are met. (However, keep in mind that inspection by the
engineer does not relieve the contractor of his contractual
responsibility for the falsework.)
Timely inspection is essential. Any noted deficiencies, such as

construction which does not conform to the approved falsework
drawings, poor workmanship, or the use of unsound or poor quality
materials, should be brought to the contractor's attention at
once. If the contractor fails to take corrective action, a
confirming letter should be written. The letter should list the
deficiencies that require remedial action but specific corrective
measures should not be ordered, nor should any predictions be
made.
9-1.02 Falsework Erection and Removal Plans

The specifications require the use of construction methods,
including temporary bracing when necessary, to prevent the
overturning or collapse of the falsework during each phase
of erection and removal. The means by which the contractor
complies with this specification requirement is commonly
referred to as the "erection" or "removal" plan.
Before falsework erection begins, the erection plan should be

discussed with the contractor's field representative who will be
responsible for supervising the erection work. The purpose of
this policy requirement is to ensure that the erection plan is
appropriate for the site and conditions to be encountered, and
that all persons involved with the work (both contractor and
State) are familiar with the erection plan.
A similar discussion with contractor personnel is required before

the falsework is removed. (See Section 9-1.16, Falsework
Removal.)
9-1.03 Foundation Pads and Piles
The specifications permit the contractor to set falsework pads

and drive falsework piles before the falsework drawings are
approved. However, in accordance with Division policy, pad
placement and pile driving are to be inspected, to the extent
necessary to ensure an adequate foundation, at the time the work
is done, even though the drawings may not yet be approved.
9-1
9-1.03A Pad Foundations
Since pad design is based on an assumed soil bearing value, the

foundation material should be inspected before the pads are set
and a realistic soil bearing value assigned. Timely inspection
is necessary to ensure that the assumed value does not exceed the
actual soil bearing value as determined by observation or soil
load test.
Appendix B includes soil classification charts for both sandy and

clayey soils. These charts may be used to approximate the actual
soil bearing value for a given soil.
To ensure uniform soil bearing, falsework pads must be level and

set on material that provides a firm, even surface free of humps
or depressions within the pad bearing area. If necessary to
obtain uniform bearing, a thin layer of sand may be used to fill
in surface irregularities.
When pads are set on material backfilled around piers and columns
in stream channels or other locations where there are no specific
compaction requirements, care must be taken to ensure that the
backfilled material is sufficiently compacted to provide the
required soil bearing value.
Benches in fill slopes should be cut into firm material, with the
pad set back from the edge of the bench.
Continuous pads should be inspected to verify that joints are

located as shown on the approved drawings, or if not so located,
that the joint location meets Division of Structures criteria.
(See discussion in Chapter 7.)
The soil bearing capacity of some soils is greatly reduced when

the ground becomes saturated. To prevent loss of support, pad
foundations should be protected from flooding and/or undermining
from surface runoff, and the pad area should be self-draining.
9-1.03B Soil Load Tests

The specifications require the contractor, when requested by the
engineer, to "...demonstrate by suitable load tests that the soil
bearing values assumed for the design of the falsework do not
exceed the supporting capacity of the soil." (Standard
Specification 51-1.06B, Falsework Construction.) Accordingly,
the engineer should request a load test if there is uncertainty
as to the ability of the foundation material to support the loads
to be imposed.
Note that the specifications require suitable load tests. In the

specification context, the term "suitable" is interpreted
9-2
INSPECTION
to mean static load tests that consider both settlement and

duration of load, but which are simple in their application and
thus may be performed by the contractor. Division policy does
not require a sophisticated load test of the type that might be
performed by a geotechnical testing facility or soils lab.
Appendix B includes general information and testing procedures

for simple, static load tests to determine soil bearing values.
Appendix B should be reviewed prior to the performance of any
load test made to verify the adequacy of falsework foundation
materials.
The Structures Foundation Unit at the Engineering Service Center

in Sacramento is available for consultation and advice as to
the suitability of a particular load test in a given field
situation, as well as interpretation of test results.
9-1.03C Sand Jacks
Sand jacks, which consist of compacted sand physically confined

within a timber or metal frame, are often used as a component of
the cast-in-place bridge falsework. The sand filler in the sand
jacks facilitate the removal of the falsework by allowing slow
and controlled lowering of the falsework (temporary support
system) that gets wedged beneath the new bridge structure. Sand
jacks can be made of wood (Figure 9-1), steel (Figure 9-2), or
other suitable materials. However, the most commonly constructed
sand jacks are made of wood.
Wood sand jacks were typically constructed of 2x4 members, but
the current trend is to build them with 2x6 members to provide
additional clearance of the falsework from the bridge structure
after release. In addition to 2x6 members, nails, sand, steel
bands, plywood base, plywood plunger and plastic liner are used
to construct typical wood sand jacks. The number of steel bands
placed around the perimeter of sand jack usually range from one
to three bands.
FIGURE 9-1 TYPICAL WOOD SAND JACK CONSTRUCTION WITH STEEL BANDS
9-3 Revision 07/10

FIGURE 9-2 STEEL SAND JACK CONSTRUCTION (CYLINDERICAL TYPE)
The contractor has the following two options when using sand
jacks, the:
1. Pre-approved design for wood sand jacks shown in Falsework

Memo No. 18.
2. Sand jacks using wood, steel or other suitable materials,
designed by the contractor and proof tested in accordance
with the Proof Testing Guidelines in Falsework Memo No. 18.
Inspection of a constructed wood sand jack would include as a

minimum, the following:
1. Plywood plunger resting on filler materials (sand) must have

full bearing and must clear all side members by a maximum of
1/4″.
2. Wood wedges used for falsework adjustment must have full
bearing on the plywood plunger and must be clear of side
members of the sand jack.
3. Sand jacks shall be lined and covered with four (4) mil
plastic to protect sand from curing water and rain.
4. Filler material (sand) shall be of specified gradation and
level with the top of the 2x6 members.
5. Filler sand in the wood sand jack shall be fully supported.
6. Nails shall not be overdriven and shall be common nails.
Wood sand jacks that are designed by the contractor and have been
tested in accordance with the “Proof Testing Guidelines” of
Falsework Memo No. 18 should be inspected to ensure:
• Conformance with the approved drawings.
• Quality workmanship and proper installation sufficient to
bear the designed load without any distress.
• Sufficient measures are in place to prevent premature
erosion of the sand in the wood sand jack during use.
9-1.03D Falsework Piles
9-4 Revision 07/10

INSPECTION
Division policy requires the falsework pile driving operation to

be inspected to the extent necessary to verify that the required
bearing values are obtained.
The pile bearing value required to support the design load will
be shown on the falsework drawings. Pursuant to specification
requirements, bearing values for falsework piles are determined
by the ENR pile driving formula. Use of the ENR formula and
inspection procedures will be the same for falsework piles as for
permanent piles, unless a drop hammer is used. The use of drop
hammers is discussed in the following section.
If the falsework design includes timber pile bents, the design

will be based on certain assumptions as to penetration, driving
tolerances (i.e., maximum allowable pile pull and pile lean) and
the ground line pile diameter, all of which should be shown on
the falsework drawings. Timber pile bent designs require
continuous inspection as the piles are driven to assure that the
design assumptions are met. This is the case because pile
penetration cannot be verified by observation after the pile has
been driven, and the distance a given pile has been pulled cannot
be determined once the pile is in its final position under the
cap.1
Driving tolerances are particularly critical in pile bent

designs. If little or no tolerance is permitted by the falsework
design, this fact should be brought to the contractor's attention
before driving begins.
9-1.03D(1) Drop Hammers
Although the specifications prohibit the use of drop hammers for

permanent work, there is no similar restriction for piles used in
temporary construction facilities. Accordingly, drop hammers may
be used to drive falsework piles, as provided in this section.
Drop hammers must weigh at least 3000 pounds, and should be

equipped with leads and hoisting equipment that is adequate to
handle the work efficiently. The hammer fall distance should not
exceed about 10 feet.
For drop hammers, the ENR formula is:
2WL
P=
s +1
where P is the safe load, in pounds; W is the weight of the
1
Chapter 7 includes a discussion of the assumptions that govern
the design of timber pile bents, and their relative importance.
9-5
hammer, in pounds; L is the hammer fall, in feet; and s is the

penetration per blow, in inches, averaged over the last few
blows.
Unless the hammer weight is clearly evident, the contractor

should be required to substantiate the weight used in the bearing
calculations.
9-1.04 Timber Construction
Wood differs from other building materials in that it is organic

in nature, nonhomogeneous, and composed of tube-like cells many
times longer than they are wide. The cellular structure of wood
fibers along with natural defects that develop as a tree grows
are factors which result in a wide variation in the physical
properties and characteristics of cut lumber.2
Timber falsework materials should be inspected for damage as they

are delivered to the work site. Used timbers should be examined
for evidence of mechanical damage, decay or distortion of shape,
and defective or substandard pieces rejected.
Rough sawn timbers should be measured to determine their actual

dimensions. Unlike surfaced material, the dimensions of rough-
cut timbers are not uniform from piece to piece. The variation
may be appreciable, particularly in the larger sizes commonly
used for falsework posts and stringers. If the actual dimension
is smaller than the dimension assumed in the design, the member
may not be capable of carrying the intended load without over-
stress.
9-1.04A Connections in Timber Framing

Connections in timber framing for falsework bents and similar
locations where engineered connections are required shall be
fabricated in accordance with industry guidelines as summarized
in this section.
9-1.04A(1) Bolted Connections

End and edge distances are measured from the end or side of the
wood member to the center of the bolt hole, and must be equal to
or greater than the following minimums:
• For parallel-to-grain loading, the required end distance

is 7 bolt diameters for members in tension and 4 bolt diame-
ters for members in compression.
2
A comprehensive discussion of the physical properties and
characteristics of wood as a structural building material may be
found in Appendix A.
9-6
INSPECTION
• For perpendicular-to-grain loading, the required end

distance is 4 bolt diameters.
• For parallel-to-grain loading in tension or compression, the

required edge distance is 1.5 bolt diameters.
• For perpendicular-to-grain loading, the edge distance toward

which the bolt is acting shall be at least 4 bolt diameters
and the distance on the opposite edge shall be at least 1.5
bolt diameters. When stress reversal will occur, 4 bolt
diameters are required at both edges.
The minimum spacing between two bolts in a row is 4 bolt

diameters, measured center-to-center of the holes.
Bolt holes and installation must conform to the following:
• Bolt holes shall be a minimum of 1/32-inch to a maximum of

1/16-inch larger than the bolt diameter.
• Holes in the main and side members shall be aligned and the
bolt centered in the hole. Tight fit requiring the forcible
driving of bolts is not recommended industry practice.
• A washer or metal plate not less than a standard cut washer

shall be placed between the wood and the bolt head and
between the wood and the nut.
Design values for bolted connections apply to bolts that have

been snugly tightened. To ensure adequate strength, connections
should be inspected after the falsework is adjusted to grade, and
bolts retightened if necessary.
9-1.04A(2) Lag Screw Connections
As provided by industry guidelines, edge and end distances in lag

screw connections must conform to the requirements for bolted
connections made with bolts having a diameter equal to the shank
diameter of the lag screw used.
Lag screws shall be inserted in predrilled holes conforming to

the following:
• The clearance hole for the shank shall have the same
diameter as the shank, and the same depth of penetration
as the length of unthreaded shank.
• The diameter of the lead hole for the threaded portion shall
be between 60 and 75 percent of the shank diameter, with the
larger percentage applying to lag screws having larger
9-7
diameters.3 The length of the lead hold shall not be less

than the length of the threaded portion.
Lag screws are to be inserted in the lead hole by turning with a

wrench, not by driving with a hammer.
To facilitate installation, soap or other lubricant may be used

on the screw or in the lead hole.
9-1.04A(3) Drift Pins and Drift Bolts
Drift pins and drift bolts are to be driven into predrilled holes
having a diameter 1/16 inch less than the diameter of the drift
pin or drift bolt to be installed.
9-1.04A(4) Nails and Spikes
For nailed or spiked connections, the falsework drawings will

show the number of fasteners required, but fastener placement
usually is not detailed on the drawings. The industry guide-line
is that end distance, edge distance and spacing must be suffi-
cient to prevent splitting of the wood; however, the Division of
Structures has established more specific guidelines to govern
fastener placement for falsework on State highway projects. The
Division's guidelines may be found in Chapter 4, Section 4-3, and
should be reviewed before construction begins. Fastener
placement for connections made with nails or spikes must conform
to the Division's guidelines.
There are specific penetration requirements for nails and spikes,

as shown in Tables E-4 through E-7 in Appendix E. In most cases
obtaining the penetration required to develop the design value of
a given fastener will not present a problem. However, when round
posts are used or when longitudinal bracing on skewed bents is
not parallel to the side of a square post, care must be taken to
ensure that the penetration assumed in the design is actually
obtained, since nails or spikes having less than the required
minimum penetration will have no allowable load-carrying
capacity.
9-1.04B Timber Workmanship Checklist

The following checklist may be used as a guide to points that
warrant special consideration:
• Posts must be plumb and centered over the pad or corbel.
3
The percentage range shown is for Douglas Fir-Larch. For
appropriate ranges for other wood species, contact the Office of
Structure Construction in Sacramento.
9-8
INSPECTION
• Posts may be wedged at either the top or bottom for grade

adjustment, but not at both locations.
• For larger post loads, the design will often provide for
two or more sets of wedges (set side-by-side) to keep the
perpendicular-to-grain compression stresses within the
allowable. In some cases only one set will be installed
initially, with the remaining set(s) installed after the
falsework is adjusted to final grade. Such installations
should be inspected after adjustment to grade, to ensure that
all required wedges are in place.
• Particular attention should be given to falsework bents where

grade adjustment is provided at the bottom of the posts.
Since any differential vertical movement of posts within a
bent may induce undesirable stresses into the frame, the
diagonal bracing should be inspected after the falsework is
adjusted to grade for evidence of deflected braces and/or
distortion at the connections.
• Blocking should be kept to the minimum amount needed for

erection and adjustment. It is poor workmanship to extend a
short post by piling up blocks and wedges, since this can
lead to a condition of instability.
• Full bearing must be obtained at all contact surfaces.

Deficiencies in this respect may be improved by feather
wedging; however, if the joint requires more than a single
wedge, extra4 care should be taken to ensure that full bearing
is obtained.
• The ends of spliced posts must be cut square, with proper size
splice plates, and5 nails must be of the proper size, pitch
and edge distance.
• Jacks used for grade adjustment must be plumb and not extended
beyond the distance recommended by the jack manufacturer, and
the load should be centered over the jack.
• Soffit plywood sheets should be set with the face grain

perpendicular to the joists with abutting ends of the sheets
4
Cedar shingles, which are occasionally used as wedges, should
be used with caution since cedar has a significantly lower cross-
grain strength than Douglas-Fir or any of the commonly used hard-
woods.
5
The need for a post splice should have been anticipated and
the proposed splice detail shown on the falsework drawings. If
this is not the case, the contractor must submit a detail for
approval. (See Falsework Memo C-8 for information on design of
splices in timber posts, and an example problem.)
9-9
supported on a common joist.
• Telltales should be attached to the joists, and located as

close as possible to the supporting bent cap or post. The
number of telltales used must be adequate to determine the
settlement at any location over the entire falsework area.
9-1.05 Structural Steel
Used beams, and particularly beams salvaged from a previous

commercial use, should be examined carefully for loss of section
due to welding, rivet or bolt holes, or mechanical damage (kinks
or notches in flanges, etc.), all of which may reduce the load-
carrying capacity of the beam.
If the falsework design is based on the higher working stresses

allowed for grades of steel other than Grade A36, the contractor
must furnish substantiating mill test reports and a Certificate
of Compliance. The Certificate of Compliance shall be signed by
the contractor, and shall list and describe the beams covered by
the mill test reports.
9-1.05A Welded Splices in Falsework Beams

Occasionally, a longer steel beam will be fabricated by welding
together two shorter beams of the same cross-section.
For spliced beams, if the welding is performed at the site or

at a nearby location closely related to the work, such as the
contractor's yard, the splices shall be made by full penetration
butt welding of the entire cross section in conformance with
applicable requirements in AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code --
Steel.
For previously welded beams, the splices should be visually

inspected for obvious defects; however, radiographic inspection
of other methods of nondestructive testing will not be required
unless there is evidence of defective welding.
9-1.06 Manufactured Assemblies

The term "manufactured assembly" as it is used in the falsework
specifications means any commercial product or device the use
of which is governed, in whole or in part, by conditions or
limitations imposed by the manufacturer. Typical manufactured
assemblies include jacks, beam hangers, overhang brackets and
similar commercial products, and all commercial shoring systems.
When a manufactured assembly is used in the falsework, the

contractor must furnish a written certification stating that
all components of the assembly are used in accordance with the
9-10
INSPECTION
manufacturer's recommendations. The certification may be signed

either by the contractor or by the engineer (or representative)
who signs the falsework construction certification required by
the Construction Safety Orders. (See Section 9-1.13, Cal-OSHA
Requirements.)
A separate certification is required for each product or device

used in the falsework.
9-1.07 Metal Shoring Systems
The safe load-carrying capacity of all commercially available

shoring systems is based on the use of new components, or used
components in good condition, properly erected in conformance
with the manufacturer's recommendations. Consequently, proper
inspection is of particular importance to ensure the adequacy of
the completed system.
Shoring components should be inspected prior to erection. Any

component that is heavily rusted, bent, dented or otherwise
defective, should be rejected, as should any fabricated unit in
which individual members are bent, dented, twisted or broken, or
where the welded connections are cracked or shows evidence of
rewelding.
A base plate, shore head or screw jack extension device should be

used at the top and base of all tower legs. All base plates,
shore heads or extension devices must be in firm contact with the
footing at the base and the cap at the top.
Vertical components should fit together evenly, without any gap

between the upper end of one unit and the lower end of the other
unit. Base plates and shore heads or extension devices must fit
into the tower legs. Any component that cannot be brought into
proper contact with the component into or onto which it is
intended to fit should not be used.
Shore heads and extension devices must be axially loaded, since

shoring components are not designed to resist eccentric loads.
All locking devices on frames and braces must be in good working

order. Coupling pins must bring the frame or panel legs into
proper alignment, and pivoted cross-braces must have the center
pivot in place.
Shoring must be plumb in both directions. Refer to technical

data sheets issued by the manufacturer for the maximum allowable
deviation from true vertical. If this deviation is exceeded, the
shoring must be readjusted to meet the limit.
When a shoring system is used, the contractor must furnish a
9-11
certification that the use of the shoring is in accordance with

the manufacturer's recommendations. (See Section 9-1.06,
Manufactured Assemblies.) Field engineers should keep in mind
that this certification is a Standard Specification requirement,
and is in addition to the falsework certification required by the
Construction Safety Orders. (See Section 9-1.13, Cal-OSHA
Requirements.)
When a commercial shoring system is used for falsework, review

and approval of the design will be based on a particular system;
i.e., WACO, PAFCO, etc. While the various systems have many
similar components, they are not intended to be interchangeable
between systems. Accordingly, field engineers should make
certain that the system furnished is the system shown on the
falsework drawings and further, that all system components are
part of the approved system unless intermixing of components is
authorized by all manufacturers whose components are used in the
falsework, as discussed in the following paragraph.6
In any case where system components are to be intermixed, the

contractor must obtain and furnish a letter of approval of such
intermixing from each manufacturer whose system components are to
be incorporated into the falsework. Each letter must state that
the use of components from the other system(s) will not reduce
either shoring capacity or the required safety factor. (For
example, if PAFCO shoring is shown on the falsework drawings but
some WADCO bracing components are to be used with the PAFCO
shoring, the contractor must obtain letters from both PAFCO and
WADCO expressly stating that such intermixing will not reduce the
nominal capacity or safety factor of their system.)7 The proce-
dure discussed in the preceding paragraph assumes that most of
the component elements of the shoring will be components of the
system shown on the approved falsework drawings. If, however,
the majority of the system components to be assembled and erected
are not components of the system shown on the falsework drawings,
this occurrence will be considered a de facto change in the
falsework design which will negate the previous approval of the
drawings. New or revised drawings and technical data for the
6
The recently issued FHWA Construction Handbook for Bridge
Temporary Works notes that there are no industry standards for
the various components of proprietary shoring systems in use
today, and concludes that components produced by different
manufacturers should not be intermixed. Division of Structures
policy recognizes that the manufacturers of the various systems
are in the best position to evaluate the effect of intermixing
system components, and permits such intermixing if approved by
the7 manufacturers of the intermixed systems.
Note that these approval letters are in addition to the
certification required by the specifications, as discussed in
Section 9-1.06, Manufactured Assemblies.
9-12
INSPECTION
system actually intended for use must be submitted for review and
approval before the shoring may be erected.
9-1.08 Miscellaneous Field Welding
Fillet welds in job-fabricated devices or installations of any

kind, including bracing and connections, may be accepted on the
basis of casual inspection, provided the design value of the
fillet weld is not more than 1000 pounds per lineal inch for each
1/8-inch of fillet weld.
For fillet welds requiring a higher design value, or for any

connection or other installation requiring a butt weld, the
welding must be performed in conformance with the requirements in
AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code -- Steel.
9-1.09 Powder Driven Nail Anchorages

Section 51-1.05, Forms, of the Standard Specifications permits
the use of driven type anchorages to fasten forms to interior
surfaces of girder stems in prestressed box girder bridges where
the reinforcing steel clearance is 2 inches or more.
The specification contemplates the use of nails driven with low

velocity powder driven hammers operated in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations. Such powder driven nails have a
shear value of 400 pounds, provided they are installed in
conformance with the following criteria:
• Hammers must be perpendicular to the concrete surface when the

nail is driven. Hammers are to be operated only by qualified
persons possessing valid evidence (current card or other
documentation) of certification for the work.
• Nails to be used with wood members of 1-1/2 inch thickness

will be approximately 3 inches long. Nails must penetrate
the concrete at least 1-3/8 inches.
• The nail shear value will be reduced for any nail where the
head penetrates more than 1/8 inch into the wood or where the
head is 1/8 inch or more above the wood surface. The
reduction shall be 25 percent (100 pounds) for each 1/8 inch
increment of length in excess of the 1/8 inch limiting
length. A corresponding reduction will be made for nails
driven into air pocket voids.
• Nails shall not be driven within 3 inches of any concrete

edge, nor within 3 inches of visible cracks in the concrete
surface.
• Minimum end and edge distances for wood members shall not be
9-13
less than required by Division policy for nailed connections

(See Chapter 4). Nail spacing shall not be less than 6
inches.
9-1.10 Cable Bracing Systems
Cable bracing systems require thorough inspection to ensure that

the type of cable used and the field installation conform to the
details shown on the approved falsework drawings.
Prior to installation, the cable should be examined to verify

that the size and type of the cable and its condition (new or
used) is consistent with design assumptions. Used cable should
be inspected for strength-reducing flaws. The use of obviously
worn, frayed, kinked or corroded cable should not be permitted.
Cables must be looped around an appropriately sized thimble (or

equivalent diameter
8
steel pin) as recommended by the cable
manufacturer.
The following tabulation may be used to determine the required
thimble diameter for a given cable size:
Approximate Standard
Cable Diameter Thimble Diameter
1/4 (Inches) 11/16 (Inches)

3/8 15/16
1/2 1/8
5/8 1 3/8
3/4 1 5/8
7/8 1 7/8
1 2 1/2
Cables looped around thimbles (or around an equivalent diameter

anchoring device) are usually connected to the working part of
the cable by Crosby-type wire rope clips. Clip installation
should be carefully inspected, since properly installed clips are
critical to the effectiveness of a cable system.
Table 4-3 (in Chapter 4) shows the proper method of installing

Crosby clips. Additionally, keep in mind that although the effi-
ciency factor for Crosby clips is 80 percent, this value is valid
8
Division policy provides for an exception to this general
requirement in the case of cable looped around a timber cap where
wood crushing will form an adequate radius for the cable
connection. This exception, however, applies only to temporary
bracing used during erection and removal, and permanent bracing
used to prevent overturning in the longitudinal direction.
9-14
INSPECTION
only when the clip is properly torqued in accordance with the

manufacturer's recommendation.9
To ensure adequate holding strength, field engineers should

review the clip installation procedure recommended by the
manufacturer before work begins.10
As shown in Table 4-3, forged clips have greater holding

strength, so fewer clips are required for a given installation.
Forged clips are marked "forged" for positive identification, and
have the appearance of galvanized metal, whereas malleable cable
clips appear smooth and shiny.
The method by which the cable will be attached to the falsework

and the location of attachment will be shown on the falsework
drawings. No deviation should be permitted.
11
9-1.10A Preloading Cable for Internal Cable Bracing Systems
When cable is used as diagonal bracing to prevent the collapse of
a falsework bent, the cables must be preloaded to remove any
slack in the cable and connections. Preloading is necessary to
ensure that the cable units (i.e., all cables acting to resist
forces in the same direction) will act elastically when loaded.
The required preload values for all cable units will be shown on
Applying the preload force is an essential part of the cable

system installation, and the contractor must provide a means to
verify or demonstrate that the required preload force has been
applied. A method used by some contractors determines the
preload force by measuring the elastic elongation within a short
length of the cable. Measurements are made between tape bands
placed around the cable to be preloaded. Measurements between
the tape bands should be done after removal of any12initial slack
and again after the cable unit has been preloaded.
9
Tests to system failure have shown that clips that are not
properly torqued will slip before the cable breaks.
10
The contractor should be requested to furnish technical
information from the manufacturer showing the installation
procedure, recommended torque values, and other pertinent data
prior to beginning erection of any cable system.
11
The term "cable" as used in this section includes prestres-
sing strand when prestressing strand is used as internal cable
bracing.
12
The term "initial slack" refers to excessively large loops at
the connections or any excessive drape remaining in the cable
after installation. The initial slack must be taken up before
the preload force is applied.
9-15
When this procedure is used, keep in mind that the elongation

calculation must be based on the reduced value of E, since the
preload force represents only a small percentage of the cable
strength. In addition, unless a prestretched cable is being
used, constructional stretch may be a factor for consideration as
well. (See "Determining Cable Elongation" in Chapter 4.)
The contractor may employ other methods to demonstrate that the

correct preload force is being applied; however, the method must
be accurate, readily verifiable, and must not rely on subjective
considerations. Regardless of the method used, measurements to
verify preload values are to be performed by the contractor in
the presence of the engineer.
All cable units must be preloaded simultaneously to prevent frame

distortion as the preload force is applied.
Preload tensioning devices must provide positive grip so that no

cable movement will occur after final tensioning. Preloading can
be done with turnbuckles or with come-a-longs.13
When cables are attached to timber members with an appropriate

fastening device, the preload force must be applied twice. The
first tensioning will permit the cable fastening device to bite
into the wood. Following this initial tensioning, the cable
should be unloaded and then retensioned to the required preload
force. (Note that any additional wood crushing at the point of
attachment will be minor and may be neglected in the analysis.)
Since preload force and cable drape are proportional for a given
cable system, knowing the expected cable drape over a range of
preload values gives the engineer a method by which the preload
force actually applied may be approximated by visual inspection
after the bent is erected. (For example, assume that for a
particular cable a preload force of 500, 1000 and 1500 pounds
results in a calculated drape of 1-1/2, 3/4 and 1/2 inches,
respectively. From the relationship between drape and preload
force, the engineer can readily determine the preload force
actually applied.)
9-1.11 Traffic Openings

For falsework at traffic openings, the specifications require
that components of the falsework system "....which contribute to
horizontal stability and resistance to impact, except for bolts
in bracing, shall be installed at the time each element of the
falsework is erected and shall remain in place until the false-
13
"Come-a-long" is a slang term for a Lug-all lever or
ratchet hoist.
9-16
INSPECTION
work is removed." (See Standard Specification Section 51-1.06B,

Falsework Construction.)
For administration of this specification requirement, Division

policy provides as follows:
• The specification applies to the connections that provide

lateral restraint at the base of the falsework post, to the
connections at the top of the post between the post and cap,
and to the connections between cap and stringer.
• The specification applies to permanent diagonal bracing

(because such bracing contributes to horizontal stability)
except that, at the contractor's option, connections may be
nailed rather than bolted to facilitate adjustment of the
falsework bent to grade. Nailed connections, when used in
lieu of bolts, must provide the same capacity as the perma-
nent bolted connection. The permanent bolted connection
should be installed as soon as feasible.
• If traffic is being detoured during falsework erection,

the components covered by the specification need not be
installed as the falsework is erected. However, all such
components must be installed before traffic is allowed to
pass adjacent to or under the falsework.
Horizontal and vertical clearances should be measured to verify

compliance with contract requirements as soon as the bents are
erected and the beams set in14place. Actual clearances should be
recorded in the job records.
Anticipated vertical clearance restrictions should have been

reported to the District pursuant to the instructions in Bridge
Construction Memo 2-11.0. Any changes occurring as the falsework
is erected should be reported immediately to the resident
engineer and/or District permit engineer.
9-1.11A Falsework Lighting at Traffic Openings

General requirements for pavement and portal lighting at traffic
openings, including openings for pedestrian walkways, are found
in Section 86-6.11, Falsework Lighting, of the Standard Specifi-
cations. Any project specific requirements will be shown on the
plans or included in the special provisions.
The contractor must submit a lighting plan showing all details of

14
Keep in mind that the actual vertical clearance provided when
the falsework is first erected must included an allowance for
beam deflection and falsework settlement that will occur as the
concrete is placed.
9-17
the falsework lighting system. The falsework lighting plan must

be approved by the engineer before falsework construction at the
traffic opening may be started.15
The lighting plan should be reviewed from the viewpoint of public

traffic, and for employee safety during routine maintenance work
as well. (Keep in mind that the specifications do not permit
closing of traffic lanes for routine maintenance of the lighting
system on any roadway having a posted speed limit above 25 miles
per hour.)
All features of the portal illumination, including plywood

clearance markers, as well as pavement and pedestrian walkway
lighting if required, must be in place and operational before any
beams are set over the traffic opening.
As soon as the falsework is erected and the lights turned on, the
lighted falsework opening should be inspected after dark to check
the effectiveness of the lighting, and the lights moved or
adjusted if necessary to provide uniform illumination. Nighttime
inspection should continue periodically, as lights may be
inadvertently moved or disturbed as construction continues. An
inspection during adverse weather, such as rain or fog, is also
advisable.
Temporary K-rail and all painted surfaces at the portal opening

must be maintained in a clean, white condition. Repainting, if
necessary, may be paid for as extra work.
9-1.12 Field Changes

As provided in the specifications, "....falsework shall be
constructed to substantially conform to the falsework drawings."
(Section 51-1.06B, Falsework Construction, of the Standard
Specifications.)
Determining whether the falsework as actually constructed "sub-

stantially" conforms to the drawings is a matter of engineering
judgment. As a policy consideration, minor deviations to suit
field conditions or the availability of materials will be
permitted if it is evident by casual inspection that the change
neither increases the stress in, nor the deflection of, any
falsework member beyond the maximum value allowed, nor reduces
15
The falsework lighting plan is not part of the falsework
drawing submittal covered by Section 51-1.06, Falsework, of the
Standard Specifications. It is a separate submittal, which is
reviewed and approved pursuant to Standard Specification 5-1.02,
Plans and Working Drawings. However, if the lighting plan is
shown on the falsework drawings, approval of the drawings will
constitute approval of the lighting plan as well.
9-18
INSPECTION
the load-carrying capacity of the falsework system as a whole.

Such changes need not be shown on revised drawings; however, they
should be noted on the structure representative's copy of the
approved drawings.
If calculations are necessary to verify compliance with contract

requirements, the change will be considered substantial and
revised drawings, with calculations, will be required.
Revised drawings must be submitted for review in the same manner

as the original drawings. In many cases the change can be shown
on a simple sketch on letter size paper, while other changes,
depending on their magnitude, may require total revision of an
original drawing. Keep in mind that if a change is shown on a
sketch, the sketch must be signed and stamped by a registered
civil engineer, and that calculations are required in all cases.
Division policy provides that drawings or sketches showing

changes made during construction will be given a high review
priority, although contractually such changes constitute design
revisions following approval, so that the review time allowed is
the same as allowed for the original design review.
Work shown on a revised falsework drawing or sketch may not begin

until that drawing has been approved by the engineer.
Any change in the approved falsework design, however minor it may

appear to be, has the potential to adversely affect the
structural integrity of the falsework system. Therefore, before
approving any change, the engineer should ask, and then answer to
his satisfaction, the question: "How does this change affect the
falsework system as a whole?"
9-1.13 Cal-OSHA Requirements
Article 1503 of the Construction Safety Orders requires the

contractor to obtain a permit to construct or remove falsework or
shoring that is more than three stories high. This requirement
is discussed in Chapter 2, and reference is made thereto.
Article 1717 of the Construction Safety Orders requires all

falsework or vertical shoring systems to be inspected and
certified prior to concrete placement. The certification
must be in writing, and it must state that the falsework, as
constructed, substantially conforms to the working drawings and
that the materials and workmanship are satisfactory for the
purpose intended.
For falsework or shoring which exceeds 14 feet in height,

measured from the top of the foundation to the superstructure
soffit, or where the length of an individual span exceeds 16
9-19
feet, or where provision is made for the passage of vehicular or

railroad traffic through the falsework or shoring, the required
inspection and certification must be made by a civil engineer
registered in California, or by his authorized representative.
For all other falsework, the inspection and certification may be

made by any one of the following:
• a civil engineer registered in California.

• for shoring systems, a manufacturer's authorized
representative.
• a licensed contractor's representative qualified in the usage
and erection of falsework and vertical shoring.
Arranging for the required inspection and certification is the

contractor's responsibility. When the falsework design is such
as to require inspection and certification by a registered civil
engineer, it is the contractor's engineer who assumes this
responsibility. However, the structure representative will
verify that the falsework has been inspected by examining the
certificate and noting its existence in the project diary. It is
not necessary to obtain a copy of the certification for the job
records.
Inspection and certification of the falsework pursuant to the

requirements in Article 1717 of the Construction Safety Orders
does not relieve the contractor of any of his responsibilities
under the contract for falsework construction, nor does it
relieve the structure representative of his responsibilities with
respect to contract administration. Even though the falsework is
certified by the contractor's engineer or by other appropriate
authority, the structure representative must satisfy himself that
the falsework has been constructed in conformance with the
approved falsework drawings before permitting the contractor to
place concrete.
9-1.14 Inspection During Concrete Placement
As concrete is being placed, the falsework should be inspected at

frequent intervals. In particular, look for the following
indicators of incipient failure:
• Excessive compression at the tops and bottoms of posts and

under the ends of stringers; crushing of wedges.
• Movement or deflection of diagonal bracing; distortion at

connections; pulling of nails.
• Tilting or rotation of joists or stringers; excessive deflec-
9-20
INSPECTION
tion of any horizontal member.
• Posts or towers that are bowing or moving out of plumb.
• Excessive settlement as indicated by telltales.
• The sound of falling concrete or breaking timbers; any unusual

sound.
The specifications limit falsework settlement to a maximum of 3/8

inch deviation from the anticipated settlement shown on the
falsework drawings. Telltales should be monitored as concrete
is placed, and should the actual settlement exceed the predicted
settlement by more than the allowable deviation, concrete place-
ment in the affected area should be discontinued and the cause of
the excessive settlement investigated. Concrete placement should
not be resumed until the engineer is satisfied that further
settlement will not occur. (Keep in mind that settlement due to
soil compression may continue for some length of time, even
though the load is not increased.)
If settlement continues, or if inspection reveals falsework

members in distress (such as crushing at joints, rotation or
tilting of vertical members, or any similar indication of
incipient failure) all concrete placement should be stopped
immediately, and the falsework strengthened by the installation
of supplementary supports, or by some other means.16
9-1.15 Inspection After Concrete Placement
Falsework inspection should not stop with concrete placement, but

should continue periodically until the falsework has been
completely removed.
One important and often overlooked point is the danger of curing

water softening the falsework foundation. Some means should be
provided to prevent curing water from reaching and soaking the
foundation material beneath the falsework bearing pads.
The contractor should provide for drainage of rain or curing

water that accumulates in the box girder cells. Such water in
the cells could easily overstress the falsework or, if deep
enough, the permanent structure as well.
9-1.15A Deck Shrinkage

Continuing inspection is particularly important in the case of
16
Reference is made to the Division's Concrete Technology
Manual for a discussion of the factors to be considered when it
becomes necessary to install an emergency construction joint.
9-21
post-tensioned structures because of the redistribution of dead

load forces that occurs following the deck concrete pour. As the
newly placed deck concrete shrinks during the curing period, the
downward force exerted on the falsework by the bridge
superstructure increases. The increase is greatest near the
center of the structure span, and typically reaches its maximum
from four to seven days after the deck concrete is placed.
The effect of deck shrinkage is of greater concern in cast-in-

place prestressed structures than in conventionally reinforced
concrete structures because post-tensioned structures have
relatively little rigidity until they are stressed.
The effect of deck shrinkage is not addressed in the specifica-

tions, except indirectly for falsework adjacent to a traffic
opening where the falsework posts must be designed to carry at
least 150 percent of the theoretical load. However, field
engineers should be aware of the potential problem and look for
locations where the falsework may be adversely affected.17
9-1.16 Falsework Removal
Contract provisions governing falsework removal are found in

Section 51-1.06C, Removing Falsework, of the Standard Specifica-
tions. This section contains specific benchmark criteria that
must be met before any falsework may be released. In general,
the falsework must remain in place for a specified time period,
or until the concrete attains a specified strength, or for cast-
in-place prestressed construction, until stressing (but not
grouting) is completed.
Additionally, for continuous structures, the removal of falsework

supporting a given span cannot begin until all required work
(excluding concrete above the bridge deck and grouting of
prestressing ducts) has been completed in that span and in the
adjacent spans over a length equal to at least 1/2 of the length
of the span where falsework is to be removed. See Figure 9-3.
17
As a point of interest, field research conducted in the early
1970's revealed that -- depending on falsework configuration,
type of structure and construction sequence -- the maximum load
imposed on the falsework varied from as little as 110 percent to
as much as 200 percent of the load measured about 24 hours after
deck concrete placement. The 150 percent figure in the
specifications is a compromise that recognizes that some increase
will occur in virtually all instances.
9-22
INSPECTION
Falsework in Span A cannot be removed

until work is complete within this zone.
FIGURE 9-3
Falsework removal often presents a greater challenge than the

original construction; hence it must be carefully performed to
ensure both worker and public safety. To ensure that falsework
removal receives the attention it warrants, the specifications
require the contractor to include a removal plan on the falsework
drawings. The plan must show the methods and procedures to be
employed, and any temporary bracing required.
When evaluating falsework removal schemes, keep in mind that the

stability of the falsework system depends on the interaction of
many component parts. As falsework components are removed,
unbalanced and/or eccentric loadings may occur, and the use of
jacks to unload portions of the falsework may induce forces that
exceed those considered in the original design. No stabilizing
component should be removed without considering the effect of its
removal on the stability of the falsework still in place.
Since the falsework removal plan must be shown on the falsework

drawings, it must of necessity be developed many months (even
years on very large projects) before the actual removal work will
be done, and thus its appropriateness may be affected by
conditions and circumstances that were not anticipated. In view
of this reality, prior to the start of any falsework removal, the
structure representative along with staff members who may be
directly involved with the removal operation are to meet with the
contractor to review the removal plan. The review should
consider the general appropriateness of the removal method in the
light of the actual site conditions, and should include a
discussion of the removal sequence and equipment to be used, the
number and responsibilities of the workers involved, and public
and worker safety.
The contractor must designate an employee who will be in charge

of the removal work, and who will be present at the work site
9-23
while the work is in progress. Additionally, the structure

representative will assign a staff member to be present whenever
falsework is being removed. However, field personnel should keep
in mind that falsework removal, like all other contract work, is
the contractor's operation and it is the contractor's
responsibility to perform the work in a safe manner and in
accordance with the approved removal plan.
Some contractors use cables attached to winches set on the bridge

deck to lower elements of the falsework system. While this is a
simple and generally satisfactory removal method, the weight of
the winch plus the weight of the suspended falsework may produce
a relatively large concentrated load. Before such removal plans
are approved, the structure representative should be certain that
the winch load is distributed over the deck in a manner that
prevents overstressing of the permanent structure. In some cases
it may be appropriate to discuss the distribution method with the
designer.
Division of Structures policy provides for an exception to the

specification provisions governing release of falsework in the
case of bracing system components. With certain exceptions as
discussed in the following paragraph, bracing components may be
removed on the day following deck concrete placement if, in the
structure representative's judgment, the concrete superstructure
is capable of transferring horizontal forces from the falsework
to the bridge substructure.
Bracing must remain in place until all other falsework may be

removed in the following cases:
• For all falsework, all elements of cable bracing systems in-

stalled to prevent internal collapse of a falsework bent must
remain in place.
• Bracing or other methods used to support the compression

flange of a beam or reduce the L/d ratio of any falsework
member must remain in place until the other elements of the
falsework system are removed.
• For falsework erected over or adjacent to roadways or

railroads, all components that contribute to horizonal
stability and resistance to impact must remain in place until
the elements of the system they are restraining are removed.
This includes diagonal bracing as well as the special impact
resisting connections.
• For falsework supporting continuous prestressed structures

being constructed in stages, bracing must remain in place as
discussed in the following section.
9-24
INSPECTION
9-1.16A Stage Construction
When continuous cast-in-place prestressed structures are con-

structed in stages, the stage construction sequence will require
some load-supporting elements of the falsework system to remain
in place for an extended period of time. For such structures,
falsework removal involves special considerations.
For any given construction stage, the initial stressing will

transfer the superstructure dead load from the center of the
spans toward the points of support. This redistribution of dead
load forces will decrease the load applied to the falsework near
the center of the continuous spans. The load being carried by
falsework near the center of a suspended span will be decreased
as well; however, the load on the falsework supporting the hinge
or construction joint will be increased by dead load transfer.
For continuous prestressed structures, the specified sequence of

falsework removal will require certain elements of the falsework
system to remain in place. Except for any bracing installed to
prevent overturning, all components of such falsework, including
diagonal bracing, must remain in place, even though the falsework
may have been partially unloaded by the prestressing operation.
This procedure is necessary because, with the passage of time,
the redistributed dead load will be carried back toward the
center of the span as superstructure dead load deflection takes
place.
For continuous prestressed structures, all elements of the

falsework system that are not required by the specifications to
remain in place should be completely removed. If the falsework
cannot be removed within a reasonable time, any components
remaining in place should be unloaded. This procedure is
necessary to prevent overloading of partly disassembled falsework
still in place under the deflecting superstructure.
9-25
ANCHOR BLOCKS CALCULATIONS, CONTRACTOR’S
Design Criteria 4-32 Purpose of 2-4
APPROVAL OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS CAMBER

By Registered Engineer 2-5 Defined 3-13
General discussion 2-1 General Discussion 3-13, 3-14
Railroad Approval required 2-5 Stress on camber strips 3-14
Responsibility for 1-5
CATALOG, DATA
ASSUMED HORIZONTAL LOAD For cables 4-26
General discussion 3-2 For shoring systems 6-1
See also Horizontal Design Load For manufactured assemblies 4-32
Furnished when requested 2-2
BEAM CONTINUITY
As a design consideration 3-15 CHRONOLOGICAL LOG
Effect on falsework towers 6-9 Preparation of 2-6
BEAM DEFLECTION COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

See Def Iection For anchor block design 4-32
For falsework design 3-17
BEAM HANGERS
Limitations on use 4-34 CLEARANCE ZONE
At traffic openings 8-1
BEAM SPAN
In timber members 4-2 COLLAPSE
As a failure mode 5-1
BEAMS
See Steel Beams COLLAPSING FORCE
See Timber Beams Defined 5-5
BENDING STRESS COLUMNS

In steel beams 4-20 See Steel Posts and Columns
In timber beams 4-3 See Timber Posts
Pile Column 7-35,7-36
BI-AXIAL BENDING
As a design consideration 4-21 COMBINED STRESSES
As a design consideration 5-2,5-14
BOLTED CONNECTIONS in pile bents 7-34,38,39,47,48,49,52
At traffic openings 8 4
Design criteria 4-9 CONCRETE ANCHOR BLOCKS
Design criteria 4-32
BRACING
See Cable Bracing CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
See Diagonal Bracing Falsework bent required 3-16
See External Bracing
See Falsework Bracing System CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
See Temporary Bracing at F/W Openings As a design consideration 3-16
CABLE BRACING CONTINUITY

Anchor blocks, Design of 4-32 See Beam Continuity
Cable connectors 4-29
Catalog data required 4-26 CONTINUOUS PADS AND STILLS
Design load 4-28 Criteria for analysis 7-3
Inspection of 9-7 Effective length formula 7-4,7-5,7-8
Safety factor 4-29
When used as bracing to CONTRACTUAL RELATIONSHIPS
prevent internal collapse 4-26 General discussion I-5
When used as temporary’ bracing 4-25,9-13
I-l Revised 06/92

INDEX
CORBELS DOUBLE CAPS

Multiple corbel systems 7-11 At traffic openings 8-3
Load distribution 7-20 Stability of 5-73
Timber corbels 7-21
DOUBLE LEGS
DEAD LOAD Criteria governing use of 6-10
General discussion 3-l
DURATION OF LOAD
DECK OVERHANG BRACKETS Adjustment factors 4-19
Limitations on use 4-34 At traffic openings 8-3
Effect on allowable stresses 4-2
DECK SHRINKAGE
Effect on falsework 3-18 EXTERIOR GIRDER ROTATION
Prevention of 3-13
DEFLECTION
Actual deflection 3-12 EXTERNAL BRACING
Dead load deflection 3-1 Defined 5-2
Effect on vertical clearance 8-l On heavy-duty shoring 6-11
Of cantilevered beam ends 3-13
Of deck overhang 3-12 FALSEWORK
Of sloping exterior girders 3-13 Definition of l-3
Responsibility for calc. 3-12 Types of l-3
Theoretical deflection 3-1,3-11
Upward (negative) deflection 3-12 FALSEWORK BRACING SYSTEM
Definition of 5-I
DEFLECTION, HORIZONTAL Removal of 9-13
As a design consideration 3-15
Effect on falsework piles (Lateral) 7-33 FALSEWORK CHRONOLOGICAL LOG
Preparation of 2-6
DESIGN CALCULATlONS
Purpose and use of 2-4 FALSEWORK DRAWINGS
Approval of 2-5
DESIGN LOAD Initial review checklist 2-3
Dead load 3-l Railroad approval required 2-5
Horizontal load 3-2 Review sequence 2-2
Live load 3-1 Time for review 2-I
Minimum vertical load 3-2 When complete, guidelines for 2-2
On cable bracing 4-28
On construction walkways 3-2 FALSEWORK FAILURE MODES
On diagonal bracing 5-3,5-4,5.5 Discussion of 5-1
On posts adjacent to traffic 8-4
See also Horizontal Design Load FALSEWORK LIGHTING
See also Wind Load General discussion
DIAGONAL BRACING FALSEWORK PADS

General discussion of 5-3 Effective length of 7-4,7-5,7-8
RemovaI of 9-13 Inspection of foundation for 9-2
Use of cables use 4-25,9-7 Procedure for analysis
Continuous pads 7-3
DIFFERENTIAL LEG LOADING individual pads 7-7
Limiting ratios
For heavy-duty shoring 6-9 FALSEWORK PILES
For pipe-frame shoring 6-4 General discussion 7-23
See also Steel Piles
DIFFERENTIAL LEG SHORTENING See also Timber Piles
As a design consideration 6-10
FALSEWORK POSTS
See Steel Posts and Columns
See Timber Posts
I-2 Revised 06/92

INDEX
FALSEWORK REMOVAL HORIZONTAL DESIGN LOAD

General discussion 9-12 As a collapsing force 5-5
As an assumed load 3-2
FALSEWORK TOWERS Defined 3-2
See Heavy-Duty Shoring Purpose Of 3-3
Where applied
FlELD CHANGES As a collapsing force 5-5
General discussion 9-9 As an overturning force 5-11
See also Wind Load
FLANGE BUCKLING
In steel beams 4-22 HORlZONTAL SHEAR
In steel beams 4-2 1
FLANGE SUPPORT SYSTEMS In timber beams 4-3
Design criteria 4-24
General discussion 4-22 HORIZONTAL STABILITY
Removal of 9-13 See Stability
FORM DESIGN DATA IMPACT

Request for 2-l Duration of load factor 4-19,8-3
FOUNDATION DESIGN INITIAL REVIEW OF F/W DRAWINGS

For heavy-duty shoring 6-10 Information pertaining to 2-2
For pipe-frame shoring 6-6
See also Falsework Pads INSPECTION
See also Falsework Piles After concrete placement 9-12
During concrete placement 9-11
FOUNDATION MATERIAL Engineer’s responsibility 9-l
Inspection of 9-2 Of cable bracing 9-8
Tests on 9-3 Of falsework lighting 9-9
Of foundation material 9-2
FRlCTION Of manufactured products 9-10
As a design consideration 3-17 Of pads and sills 9-2
Of piles 9-1,94
HEAVY-DUTY STEEL SHORING Of steel shoring 9-7
Alternative design criteria 6-8 Of structural steel 9-6
At traffic openings 8 4 Of timber construction 9-4
Criteria governing use of 6-8 Timely insp. required 9-1
Differential leg loads 6-9
Differential leg shortening 6-10 INTERMEDIATE STRENGTH SHORING
Double legs 6-10 Conditions of use 6-6
External bracing required 6-11 Mfgrs. statement required 6-7
Foundation requirements 6-11
Inspection of 9-7 INTERNAL STABlLITY
Load reduction required 6-1 Of timber falsework bents 5-3
Modified shoring 6-8
Safe working loads discussed 6-I LAG SCREWS
Safety factor 6-8 Criteria for design 4-14
Sidesway, effect of 6-10
Test load conditions 6-1 LATERAL SUPPORT OF WOOD BEAMS
Unequal leg settlement 6-10 Design guidelines 4-6
Wind loads, calc. of 3-4
LIVE LOADS
HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL General discussion 3-l
Advantages of 4-20
LOAD TESTS
HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION On cable 4-27,4-29
As a design consideration 3-15 On manufactured products 4-33
See also Timber Pile Bents On noncommercial devices 4-33
On soil foundations 9-3
I-3 Revised 06/92

INDEX
LOCKED-IN STRESSES POSITIVE MEANS OF RESTRAINT

Rotation of exterior girders 3-13 Definition of 5-10
In T-beam structures 3-16
PRESTRESSING FORCES
LONGITUDINAL STABlLITY Effect on falsework 3-18,8-4
Provided by friction 5-9
Provided by positive means RAILROAD REQUIREMENTS
of resistance 5-10 Approval by railroad company 2-5
Special design considerations 8-6
MANUFACTURED ASSEMBLIES
Catalog data required 2-2.4-32 REMOVAL OF FALSEWORK
Definition of 4-32 General discussion 9-12
inspection of 9-10
Load test procedure 4-33 RESISTING CAPACITY
Of diagonal bracing 5-4
MINIMUM VERTICAL LOAD
As a design requirement 3-2 RESISTING MOMENT
Calculation of 5-11
NAILS AND SPIKES
Criteria for joint design 4-17 RESPONSIBILITY
For approval of F/W drawings 1-4,2-l
OVERTURNING For camber calculations 3-12
As a design consideration 5-10 For deflection calculations 3-12
As a failure mode 5-1 For evaluating materials 9-l
For falsework construction 1-5
OVERTURNING MOMENT For falsework design 1-5
Calculation of 5-11 For inspection of falsework 5-l
Effect on post loads 5-12
Produced by wind loads 3-5,3-9 REVIEW OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS
Chronological record of 2-6
PADS AND SILLS General discussion 2-1
See falsework Pads Incomplete drawings 2-4
Initial review checklist 2-3
PILES Procedural requirements 2-1
General Discussion 7-23 Responsibility for 1-5
See also Steel Pile Bents Time for review 2-1
See also Timber Pile Bents
SAFETY FACTOR
PIPE-FRAME SHORING For cable bracing 4-29
Allowable loads 6-3 For heavy-duty shoring 6-8
Analysis of 6-4 For manufactured products 4-33
As a manufactured product 6-1
Description of 6-2 SAND JACKS
Inspection of 9-7 Construction and use of 9-3
Load reduction required 6-1,6-3,64
Overturning stability 6-5 SHEAR
Safe working loads 6-1 Horizontal, in timber beams 4-3
Stability of 6-5 in steel beams 4-21
Supplemental bracing required 6-5
Test load conditions 6-1 SHIELDlNG
Unequal leg load iimitation 6-4 Effect on wind impact area 3-10
POINT OF FlXITY SOIL LOAD TESTS

Of falsework piles 7-25,30,37,45.48,53 Discussion of
PONY BENTS
Stability of 5-13
I-4 Revised 06/92

INDEX
STABILITY TIMBER
Defined 5-1 Construction checklist 9-5
Internal stability 5-3 Member size considerat ions 4-2
Longitudinal stability 5-9
Of falsework systems 5-1 TIMBER BEAMS
Of heavy-duty shoring 6-11 Allowable stresses 4-1
Of multiple-tower bents 6-11 Beam span defined 4-2
Of pipe-frame shoring 6-5 Bearing length required 4-5
Of steel beams 4-23 Bending, discussion 4-3
Of wood beams 4-6 Compression grain 4-4
Horizontal shear in 4-3
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS Lateral support of 4-6
Reference to 1-3
TIMBER POSTS
STEEL BEAMS Assumed end condition 4-6
Allowable stresses 4-20 Design formulas for 4-7
Bending 4-20 Post design at F/W openings
Continuous over F/W towers 6-9 Lateral restraint criteria 8-3
Flange buckling 4-22 Modified vertical load 8-4
Flange support 4-23
Inspection of 5-6
Shear 4-21 4-9
Web crippling 4-22 4-15
Lag screws 4-14
STEEL BRACING Nails and spikes 4-17
Design criteria 5-8 Specification reference 4-9
STEEL GIRDER BRIDGES TIMBER PILE BENTS

Deck F/W considerations 3-20 Adequacy of braced bents 7-34
Analysis of 7-29
STEEL JOIST ASSEMBLIES Analysis of braced bents 7-32,34,41
Limitations on use of 4-35 Analysis of unbraced bents 7-32,43
Driving tolerances 7-26,44
STEEL PILE BENTS Effect of pile pull 7-30
Criteria for analysis 3-52 Fixity. See Point of Fixity
General discussion 7-23
STEEL POSTS AND COLUMNS Longitudinal Stability 7-41
Design criteria 4-25 Required pile penetration 7-24,44
Soil relaxation factor 7-26
STEEL SHORING Vectoring of Stresses 7-50
See Heavy-Duty Steel Shoring
See Pipe-Frame Shoring TINKER TOY FALSEWORK
See Pipe-Frame Shoring
STRESS ANALYSIS
General design assumptions 4-1 TRAFFIC OPENINGS
Policy statement 4-1 Bolted joints required 8-4
Clearance requirements 8-1
SUPPLEMENTAL BRACING Double caps 8-3
For heavy-duty shoring 6-11 Falsework lighting 9-9
For pipe-frame shoring 6-5 Post design load 8-4
Post restraint 8-2
TEMPORARY BRACING AT F/W OPENINGS Railroad requirements 8-6
Design criteria 8-4,8-6 Temporary bracing 8-4,8-6,9-8
Purpose of 5-8
Removal of 9-13 TRIPLE LEGS
When installed 5-8 Limitations on use of 6-10
Wind direction on 3-4,8-6
I-5 Revised 06/92

INDEX
VERTICAL STEEL SHORING

See Heavy-Duty Steel Shoring
See Pipe-frame Shoring
WEB CRIPPLING
In Steel beamS 4-22
WIND IMPACT AREA

Definition of 3-4
Effect of shielding 3-10
WIND LOAD
Assumed wind direction
On falsework 3-8
On heavy-duty shoring 3-4
General discussion 3-3
Effect of shielding 3-10
Factors affecting 3-3
On conventional falsework 3-9
On heavy duty shoring 3-5
On temporary bracing 8-6
Wind impact area defined 3-4
I-6 Revised 06/92

APPENDIX A. WOOD CHARACTERISTICS
Structure of Wood
Wood Cells
The cells which make up the structural elements of wood are
generally tubular and quite firmly grown together. Dry wood
cells may be empty, or partly filled with deposits such as
gums and resins.
Many wood cells are considerably elongated and pointed at the
ends. Such cells are called fibers. The direction of the
wood fibers with respect to the axis of the tree is one of the
most important characteristics affecting the usefulness of a
given piece of wood, since it has a marked influence on
strength.
The length of wood fibers may vary considerably in a given

tree, as well as between different species. Typically,
hardwood fibers average about l/25 inch in length; softwood
fibers average from l/8 to l/4 inch in length, or longer.
Growth Rings
Between the bark of a tree and the wood interior is a layer of

thin-walled, nearly invisible living cells, called the cambium
layer, in which all growth of the tree takes place. New wood
cells are formed on the inside and new bark on the outside of
the cambium. No growth in either thickness or length takes
place in wood already formed, new growth is purely the
addition of new cells -- not the further development of old
ones.
In temperate climates there is usually enough difference in

color and texture between the wood formed early and that
formed late in the growing season to produce well-marked
annual growth rings. The age of a tree at any cross-section
may be determined by counting the growth rings. One ring
represents one year of growth, provided the growth has been
interrupted by cold or dry seasons so that the change in cell
structure is sufficient to define the annual layer.
Springwood and Summerwood
In many species of wood each annual growth ring is divided

into two distinct layers. The inner part of the ring, formed
first in the growing season, is called springwood. The outer
part, formed later in the growing season, is called summer-
wood, The transition from springwood may be gradual or
abrupt, depending on the kind of wood and the growing
conditions when it was formed,
Springwood in generally characterized by cells with relatively

large cavities and thin walls, whereas summerwood cells have
smaller cavities and thicker walls. Summerwood generally will
be heavier, harder and stronger than springwood.
The percentage of summerwood in a given piece of lumber
determines the density of the piece. Other factors being
equal, the higher the density, the greater the strength.
Because of its greater density, the proportion of summerwood
in a particular piece of lumber is sometimes used as an
indication of its quality and strength.
Sapwood and Heartwood
The wood portion of a tree has two main parts. The outer
part, which consists of a ring of wood around the tree just
under the bark, is called sapwood. Within the sapwood ring is
an inner core, generally darker in color, called heartwood.
The sapwood ring varies in thickness from one to three inches
depending on the age and specie of the tree. Sapwood contains
the living cells and takes part in the active life processes
of the tree. Heartwood consists of inactive (not dead) cells
and serves mainly to give strength to the tree. Except for
the slightly darker color of heartwood, there is littIe
difference in the strength or physical characteristics of
heartwood and sapwood from a given tree.
As a tree grows older and larger, the inner layers of sapwood
change to heartwood. Eventually the heartwood core forms the
major part of the trunk and main branches.
Chemical Composition of Wood
Wood is a complex aggregate of compounds which may be divided

into two major groups: (1) those which make up the cell
structure, and (2) all other substances, which are commonly
called "extractives" or infiltrated materials.
A-2
WOOD CHARACTERISTICS
The cell wall components consist primarily of cellulose and

lignin, Cellulose is the most abundant constituent, com-
prising about 70 to 80 percent of the wood structure. Lignin,
which comprises from 20 to 30 percent of the wood structure,
is the cementing agent which binds the individual wood fibers
together to form a substance of strength and rigidity.
In addition to cellulose and lignin, wood contains a small
amount of mineral matter. These minerals, known as "ash
forming" minerals because they are left as ash when the
lignin and cellulose are burned, constitute less than one
percent of the total wood substance.
The extractives are not part of the wood structure as such,
but they contribute such properties as color, odor, taste and
resistance to decay. They include tannins, starches, oils,
resins, acids, fats and waxes. They are found within the
hollow portions of the wood cells, and can be. removed from the
wood by neutral solvents such as water, alcohol, benzol,
acetone and ether.
Hardwoods and Softwoods
All wood species are classified for commercial purposes as

either hardwoods or softwoods.
The hardwoods are the broad-leafed, deciduous trees which drop

their leaves at the end of the growing season. Examples of
commercially-grown hardwoodtrees include oak, maple, walnut
and ash.
The softwoods are evergreen trees. Evergreen trees may have
fern-like leaves, typical of the redwoods, or needle-shaped
leaves typical of the pines and firs. Softwoods are also
known as conifers (or "cone bearers") because all softwood
trees bear cones of one kind or another.
The terms "hardwood" and "softwood" are somewhat misleading

in that they have no direct application to the actual or
relative hardness or softness of a particular kind of wood.
Many hardwoods are softer than the average softwood. Douglas
Fir, which is widely used in the west as a construction
material, is a softwood by definition; nevertheless, the
better grades of Douglas Fir are dense, hard and tough.
Specific Gravity
Although dry wood of most species will float in water, the

absolute specific gravity of the basic substance of which wood
is composed is about 1.55 for all species. Thus it is evident
A-3
that a large part of the volume of wood is occupied by cell

cavities and pores, so that the resultant relative specific
gravity of wood is less than 1.00 for most species.
Variation in the size of the cell openings and the thickness

of the cell walls causes some species to have more wood
substance than others and therefore to have higher relative
specific gravities. Consequently, the density of cut lumber
will vary between species, averaging from 30 to 40 pounds per
cubic foot at normal moisture content for most commerically
grown softwoods.
Since density depends on the amount of wood substance in a
given piece of lumber, it is an excellent index of strength.
The higher the density, the greater the strength of cut
lumber, all other factors being equal.
Grain
The term "grain" as it is applied to wood is most often used

to indicate the direction of the wood fibers relative to the
axis of the tree or the longitudinal edges of a piece of cut
lumber. Thus, if the fibers are generally parallel to the
axis of a tree, the lumber from the tree will be straight-
grained; however, if the direction of the fibers makes an
angle with the axis, the lumber will be cross-grained.*
Grain is also used in reference to the width and spacing of

the annual growth rings. Thus, lumber may be close-grained,
medium-grained or coarse-grained. Note, however, that these
are relative terms without precise meaning.
Edge grain refers to lumber in which the growth rings are at

approximately right angles to the surface of the piece. Flat
grain refers to lumber in which the surface of the piece of
lumber is approximately tangent or parallel to the direction
of the growth rings.
* Note that the term "cross-grain" is also used to indicate a

direction which is actually perpendicular to the grain.
This usage is generally associated with the direction, with
respect to the grain, at which a load is applied.
Moisture Content
Living trees may contain as much as 200 percent moisture by
weight. After a tree is cut and converted into lumber, the
wood begins to lose moisture. The process of removing
moisture from green lumber is known as seasoning, which may
be accomplished by exposure to the air or by kiln drying,
Green wood contains moisture in two forms: as "free water" in
the cell cavities and as "absorbed water" in the capillaries
of the cell walls. When green wood begins to lose water, the
cell walls remain saturated until the free water has
evaporated. The point at which evaporation of free water is
complete and the cell walls begin to lose their moisture is
called the "fiber saturation point." The fiber saturation
point occurs at a moisture content of about 25 to 30 percent
for most species.
Variations in moisture content above the fiber saturation

point have no effect on the volume or strength of wood. AS
wood dries below the fiber saturation point and begins to lose
moisture from the cell walls, shrinkage begins and strength
increases.
Wood in use over a period of time will give off or take on

moisture from the surrounding atmosphere until the moisture in
the wood corresponds to the humidity of the surrounding
atmosphere, When exposed to similar atmospheric conditions,
different woods will have the same moisture content regardless
of their density.
Moisture content has an important effect on susceptibility to
decay. Most decay-producing fungi require a moisture content
above the fiber saturation point to survive. In addition,
favorable temperatures, an adequate supply of air and a source
of food are essential. Wood that is continuously water-soaked
(as when submerged) or is continuously dry (i.e., with a
moisture content of 20 percent or less) will not decay.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage of wood takes place between the fiber saturation

point and the oven-dry condition. It is stated as a
percentage of the original or green dimension.
Wood shrinkage is greatest in the direction of the annual

growth rings, somewhat less across the rings, and very little
along the grain. Typically, shrinkage along the grain (longi-
tudinal shrinkage) is usually less than one percent and
therefore too small to be of practical significance.
A-5
Shrinkage of commercial softwood boards across the grain

averages about one percent for each four-percent change in
moisture content. Shrinkage of hardwoods is slightly larger.
Large structural timbers shrink proportionally less than

smaller pieces of lumber because drying does not take place
simultaneously in the inner and outer portions. The inner
portion dries more slowly than the outer portion and prevents
the wood near the surface from shrinking normally. Later,
when drying of the interior occurs, the outer portion which
has now set prevents the inner portion from shrinking to the
extent that it otherwise would.
Strength of Wood
Introduction
The term "strength" as it is used in structural design
terminology refers to-the ability of a given material to
resist elastic deformation when subjected to external forces.
Unlike most other building materials, however, wood exhibits
different strength properties depending on whether the forces
are applied parallel or perpendicular to the direction of the
wood fibers or "grain" of the wood. In general, wood is
strongest along the grain and weakest at right angles to it.
Because the strength of a given piece of wood depends on the

direction of the wood fibers with respect to the direction of
the applied load, it is necessary to consider the effect on
wood strength of each of the stresses produced by a particular
loading condition. These stresses, and the ability of wood to
withstand them, are discussed in the following sections.
Tensile Strength
The tensile strength of wood parallel to the grain depends on

the strength of the fibers and is affected not only by the
nature and dimensions of the wood elements but also by their
arrangement. It is greatest in straight-grained specimens
with thick-walled fibers. Cross-grain of any kind will
materially reduce the tensile strength of wood, since tensile
strength perpendicular to the grain is only a small fraction
of the strength parallel to the grain. The ratio of tensile
strength parallel to the grain to tensile strength perpen-
dicular to the grain is commonly as high as 40 to 1.
A-6
When loaded in direct tension, strain and stress are propor-

tional virtually to ultimate load, and there is no well-
defined proportional limit below this point. Wood, therefore,
will yield only a very slight amount prior to ultimate failure
in direct tension.
As a matter of interest, if only the net cross-sectional area

of a piece of wood is considered (i.e., if the cell cavity
area is deducted) the ultimate tensile strength of a clear
specimen is about 70,000 psi, which is comparable to the
strength of mild steel.
Compressive Strength
There are two ways in which wood may be subjected to
compressive stress: compression perpendicular to the grain
sometimes referred to as cross-grain compression, and
compression parallel to the grain.
Compression perpendicular to the grain is often critical in

timber design. It is usually most severe at the ends of deep,
narrow beams, and in the connecting members at the top and
bottom of short, heavily-loaded columns.
The primary effect of compression perpendicular to the grain
is compaction of the wood fibers. As the fibers compact, the
load-carrying capacity of the wood increases as the density of
the material increases.
If the load is applied to only a portion of the upper surface,
the bearing plate or post indents the wood, crushing the upper
fibers without affecting the lower part of the member. Under
this loading condition, the projecting ends of the member
increases the strength of the material directly beneath the
compressing weight by introducing a beam-action which helps
support the load; however, this beam-action is exerted for a
short distance only.
Compression parallel to the grain will occur in many uses of

wood (such as columns, props and posts) in which the member is
subjected to loads which tend to shorten it lengthwise.
The compressive strength of wood parallel to the grain is from

three to five times greater than the compressive strength
perpendicular to the grain. The ratio is about the same for
both green and seasoned material.
A-7
Maximum compressive strength parallel to the grain is a

measure of the ability of a short column to withstand load,
In long columns, however, bending is introduced before the
full crushing or compressive strength is reached, and failure
is by lateral bending of flexure, rather than by crushing.
In determining the strength of wood columns, the ratio of the

unsupported length of the member to the least cross-sectional
dimension is of primary importance. Short columns having an
unsupported length of less than 11 times the least dimension
have practically the full compressive strength of the material,
whereas the strength of extremely long columns is governed
entirely by the stiffness of the wood and resistance to endwise
compression is not involved. For columns between these two
extremes both the compressive strength and the stiffness of the
wood are taken into consideration.
Shearing Strength
Shearing strength is a measure of the ability of wood to

resist forces that tend to cause one part of a member to slip
or slide along another part adjacent to it.
Shearing stresses will occur under almost all loading

conditions, and the forces which produce them are classified
according to the direction in which they act as shear parallel
to (or along) the grain and shear perpendicular to (or
across) the grain.
Under certain conditions, shearing stresses may act both

perpendicular to the grain and parallel to the grain at the
same time. For example, in a loaded beam the applied forces
tend to shear the wood across the grain. This stress is
equal to the resultant force acting perpendicular to the axis
of the beam at any point. In a member uniformly loaded and
supported at both ends, the stress is maximum at the points of
support and zero at the center. In addition, there is a
shearing force tending to move the fibers of the beam past
each other in a longitudinal direction, or along the grain.
In a beam this force is known as "horizontal" shear.
The presence of horizontal shear in the direction of the grain

may be readily demonstrated by placing several boards one on
top of the other and loading them at the center. As the
boards bend, they slip over one another so that the ends of
each project beyond those of the one below. In a solid beam
this movement is restrained, and the longitudinal shear
stresses developed are maximum at the neutral plane and
decreased toward the upper and lower edges.
The resistance of wood to shear perpendicular to the grain is

much greater than its ability to withstand shear along the
grain. So much so in fact, that shear perpendicular to the
grain may be ignored in beams, stringers and similar members.
However, horizontal shear is frequently critical in beams and
caps, particularly in the case of short, deep members, and
should be considered when designing or checking any member
which is subjected to bending stresses.
Flexural Strength
When external forces acting in the same plane are applied at
right angles to the axis of a simple beam causing it to
deflect or bend, three fundamental stresses -- compression,
tension and shear -- will occur within the member, all acting
in a direction parallel to the grain.
If the beam is loaded too heavily, it will break or fail in

some manner. Beam failures are classified according to the
way in which they develop; i.e., compression failure, tension
failure or horizontal shear failure. A combination of
failures may develop if the beam is completely ruptured.
Since the tensile strength of wood parallel to the grain is

normally from two to five times greater than the compressive
strength in the same direction, beam failure w-ill occur first
by crushing on the compression side, followed by tearing or
rupture of the wood on the tension side. Horizontal shear
failure is fairly common when the ratio of the height of the
beam to the span is relatively large, since it is the short,
deep beam which is subjected to the loading condition which
produces maximum shearing stress.
Stiffness
The stiffness of wood, when used in reference to either a beam
or long column, is a measure of its ability to resist
deformation or bending. It is expressed in terms of the
"modulus of elasticity" and applies only within the
proportional limit.
Because of its fibrous structure, wood is characterized by

three moduli of elasticity, one for each structural
direction. Values for modulus of elasticity in the two
directions perpendicular-to the grain are relatively low,
being approximately l/12 to l/20 of the value parallel to the
grain. As far as solid wood beams are concerned, however, the
value for modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain is the
only one of importance.
A-9
The modulus of elasticity is used in calculating the

deflection of beams and joists, and in computing safe loads
for long and intermediate columns.
Although stiffness is independent of bending strength, woods

which rank high in one respect usually rank high in the other
as well.
Effect of Moisture Content
Wood increases in strength as it dries. The strength increase

begins at the fiber saturation point (the point at which the
cell walls begin to loose moisture) and increases rapidly as
drying continues.
Drying wood from the fiber saturation point to five-percent
moisture will usually double and in some cases triple end-
crushing strength and bending strength. However, this
increase in strength with seasoning is greater in small, clear
specimens of wood than in large timbers. In the latter,
increase in strength-bay be offset to some extend by checking,
if checking develops during the seasoning process.
Not all strength properties increase with a decrease in

moisture content; in fact, properties indicative of toughness.
or shock resistance may actually decrease as wood dries. This
is because dried wood will not bend as far as green wood
before failure (although it will sustain a greater load) and
because toughness depends on both strength and flexibility.
Duration of Load
Wood has a unique property not found in other building

materials. This is its ability to withstand a proportionally
greater stress as the length of time the load is applied is
decreased.
Both the elastic limit and the ultimate strength of wood are
higher under short-time loading than under long-time loading.
Wood is thus able to absorb overloads of considerable
magnitude for short periods of time, or smaller overloads for
longer periods of time, Obviously, the duration of a load is
an important factor in determining the total load that a
member can safely carry.
A-10
Wood Defects
Definition
As defined by ASTM, a defect is any irregularity occurring in

or on wood that reduces its strength as compared to the
strength of a clear-grained specimen.
Knots
A knot is that portion of a branch or limb which has been
incorporated into the body of the tree. Knots are the most
prevalent defect in structural timber.
In structural beams, the effect of a knot on bending strength

depends on the size and location of the knot. In a simply-
supported beam, for example, knots on the lower side are
placed in tension, those on the upper side in-compression and
those at or near the neutral axis in horizontal shear. On the
tension side at the point of maximum stress, a knot has a
marked effect on the total load a beam will carry, while knots
on the compression side are somewhat less serious. In any
location, knots have little effect on shearing strength.
Knots have little or no effect on stiffness; hence in long
columns where stiffness is the controlling factor knots are
not viewed as a strength-reducing defect. In short and inter-
mediate columns, thereduction in strength due to knots is
approximately proportional to the size of the knot. Large
knots, however, have a somewhat greater relative effect than
small knots.
The reduction in strength due to the presence of knots in a

given piece of lumber is caused primarily by local distortion
of the wood grain in and around the knot. Knots interrupt
the normal direction of the grain and cause localized cross
grain with very steep slopes. As knot size increases, the
distortion of the grain around the knot is more than propor-
tionally increased; consequently, the size of a knot compared
to the size of the piece is an important consideration.
Since the strength-reducing effect of a knot depends more on
the distortion of the surrounding grain than on the knot
itself, knotholes have the same effect on strength as knots.
Since holes due to other causes are not accompanied by a
distortion of the grain, the limitations that apply to
knotholes are sufficient to determine the effect of other
holes as well.
A-11
Checks and Shakes

A "Check" is a separation of the wood fibers along the grain
but across the rings of annual growth. A "shake" is a
separation of the wood fibers along the grain between and
parallel to the rings of annual growth.
Checks commonly occur as a result of unequal shrinkage during

seasoning. Shakes are the result of the rupture of wood cells
in a weakened portion of the wood; they seldom develop unless
they were present to some degree before the tree was felled.
Checks and shakes will reduce the shearing strength of members
subject to bending, particularly if they are located near the
neutral axis. They have little effect on the strength of
members subject to compression parallel to or perpendicular to
the grain.
Splits
Splits are lengthwise separations of the fibers extending from

one surface completely through a piece to another surface.
Splits are the result of internal stresses or rough handling.
Splits affect strength in the same way as checks and shakes.
Cross Grain
Cross-grained wood is defined as wood in which the cells or

fibers run at an angle with the axis, or sides, of the piece.
TO determine the effect of cross grain on the strength of
wood, it is necessary to have some measure of its degree.
This is afforded by the "slope" of the cross grain, which is
defined as the deviation of the grain from the edge of the
piece or from a line parallel to its principal axis. Slope is
usually designated by the ratio of a one-inch deviation of the
grain from the edge to the distance along the edge over which
the deviation occurs. Thus a slope of one-in-twenty means
that over a distance of 20 inches along the edge, the grain
deviates one inch from the edge.
Since the ratio of tensile strength parallel to the grain to

tensile strength at right angles to the grain ranges from
about 25 to 1 in unseasoned wood to as high as 45 to 1 in air-
dry material, it is apparent that even the slightest devia-
tion from straight grain will tend to reduce the tensile
strength bf a given piece of lumber. However, this decrease
does not become appreciable until a slope of about one-in-
twenty is reached; hence lumber in which the slope of the
grain is less than one-in-twenty is considered as straight-
grained material for all practical purposes.
A-12
In compression, the effect of cross grain is less marked,

since, strength parallel to the grain in both unseasoned and
dry material is only about three to five times the strength
perpendicular to the grain. Therefore the slope must approach
one-in-ten before a decided decrease in compressive strength
is evident.
In shear, the weakening effect of cross grain is small and

usually is neglected.
Diagonal Grain
Diagonal grain is produced in lumber entirely by the method of
sawing and has no reference to the natural alignment of the
wood elements. In cutting lumber, if the plane of the saw
blade is not approximately parallel to the bark surface, the
grain of the wood will not be parallel to the edges and thus
is termed "diagonal."
Diagonal grain has the same strength-reducing effect on a
piece of lumber as cross grain.
Warping
Warping is defined as any deviation of a piece of lumber from

a true or sawed surface. Warping most often occurs as a
result of differences in the longitudinal shrinkage of the two
faces of a board. It also may be caused by internal stresses
present in the log at the time of sawing.
Warping has no effect on the inherent strength of wood;
however, pronounced warping will materially reduce the bearing
area of joists and beams and thus make it difficult to
develop a satisfactory connection.
Wane
Cut lumber is sometimes characterized by the presence of bark,

or by a lack of wood, on the otherwise square edges or corners
of a piece. This condition, which is termed wane, is commonly
considered a defect although it has no direct effect on
strength except as it reduces the cross-sectional area of the
piece.
As with warping, wane present at the end of a piece will
reduce the bearing area and thus indirectly increase the
bearing stress.
A-13
Decay
Wood is subject to attack by many low forms of plant life

known as fungi. These "wood inhabiting" fungi differ from
ordinary green plants in form, lack of green coloring matter,
and methods of nutrition. Unlike green plants, they are
unable to manufacture their own food, but must have organic
material already prepared for their use. This they find in
the wood substance composing the cell walls. The action of
the fungi results in disintegration of the actual wood
substance and gives rise to the condition known as decay.
The development of decay is dependent on the presence of an

appreciable amount of moisture in the wood. Although the
minimum requirements vary with different fungi, it is
generally considered that wood must contain at least 20
percent moisture before decay will occur. Consequently,
thoroughly air-dried or kiln-dried lumber is immune from
decay unless it is subjected to wetting over a long enough
period of time that its moisture content is raised to
approximately the fiber-saturation point.
A small supply of oxygen is necessary for the fungi to grow

and develop, SO that wood which is completely saturated is
immune to decay.
Since decay involves an actual breaking down of the cell

walls, it is evident that it vitally affects the strength of
wood, particularly in the advanced stage. Decayed lumber
should never be used for any structural purpose.
A-14
APPENDIX B
SOIL BEARING VALUES and SOIL LOAD TESTS
Introduction
In the case of bridge foundation design, determining the

supporting capacity of a given foundation material with
sufficient accuracy to ensure an adequate structural design
requires a complete foundation investigation by an experi-
enced and capable engineering geologistor soils engineer.
Fortunately, however, the sophisticated approach to founda-
tion design which is required for permanent work is generally
unnecessary for falsework, because in most falsework designs
maximum footing pressure is applied for only a short period
of time and relatively greater settlements may be tolerated.
The Standard Specifications include a provision which re-

quires the contractor to demonstrate by suitable load tests
that the soil bearing values assumed in the falsework design
do not exceed the supporting capacity of the soil. This re-
quirement is included in the specifications to further ensure
the adequacy of the falsework foundation, and the engineer
should not hesitate to order a soil load test if he has doubt
as to the ability of the foundation material to support the
falsework loads. Note, however, that soil bearing capacity
may in most cases be determined with sufficient accuracy for
falsework design purposes by simple, static load tests per-
formed by the contractor's forces. Ordinarily, it will not
be necessary to employ the services of a private soils lab
or consultant.
The following information has been prepared to assist the

engineer in those situations where a load test is necessary
to verify assumed soil bearing values.
General Information
Soil load tests should be made at the location where false-

work will be erected. Bearing pads for the test load should
be set on the same material as the falsework footing, and
soil moisture content should approximate the content ex-
pected during falsework use.
Other factors being equal, the larger the bearing area of the
test load pad, the more reliable the results. Pad area
should be not less than two square feet in any case, and pref-
erably three square feet or more in silty or clayey material.
A load test made on a relatively weak soil, such as clay or

silt, will demonstrate the bearing capacity of the surface
strata satisfactorily. More care should be taken in the test
where small footings axe used as these are more critical than
larger footings in this type of soil.
A load test made on a thick layer of granular soil overlying
a thin weak soil will demonstrate the capacity of the upper
layer. It will tell little of the capacity of the lower
layer since the test load is small and the pressure on the
lower area may be almost negligible since it is spread over
a large area.
The effect of a unit-load on a small area may not correspond
to the effect of the same unit-load on a large area.
A short-time load on a plastic soil may not have the same
effect as the same unit-load on a large area of longer time
duration, This is not true, however, for firm granular soils,
as time does not not affect this type of soil.
Load Test Procedure
As provided in the specifications, the contractor is respon-
sible for load test performance. The engineer, however,
must determine the suitability of the proposed test for the
given site conditions and evaluate the test results.*
TO ensure uniformity, a "suitable" load test as this term is
used in the specifications will be interpreted as meaning a
test in which both settlement and duration of load are
considered.
One simple and satisfactory test method is to apply a grad-
ually-increasing load with respect to a fixed time interval,
and to record the settlement at the end of each time period,
The soil yield point is reached when a small increase in load
produces a large increase in settlement. The load at yield
point should be divided by a factor of safety of two to de-
termine the allowable bearing value.
* The Division's Engineering Geology Branch is available for

consultation and advice as to the suitability of load tests
in a given field situation, as well as interpretation of
test results.
SOIL LOAD TESTS
As an example, consider the following test in which the test

load was increased every 12 hours over a three-day period.
Time Total Load Settlement
Interval Time (T/SF) (Inches)
12 hrs. 12 hrs. 1.0 0.2
12 hrs. 24 hrs. 2.0 0.6
12 hrs. 36 hrs. 2.5 1.2
12 hrs. 48 hrs. 3.0 2.0
12 hrs. 60 hrs. 3.25 2.8
4 hrs. 64 hrs. 3.50 4+
Load test results should be plotted as shown in the follow-
ing load-settlement diagram.
Tram the diagram it is evident that the soil yield point is

about 3.0 tons per square foot. This value should be divid-
ed by a factor of safety of 2.0 to determine the soil bear-
ing value at the ground surface, which in this case is
about 1.5 tons per square foot.
B-3
If no clearly-defined yield point exists, as will be the case

in granular materials, the load which produces a one-inch
settlement may be taken as the ultimate bearing capacity.
Again, this value should be divided by a 2.0 safety factor
to determine the allowable bearing value.
Another method takes into consideration the ratio of the size

of the test pad to the size of the proposed falsework pad,
along with the contractor's anticipated settlement. In this
method the general formula for determining the total load
which may be supported by a given -soil is expanded to include
perimeter shear, as shown by the following relationship:
In the formula, W is the total load in pounds, A is the pad

area in square feet, p is the allowable soil bearing value
in pounds/ square foot, P is the pad perimeter in feet, n is
the compressive stress (psf) on the soil column directly be-
neath the pad, and m is the Perimeter shear in pounds/lineal
foot.
If the ratio of perimeter (P) to the area (A) is (x) then:
p = W/A = mx + n
Values of m and n are found by test loading two or more
plates having different areas and perimeters. The load
which produces the contractor's assumed pad settlement is
taken as the allowable stress.
As an example, determine the bearing capacity of a 10-foot

square footing if the contractor's proposed pad settlement
is one-half inch.
Take two test pads, one two feet square and one three feet
square. The smaller supported 25,200 pounds at one-half
inch settlement. The larger, 39,700 pounds at the same
settlement.
Smaller 25,200 lbs 4 SF 8 LF 25,200 = 4n + 8m

Larger 39,700 lbs 9 SF 12 LF 39,700 = 9n + 12m
SOIL LOAD TESTS
Solving for (m) and (n), m = 2840 lbs/LF and n = 620 psf.
For the actual footing, (x) = 40/100 = 0.4. By substituting
values of (m), (n) and (x) into the equation p = mx + n, the
allowable soil bearing value, p, = 2840(0.4) + 620 = 1755 psf.
Investigating of Underlying Weak Strata
Test results, as discussed thus far, give only an indication
of the allowable soil bearing values at the surface. If a
weak underlying strata exists, as indicated in the log of
test borings, consideration should be given as to whether
this strata will support the actual falsework load without
excessive settlement.
An assumption can be made that the load is spread with depth
on a l:2 slope as shown in Figure 1, which also shows a typ-
ical boring diagram.
As can be seen, in Figure 2, the soil pressure at the surface

is l-l/4 tons/square foot for both the test and the actual
falsework pad. The pressure on the weak underlying strata in
the test load is 0.035 tons/square foot, a reduction of 36:l
due to load spreading. In the actual condition the pressure
is 0.18 ton/square foot, a reduction of only 7:l, and this
pressure may be more than the strata can safely support.
To help the engineer in his analysis, charts showing allow-
able soil pressure for clay and sandy soils are reproduced
on the following two pages. These charts may be used to give
a genera1 idea of the allowable bearing, based on soil
classification.
Settlement
With the current emphasis on limited settlement of falsework,
the engineer must be able to assess the probability that a
given settlement, as predicted by the contractor, will actu-
ally occur. Some general statements may help in predicting
these settlements.
1. Granular Material
The maximum settlement will occur under the load as
it is applied, and is usually small in magnitude.
2 . Silt and Fine Sand
A large part occurs as the load is applied. More
occurs as the water is squeezed out under long-
term loading. If the water table rises, a “quick”
condition may result with floatation of the fine
grains and a resulting settlement increase at
this later date.
3 . Clay
Again, part of the consolidation occurs as the
load is applied, but the rate of consolidation
decreases with time. Settlement my also occur
due to drying out of clay in the summer. All
settlement is due to a squeezing out or loss of
moisture in the clay.
Index to Appendix C - Falsework Memos
Date
Memo Issued Subject
1 02/12 Falsework Reminder List
2 07/01/88 Waste Slabs as Falsework
3 09/99 Falsework Over Traffic
4 07/01/88 Load Testing of Manufactured Products
5 06/29/16 (moved to Chapter 3)
6 07/10/88 Longitudinal Force Resistance Connectors
7 09/99 Falsework Over And/Or Adjacent To Union Pacific

Railroad Company Tracks
8 04/93 Splicing of Falsework Posts
9 11/91 Short Poured-In-Place Concrete Piles to Resist

Uplift and Lateral Loads
10 07/01 Falsework Welding
12 10/91 Falsework Tower Stability
13 03/93 Aluma Frame Shoring Systems
14 02/93 WACO 25 Kip Towers
15 03/93 Pile Collars
16 05/93 100K Hi-Cap Bridge Shoring
17 03/93 Concrete Pads
18 08/13 Pre-Approved Wood Sandjack and

Proof Testing Guidelines
20 05/94 Pipe Frame Shoring
21 12/94 Structural Composite Lumber
CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL 06/16

FALSEWORK REMINDER LIST
I. WHERE TO FIND FALSEWORK INFORMATION
A. Falsework Manual (January 1988) with subsequent revisions.

Web link: http://onramp.dot.ca.gov/hq/oscnet/sc_manuals/falsework/
B. Special Provisions (SP)
1. Project specific requirements and considerations.
2. Requirements for traffic openings (SP1).
3. Railroad requirements (SP2).
C. Standard Specifications
1. “Submittals” in SS 2010 or “Plans and Working Drawings” in SS 2006
(SS3).
2. Public Safety (includes pedestrian openings) (SS4).
3. Traffic-Handling Equipment and Devices (includes K- rail) (SS5).
4. Falsework (SS6).
5. Pile Driving Acceptance Criteria (SS7).
6. Falsework Lighting (SS8).
7. Falsework (for steel structures) (SS9).
D. Bridge Construction Records and Procedures Manual
Vol I 2-11.0 Traffic Control (Opening or closing of roadway inform
Resident Engineer (RE)).
Vol I 2-20.0 Notice of Change in Structure Clearance or Permit Rating.
Vol II 120-1.0 Submitting Falsework Drawings.
Vol II 120-2.0 Impaired Clearance at Falsework Traffic Openings
(Form No. SC-12.6.1).
Vol II 125-1.0 Lost Deck Forms.
Vol II 125-2.0 Soffit Forms.
Vol II 135-5.0 Mechanical Anchorage Devices (Permanent work).
Vol II 160-4.0 Stressing Incomplete Bridges.
Vol II 165-4.0 Welded Wire Fabric (For use in PCC pads).
Vol II 180-Various Welding (Permanent work).
E. Cal-OSHA Construction Safety Orders (Sections 1503 & 1717).
F. Offices of Structure Construction Falsework Engineer:
Ajay Sehgal at (916) 227-8060.
II. PRE-JOB CONFERENCE (SUGGESTED DISCUSSION TOPICS)
A. Falsework Design Review and Authorization

1. Review time allowed.
1
SP 2010, Section 12 or SP 2006, Section 10.
2
SP 2010, Section 5-1.20C or SP 2006, Section 13.
3
SS 2010, Section 5-1.23 or SS 2006, Section 5-1.02.
4
5
SS 2010, Section 12-3 or SS 2006, Section12-3.
6
SS 2010, Section 48-2 or SS 2006, Section 51-1.06.
7
SS 2010, Section 49-2.01A(4)(b) or SS 2006, Section 49-1.08.
8
9
SS 2010, Section 55-1.03B or SS 2006, Section 55-1.05.
FALSEWORK MEMO NO. 1 Revised 02/12
C- 1–1
2. Review time starts when a complete submittal is received.

3. Information required for complete submittal. (Refer to Falsework (FW)
Manual, Section 2-1.04 "Initial Review".)
4. For proprietary products, submittal must include technical data (includes
hardware items such as overhang brackets, jacks, hangers, concrete inserts,
finishing machines, etc., and all commercial shoring systems).
5. For cable bracing systems, submittal must include manufacturer’s technical
data.
6. Determining review duration; falsework review clock.
7. Review time adjustment for design revisions.
8. Priority listing for multiple submittals.
9. Falsework erection cannot begin until drawings are authorized except for
pad and pile foundation work.
10. Request meeting with the falsework designer, foreman, OSC Engineers and
other key individuals prior to falsework erection, grading and removal
operations.
11. Request that a joint safety stand down be held after falsework incident.
12. Cal-OSHA Construction Safety Orders, Section 1503 and 1717.
13. Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan.
B. Falsework Erection and Removal Plans
1. Project specific considerations.
2. Show or describe erection and removal procedure on drawings.
3. See Erection and Removal Plan Check Lists (Attachments A & B).
C. Traffic Considerations (if applicable).
D. Railroad Involvement (if applicable).
E. Application of Construction Safety Orders (Sections 1503 & 1717).
III. DESIGN LOADS
A. Vertical Design Loads

1. Minimum vertical design load (dead load plus live load) on any falsework
member is 100 psf. This includes supports for a construction walkway
extending beyond edge of deck or for bent cap falsework.
2. For stress analysis, design dead load is weight of concrete, forms,
reinforcing steel and falsework members. Weight of concrete, forms and
reinforcing steel is based on assumed unit weight of 160 pcf for normal
weight concrete or 130 pcf for lightweight concrete.
3. For deflection, contract compliance uses a design dead load based on actual
concrete unit weight i.e. without forms and rebar dead weight.
4. Design live load includes the following:
(a) Twenty (20) psf over the total area supported by the member under
consideration.
(b) Seventy-five (75) lb/lf at edge of deck overhang acting over a
maximum of 20 feet. (FW Manual, Section 3-l.04.)
(c) Weight of equipment (finishing machine, etc.) applied as a
concentrated load at point of contact.
C- 1–2
B. Horizontal Design Load

1. Greater of the following:
(a) Load due to equipment, construction sequence or other cause, plus
appropriate wind load.
(b) Two percent (2%) of the total supported dead load at the point under
consideration.
(c) See Item V1, Additional Design Considerations at Traffic Openings.
C. Miscellaneous Load Considerations
1. Increased vertical design load at traffic openings for post only.
2. Increased vertical load at hinges due to load redistribution caused by
prestressing forces.
3. For falsework in flowing water, horizontal load caused by stream flow
pressure refer Trenching & Shoring (T & S) Manual for hydrodynamic
forces.
4. Loads due to vertical and horizontal components of cable design loads.
IV. INFORMATION TO BE SHOWN ON FALSEWORK DRAWINGS
A. All Items Listed in FW Manual, Section 2-1.04 "Initial Review".

B. Anticipated Settlement (not to exceed one inch).
C. Pads and Piles
1. Assumed soil-bearing value for pad foundations.
2. Joint location in continuous timber pads.
3. Design details for concrete pads.
4. For piles, design-bearing value; tip and diameter.
5. For piles, driving tolerances (maximum pile-pull (Δ) and eccentricity (e)).
6. Design details for CIDH piles including pile tip.
D. Dimensions
1. Falsework span lengths (must add up to structure span length).
2. Post and stringer spacing.
3. Vertical distance between connections in diagonal bracing.
4. Height of bents (if needed to check bracing and L/d ratios).
5. Size of all load supporting members.
E. Timber Bracing
1. Type of connection (single or double shear).
2. Type, size, and number of fasteners at each connection.
F. Cable Bracing
1. Cable description, number and size of cables in each cable unit.
2. Number and type of connectors (Crosby clips, etc.).
3. Detail showing method or device by which cable will be attached to
falsework components, and location of attachment.
4. For external bracing systems, method of cable anchorage.
5. For internal bracing systems, cable preload value and method by which
preload force will be applied and measured.
6. Is cable new or used? (For constructional stretch considerations).
G. Welding and Welded Connections
C- 1–3
Welding and Nondestructive Testing (SS1).

1. For fillet welds, length and nominal size of weld.
2. For butt welds, welding procedure (to conform to AWS or any nationally
recognized welding standard) must be shown on the drawings.
H. Commercial Shoring Systems
1. For all commercial shoring systems, the trade name and nominal load-
carrying capacity (i.e., WACO 11-kip shoring, PAFCO 100-kip shoring,
etc.) must be noted on the drawings.
I. Erection and Removal Plans
1. The method or procedure to be followed, including details for temporary
bracing if used, for falsework erection and removal must be shown or
described on the drawings.
V. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.
A. Plywood
Deflection within limits? (SS2).
B. Beams and Stringers
1. Joist stresses OK at girder flares, diaphragms and caps?
2. Timber beams stable against buckling and rollover?
3. Steel beams have compression flange supported where necessary?
4. Steel beams checked for bi-axial bending?
5. Camber strips centered on stringers and OK for compression?
6. Beam deflection limited to L/240 under weight of concrete only?
7. For continuous beams, effect of beam continuity checked? Beam uplift
prevented?
C. Posts and Columns
1. Timber post L/d checked; allowable stress reduced if necessary?
2. Timber post splices meet criteria in FW Manual, Memo C-8?
3. Steel post L/r checked; allowable stress reduced if necessary?
4. Steel crush plate between timber post and timber cap?
D. Bracing
1. Diagonal bracing members and connections meet FW Manual, Chapter 5
criteria?
2. Timber members adequately sized to accommodate number of fasteners
required?
3. Fastener capacity values adjusted for load duration?
4. Proper connection at center of crossing X's?
5. For steel bracing, welded connections meet applicable design criteria? (FW
Manual 4-4.08).
6. For cable bracing, manufacturer's technical data reviewed? Load test
performed if required?
1
SS 2010, Section 48-2.01D(2) or SP 2006 “Concrete Structures” of subsection “Falsework”.
2
SS 2010, Section 51.03C(2) or SS 2006, Section 51-1.05.

C- 1–4
7. For cable bracing, cable attached to falsework cap, not posts or columns?
Cable anchorages checked for uplift?
8. Cable can only be used for single tier bents.
E. Deck Overhangs
1. Minimum vertical load (100 psf) on construction walkways?
2. Loaded zone below the soffit falsework? (FW Manual, Section 3-1.04)
3. Differential beam deflection considered? (FW Manual, Section 3-3.06)
4. Additional requirements for deck overhangs on steel girder bridges
considered? (FW Manual 3-3.07).
F. Foundations
1. Assumed soil bearing value compatible with site conditions? Wet or dry
conditions soil load test required?
2. Pad joint location meets design criteria? (FW Manual 7-2.05).
3. Bearing adequate at post/corbel interface? Steel plates required?
4. For multiple-corbel systems, spacing OK? (FW Manual 7-2.03C).
5. Bearing on timber piles not over 45 tons?
6. Additional considerations for timber pile bents:
(a) Driving tolerances reasonable?
(b) Required penetration realistic?
(c) Bracing meets design criteria?
(d) Horizontal deflection considered?
(e) P-delta deflection considered?
(f) Longitudinal stability adequately addressed?
G. Commercial Shoring Systems
1. Currently approved systems (as of 06/95).
(a) Pipe-frame systems:
 WACO.
 PATENT.
 Burke-Aluma.
(b) Intermediate strength systems:
 WACO.
(c) Heavy duty systems:
 PAFCO.
 WACO.
 WADC0.
 Hi-Cap.
2. Manufacturer's technical data furnished and reviewed?
3. Design loads comply with manufacturer's recommendations for all loading
conditions?
4. Shoring design in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations and
falsework manual design criteria? (See Chapter 6.)
5. Cable bracing, if used, connected to cap at top and to external support at
bottom? (If not so connected, manufacturer's statement of authorization is
required.)
6. Cable design load meets falsework manual criteria?
H. Longitudinal Stability (FW Manual 5-l.04).
C- 1–5
I. Overturning Stability (FW Manual 5-1.05).

J. Erection and Removal Plans (Refer to Attachment A and B.)
1. Falsework components stable during all stages of erection and removal?
2. If used, temporary bracing (including connections) meets minimum design
load criteria? (Wind load is minimum design load.)
3. For removal see "CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS".
K. Miscellaneous Considerations
1. Method of grade adjustment:
(a) Adequate jacking space?
(b) Sufficient bearing area on wedge surfaces?
(c) Sand jack integrity assured?
2. Use of friction to resist horizontal forces. (FW Manual 3-3.03; FW Memo
5 for C-clamps).
3. For falsework at hinges, load redistribution due to application of
prestressing forces. (FW Manual 3-3.04).
4. Proprietary products used in accordance with manufacturer’s
recommendations; manufacturer's technical data furnished and reviewed?
(Manufacturer's technical data is required for all proprietary products used
in the falsework, and for all cable installations.)
5. Lost deck falsework for ledger connection. (See FW Manual 4-2.03D & 9-
l.09.)
VI. ADDITIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AT TRAFFIC OPENINGS
A. Clearances
1. Check Horizontal (H) and Vertical (V) Clearances:
Traffic: FW Plans: H __________ V __________
Specials: H __________ V __________
Pedestrian: FW Plans: H__________ V __________
Specials: H __________ V __________
2. Openings conform to Special Provisions, “Maintaining Traffic” table?
3. Vertical clearance sign required? (For vertical clearance, consider beam
deflection and post settlement. Sign required for vertical clearance 15.5
feet or less.)1
4. K-rail length and clearance to falsework OK? (For minimum K-rail
clearance to falsework see FW Manual Figure 8-1 for anchored K-rail.)
B. Design Requirements for Posts Adjacent to Roadways
1. Minimum section modulus about each axis:
For steel posts Smin = 9.5 cu.in.
For timber posts Smin = 250 cu.in.
2. Post design load is greater of:
(a) 150 percent of normal post loading.
(b) Increased or readjusted loads caused by prestressing forces and/or
cable bracing or tie downs.
1
SS 2010, Section 7-1.04 or SS Amendments 7-1.09; Construction Manual, Section 3-705A (1)
C- 1–6
3. Bolts with 5/8" diameter or larger used at connections for both ends of
timber bracing; appropriate connections for cable bracing.
4. Mechanical connections to resist impact:
(a) 2000 lb capacity for post-to-sill-to-base connections effective in all
directions except toward the roadway.
(b) 1000 lb capacity for cap-to-post connection effective in any direction.
(c) 500 lb capacity for certain stringer-to-cap connections effective in all
directions including uplift. (Unlike railroad not all stringer to cap
connected at roadway (SS1).
C. Falsework Lighting (SS2)
1. Lighting Plan:
(a) Included with falsework drawing submittal?
(b) Separate submittal?
2. Portal lighting and white panels.
3. Roadway illumination. (Standard Specs. & Special Provisions)
4. Pedestrian walkway lighting, if applicable.
D. Pedestrian Openings (SS3)
1. Paved passageway or wooden walkway?
2. Handrail per Cal-OSHA requirements?
3. Overhead debris protection?
4. Lighting adequate?
VII. RAILROAD REQUIREMENTS (See Falsework Manual 2-1.06B)
A. General
1. Project specific railroad requirements (SP4).
2. Shop drawings for construction features affecting railways concurrence by
the Railroad Company involved prior to authorization by the Structure
Representative.
B. Clearances (See Special Provisions for minimum clearance requirements.
Planned clearances must be shown on falsework drawings.)
1. Check Horizontal (H) and Vertical (V) Clearances:
FW Plans: H ____________ V ____________
Specials: H ____________ V ____________
2. Vertical clearance measured from top of rail. (For minimum clearance,
consider beam deflection and settlement.)
3. Horizontal clearance measured from centerline of tracks.
4. Complete checklist. Download checklist from
http://onramp.dot.ca.gov/hq/oscnet/osc_tech_com/01-FW/BCE_FW.htm
C. Design Requirements for Posts Adjacent to Railroads
1. Minimum section modulus about each axis:
1
SS 2010, Section 48-2.01D(3)(d) or SS 2006, Section 51-1.06A(3).
2
3
4
SP 2010, Section 5 and 12 or SP 2006, Section 10 and 13.

C- 1–7
For steel posts Smin = 9.5 cu.in.

For timber posts Smin = 250 cu.in.
2. Post design load is greater of:
(a) 150 percent of normal post loading.
(b) Increased or readjusted loads caused by prestressing forces and/or
cable bracing or tie downs.
3. Diameter of 5/8" or larger bolts used at connections for both ends of timber
bracing; appropriate connections for cable bracing.
4. Mechanical connections to resist impact:
(a) 2000 lb-capacity for post-to-sill-to-base connections effective in all
directions except toward the railroad track.
(b) 1000 lb capacity for cap-to-post connection effective in any direction.
(c) 500 lb capacity for all stringer-to-cap connections effective in all
directions including uplift.
D. Bents Within 20 Feet of Track Centerline
1. Solid sheathing (5/8-inch plywood or l-inch nominal thickness lumber)
between 3 and 17 feet above track on track side of bent. Bracing designed
to resist the horizontal design load, but not less than 5000 pounds.
VIII. FALSEWORK DRAWING AUTHORIZATION
A. General
1. "Plan Authorization" stamp on each sheet, signed by structure
representative or by staff member who actually reviewed the design and is
a registered civil engineer.
2. Authorization letter signed by structure representative (FW Manual 2-
1.06A and BCM 3-6.01).
3. Plan distribution when railroad not involved:
(a) One set to contractor, with authorization letter.
(b) One set to Sacramento office, with copy of designer & checker
engineer's calculations. This could be substituted with “pdf” file
submission via email.
(c) One set retained in job files, with engineer's calculations.
(d) Remaining sets for field use.
B. Procedure When Railroad Company is Involved
1. Do not authorize drawings until notified by Sacramento OSC that drawings
are satisfactory to the railroad.
2. After review of drawings, send drawings, calculations and completed
checklist to Sacramento with a cover memo along with pdf files of all these
documents via email; memo to include the following information:
(a) Name of Railroad Company.
(b) County, route and post mile.
(c) Contract number.
(d) Bridge Name and Number.
1
Bridge Construction Memo (BCM) in the “Bridge Construction Records and Procedures Manual, Volume 1”.
C- 1–8
3. See “Procedure When Railroad Company Approval is Required” in FW

Manual, Chapter 2 for number of sets of drawings and other information
pertaining to falsework drawing authorization on railroad projects.
Railroad companies require “pdf” files along with hard copies.
IX. CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
A. Falsework Erection Plan (Refer to Attachment A)

Before falsework erection begins, review erection plan with State and contractor
personnel (FW Manual 9-1.02).
B. Pad Foundations
1. Foundation material adequate to support design soil pressure? Soil bearing
test needed? (Appendix B includes information on soil bearing values and
soil load testing.)
2. Splices in continuous pads located properly? If not, is pad redesign
required?
3. Pads protected from flooding and surface runoff?
C. Pile Foundations
1. Required pile bearing value obtained?
2. For pile bents, penetration and driving tolerances meet design assumptions?
If not, is redesign required?
D. Timber Construction
1. Timber quality OK for design stresses?
2. Connections conform to design details? Connectors properly installed?
3. Workmanship adequate? (FW Manual 9-l.04B).
E. Manufactured Assemblies
1. All commercial products and devices used and installed in accordance with
manufacturer's recommendations?
2. Contractor's certification furnished?
F. Metal Shoring Systems
1. Assembly meets industry standards? (FW Manual 9-l.07).
2. Contractor's certification furnished?
3. If components from different systems are intermixed, has contractor
furnished letters of approval from each manufacturer whose system is used?
(FW Manual 9-l.07).
G. Cable Bracing
1. Cable is same size and type shown on falsework drawings?
2. Connections conform to falsework drawing details?
3. Crosby clips properly installed and torqued?
4. For internal bracing systems, preload force applied? Preload force applied
twice for cables attached to timber members?
H. Traffic Openings
1. Clearance notification:
(a) Contractor to notify resident engineer no less than 18 days and no
more than 90 days. RE or SR to notify the District permits engineer
within 15 days of minimum vertical clearance before falsework
C- 1–9
erection begins. (See BCR&P Manual, Vol I, Section 2-11.0 and

BCR&P Manual, Vol II, Section 120-2.0.)
(b) Re-notify after erection if actual clearance is different.
(c) If clearance is less, halt operations and remove the stringers already set
until clearance issues are resolved.
2. White panel boards properly positioned?
3. Portal lighting inspected after dark?
I. Field Changes
1. All changes documented?
2. For substantial changes, revised drawings submitted for authorization?
(FW Manual 9-1.12)
J. Certification by Registered Engineer (FW Manual 9-l.13).
K. Inspection after Concrete Placement (FW Manual 9-l.15).
L. Falsework Removal (Refer to Attachment B.)
1. Falsework removal plan reviewed with State and contractor personnel?
(FW Manual 9-1.16).
2. Falsework components stable during all stages of removal?
3. Effect of temporary unbalanced and/or eccentric loads, effect of jacking
loads, and effect of crane set on the permanent structure all considered?
4. For removal using winches set on deck, winch load adequately distributed?
5. For stage construction, effect of removal sequence considered? (FW
Manual 3-3.05 & 9-1.16A).

C- 1–10
Attachment A
BASIC FALSEWORK ERECTION PLAN CHECK LIST

Note: this checklist is not intended to be an all-inclusive comprehensive list. It is a guideline
on which the Structure Representative can base a competent review. As always, there is no
replacement for good engineering judgment.
Items That Should Be Included In Falsework Erection Plans:
I. Information (for example) to be provided as part of the falsework erection sequence:

A. Falsework pad grading:
1. Verify soil capacity.
2. Provide for drainage.
B. Method of falsework bent construction:
1. Type of equipment used for erection.
2. Location of equipment used for erection.
3. Materials layout areas.
C. Sequence of falsework bent erection. For example the plan could state:
1. First erect and stabilize bents at columns and abutments.
2. Secure top and bottom of bents at column or abutment.
D. Install stability measures (internal and external bracing) as indicated on the
approved falsework plans before placing stringers:
1. Temporary and permanent stability measures are to be shown on the
authorized falsework plans.
E. Order of stringer erection. Are interior or exterior stringers placed first? Be
aware of stringers on the cantilever portions of bents.
F. Are sleeper and camber strip placed on the stringer prior to or after stringer
erection?
II. Notes (for example) stating:

A. Falsework bents are to be stable at all stages of erection. (Details of interim
stability measures are shown on the plans.)
B. All permanent stability measures shall be in place before erecting falsework
members above the stringers.
C. Secure stringers prior to soffit joist or panel placement.
D. Where bolts are required for permanent bracing, nails may be used as a temporary
measure.
III. Details of safety measures provided for workers rolling out soffit joists.
IV. Details of safety measures provided for soffit form or panel placement. (Including
measures for possible high winds.)

C- 1–11
Attachment A – BASIC FALSEWORK ERECTION PLAN CHECK LIST continued
V. Details of safety measures provided for exterior girder panel placement. (Including
measures for possible high winds.)
VI. Details of falsework grading procedure.
VII. Review SS1 for other requirements.
VIII. Special Locations (SS2).

A. Falsework over traffic.
1. Ensure that the plan adequately addresses time available for erection.
(Refer to lane closure charts in the contract Special Provisions.)
2. Ensure that permanent bracing is installed and falsework is stable prior to
allowing traffic to pass through falsework.
B. Falsework over railroad:
1. See Union Pacific Rail Road (UPRR) “Guidelines for Railroad Grade
Separation Projects” Dated 1/24/2007. Web link:
http://www.uprr.com/aboutup/operations/specs/attachments/grade_separation.pdf
2. Ensure that plan adequately addresses time available for erection (Refer to
railroad agreement.)
C. Falsework over traffic and railroads:
1. It is critical for the contractor to consider operational windows when
designing falsework over traffic and railroads. In these circumstances,
falsework must be engineered with the time available for erection and
removal in mind.
1
SS 2010. Section 48-2.03 or SS 2006, Section 51-1.06B.
2
SS 2010, Section 48-2.01D(3)(d) or SS 2006, Section 51.1.06A(3).

C- 1–12
Attachment B
BASIC FALSEWORK REMOVAL PLAN CHECK LIST

Note : this check list is not intended to be an all inclusive comprehensive list, but is a
guideline on which the structure representative can base a competent review. As always,
there is no replacement for good engineering judgment.
Items That Should Be Included In Falsework Removal Plans:
I. Sequence of falsework removal:

A. Order in which falsework spans, bents, stringers and formwork will be lowered
and removed.
II. Considerations for load redistribution due to pre-stressing:

A. How is the load redistribution determined?
B. What is the effect on individual falsework bents?
C. What are the effects on the removal sequence?
III. Method of falsework release:

A. Are sand jacks being used?
B. If sand jacks are not being used, how is falsework released from the structure?
C. How does falsework release affect longitudinal and transverse bracing?
D. How is falsework stability maintained?
IV. Notes stating:

A. Falsework will be stable during all phases of removal. (Specific stability
measures at all stages of removal should be outlined.)
V. Indicate (for example) on plan:

A. Equipment to be used.
B. Location of equipment during various stages of removal.
C. Sequence of stringer removal.
D. Lay down areas for materials removed.
E. How falsework stability is maintained throughout falsework removal process.
F. Competent person to be on site during falsework removal operations.
G. Number and function of people required onsite to safely remove falsework.
VI. If falsework is to be lowered using a winch system. The SS states: “Do not move or
temporarily suspend anything over a traffic lane open to the public unless the public is
protected.” (SS1).
1
SS 2010, Section 7-1.04 or Amendments to the SS 2006, Section 7-1.09.

C- 1–13
Attachment B
BASIC FALSEWORK REMOVAL PLAN CHECK LIST continued

A. Submittal should include details regarding:
1. Winch placement.
2. Winch capacity, loads and dead men required.
3. Winch cable connection to falsework.
4. Supplemental or redundant support system.
5. Patching details for holes through deck overhang.
B. Does contractor intend to leave falsework supported by winches over traffic?
C. How long does the contractor intend to leave falsework supported by winches?
VII. Special Locations: (Review SS1.)

A. Falsework over traffic:
1. Ensure that the plan adequately addresses time available for falsework
removal. (Review lane closure charts.)
2. If falsework is to be released by blowing out sand jacks, estimate and
report changes to impaired vertical clearances.
3. Provide contingency plans for falsework mishap.
B. Falsework over railroad:
1. See UPRR “Guidelines for Preparation of a Bridge Demolition and
Removal Plan for Structures Over Railroad” Dated 1/24/07. Web link:
http://www.uprr.com/reus/roadxing/industry/process/grade_separation.shtm
2. Ensure that the plan adequately addresses time available for falsework
removal. (Refer to railroad agreement.)
C. Falsework over traffic and railroads:
1. It is critical for the contractor to consider operational windows when
designing falsework over traffic and railroads. In these circumstances,
falsework must be engineered with the time available for erection and
removal in mind. Erection is normally easier than removal because the
new structure exists over falsework after concrete placement.
1
SS 2010, Section 48-2.01D(3)(d) or SS May 2006, Section 51-1.06A(3), Special Locations.

C- 1–14
A waste slab is a P.C.C. slab finished to a smooth surface which
is set to the soffit grade of a bridge superstructure. It is
cast on compacted material in a fill or in a cut and becomes the
bottom soffit form for the structure. On completion of the
structure the fill or cut material along with the slab is removed
to final cross section.
We will consider the use of these slabs to be a construction
method and not falsework as defined by the falsework manual. In
order to check the adaquacy of the slabs the Structure
Representative should require working drawings as outlined in
Section 5-l.02 of the Standard Specifications.
Some factors to be considered are:
1 . Type of material under the slab.
2 . Amount and depth of compaction.
3 . Load on slab.
4 . Thickness.
5 . Finish.
6 . Bond breaker.
7 . Settlement (subsidence with time if on fill).
FALSEWORK MEMO NO. 2 (7/01/88)

C-2-1
FALSEWORK OVER TRAFFIC
When contract language prohibits falsework erection and removal over

traffic, the following definitions of erection and removal are to be used:
Erection is defined to include the adjustment of falsework grades prior

to concrete placement when that falsework grading requires the adjustment
or removal of falsework components that contribute to the horizontal stability
of the falsework system. The adjustment of falsework grades over lanes that
are open to public traffic shall not be allowed unless all falsework
components that contribute to the horizontal stability of the falsework system
are complete in place prior to the commencement of the grading operation.
Removal is defined to include the lowering, releasing, or adjusting of

falsework after the concrete is placed. Removal includes lowering falsework,
blowing sand from sand jacks, turning screws on screw jacks, and removing
wedges.
FALSEWORK MEMO 3 (Rev. 09/01)
C-3-1
LOAD TESTING OF MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS
It will occasionally be necessary to field test falsework

devices, components or systems. In general, all field testing
should provide for a minimum safety factor of 2.5. Systems can
be tested to a predetermined value or to failure. The working
value of similar components or systems would then be 40% (l/2.5)
of the accepted test result.
Testing should provide for, as a minimum, the following criteria:
A . Cyclic loading using a minimum of 10 cycles.
B . Measurement for strain, stress or other values.
C . Increasing load incrementally and noting effects.
D . Other necessary features unique to the system tested.
Testing criteria and result evaluation should be discussed with
the falsework section of the Office of Structure Construction
prior to testing.
Following is an example of the testing criteria used for the
approval of C-clamps:
TESTING
Testing shall conform to the following criteria:
A . The system will be loaded to 2.5 times its design load
and cycled from zero to maximum load 10 times.
B . The maximum allowable slip between flange and angle
shall not exceed l/8" total.
C Clamp body is not to bear on flange or angle.
.
D . Measure strain in clamp when tightened, after test and

upon release.
E . Torque clamp to predetermined level and remeasure after
test.

C-4-1
FIELD TEST APPROVED C-CLAMP
The following describes non-commercial shop fabricated C-clamps
tested in accordance with the testing criteria described above:
The test was performed with two C-clamps holding an angle to
the bottom side of a WF section. The other leg of the angle
abutted a 12 x 12 timber. Significant C-clamp slip occurred
when the WF beam was loaded to 16,000 pounds. No
significant slip was observed for the 10 test loadings of up
to 15,000 pounds applied to the end of the WF section. Test
loadings were performed with a hydraulic jack equipped with
a gage. See Figure 1 for loading configuration.
Based on the test results the above described C-clamp may be used
to resist horizontal forces up to 3,000 pounds per clamp when
these clamps are torqued to 90 foot-pounds. The 3,OO0 pound
value per clamp equals the 15,000 pound test load divided by a
2.5 safety factor divided by 2 clamps. Use will be restricted to
beams with non-sloping flanges.
In addition to the above, approved C-clamps may be used to resist
500 pound loads applied to falsework from any direction providing
the clamps are not installed on the tail end of stingers. Clamps
used in this capacity shall be installed on the supported side of
the beam or stringer which is to be the heaviest loaded.

C-4-2
TEST BED
1 OF 2 C-CLAMPS HOLDING ANGLE TO BOTTOM

FLANGE OF 14 WF BEAM (ONE EACH SIDE)
FIGURE 1

C-4-3
LONGITUDINAL FORCE RESISTANCE CONNECTORS
Simple non-commercial connection devices used to transmit

longitudinal forces along the length of falsework stringers have
been tested and approved for use.
Each connector consisted of 2 one-half inch thick steel plates
approximately 6" long by 2 1/4" wide bolted at one long end of
each plate. Connectors were installed on the top flanges of the
WF beams with lower plates butting beam webs, bolts butting beam
ends, with top plates parallel. with the interconnecting banding
atop the top flanges. The top plate had a rectangular recess
opposite the bolt end large enough to accommodate the banding.
The recess had a rounded edge to prevent damage to the banding.
The banding waslooped through the plate recesses of the
connectors with the tail ends conventionally connected with a
banding clip. Figure No. 1 shows the banding connector and
method of installation on the beams.
TEST RESULTS
Performance testing of steel plate connectors placed at ends of
wide flange steel beams as shown in Figure 1 indicated that the
connectors were stronger than single 1 l/4" wide by 0.035" thick
banding when the ends of the wide flange beams, placed parallel
and touching, were loaded longitudinally.
PERMITTED USE
Based on the above test results these connector devices will be
allowed a working force value of 5,000 pounds per connection when
used with a single 1 l/4 " wide X 0.035" thick band. This working
force value provides for a 2.5 factor of safety for the beam
connector components and a safety factor, based on manufacturers
strength values, of 2.18 for the single loop banding.
A safety factor of 2.18 will be acceptable for banding because
manufacturer's strength values are adjusted to the lower end of
the average value range.
Resisting load values for this type of connector may be 5,000
pounds per connection if the single shear value of the bolt
exceeds 5,000 pounds and the minimum banding capacity equals
5,450 pounds (single loop value = 5450(2)/2.18=5,000 pounds).
Banding capacity is to be the manufacturer's average strength
recommendation adjusted for a minimum 2.18 factor of safety.
The 5,000 pound working force value may be used when the angle
between center lines of banding and beam webs does not exceed
30°. For larger angles decrease the working force value by 1700
pounds for each l0° increment in excess of 30°.

C-6-1
FIGURE I

C-6-2
FALSEWORK OVER AND/OR ADJACENT TO UNION PACIFIC
RAILROAD COMPANY TRACKS
Railroad Guidelines
Until the Union Pacific Railroad Company (UPRR) issues new guidelines,
falsework design for contracts involving UPRR facilities shall be in accordance
with the Southern Pacific Lines (SPL) guidelines titled GUIDELINES FOR
DESIGN OF FALSEWORK FOR STRUCTURES OVER RAILROAD IN
CONNECTION WITH HIGHWAY GRADE SEPARATION CONSTRUCTION,
with the exceptions noted herein. Refer to Attachment No. 1 for a copy of this
guideline.
The contract special provisions will list the clearance requirements measured
from the centerline of the railroad tracks. If clearances are not included in your
contract documents, refer to UPRR Std. Dwg. 0035, “Barriers and Clearances to
be Provided at Highway, Street, and Pedestrian Overpasses” for minimum
construction clearance requirements. Refer to Attachment No. 2 for a copy of
this drawing. This drawing shows the latest UPRR clearance requirements and
will be incorporated into future contracts.
Where there is a conflict between the contract specifications and the

guidelines issued by the railroad, the contract specifications shall
prevail.
Railroad Requirements
It should be noted that the UPRR does not require the use of temporary
collision posts. If collision posts are required per the contract special provisions,
a contract change order may be prepared to eliminate them.
The UPRR has requested that drawings accompanying falsework plans be

submitted on 11"x17" (279.4 mm x 431.8 mm) sized paper. Future special
provisions will be revised to state this requirement. Until this request becomes
a specification requirement, you may request that the contractor submit the
three sets of falsework plans for railroad review on 11"x17" (279.4 mm x 431.8
mm) sized paper.
Some common requirements are often overlooked and have resulted in

submittals being returned by the railroad. The falsework plans should note
how the contractor will gain access to the site, particularly if they must cross
the railroad tracks. Track protection details are shown in the UPRR’s
GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF A BRIDGE DEMOLITION AND
REMOVAL PLAN FOR STRUCTURES OVER RAILROAD. Refer to Bridge
Construction Memo 124-3 for a copy of this guideline.
FALSEWORK MEMO 7 (09/99)
C-7-1
The falsework plans should note if there are any existing drainage ditches or
access roads being affected by the Contractor’s operations related to the
falsework system. If there are no existing drainage facilities or access roads,
the falsework drawings should note this fact. Keep in mind that personnel from
the railroad who are unfamiliar with the site often review the falsework plans.
The above railroad requirements should be discussed at the pre-construction

meeting with the Contractor. It should also be stated that approval of
falsework plans over and/or adjacent to UPRR tracks will be contingent upon
UPRR approving the plans.
Distribution of Falsework Plans
The Structure Representative will review the falsework plans, and if necessary,
return them to the Contractor for correction. Refer to Section 2-1.06B,
“Procedure when Railroad Company Approval is Required”, of the Falsework
Manual for further requirements.
After the Structure Representative reviews and is satisfied that the falsework
plans meet the specification requirements, he/she shall send the following items
to the Division of Structure Construction Headquarters (DSC HQ):
1. Letter of transmittal from the Structure Representative listing all

information submitted and stating the falsework plans and calculations
have been reviewed and that they are considered to be satisfactory.
2. Four copies of Contractor’s falsework plans (a minimum of three sets of
11”x17” drawings for the railroad is preferred)
3. Three copies of the Contractor’s calculations, tabbed to show key
elements affecting the falsework over and adjacent to the railroad
company’s tracks
4. Three copies of Structure Representative’s calculations, tabbed to show
key elements affecting the falsework over and adjacent to the railroad
company’s tracks
5. Three copies of manufacturer’s data relative to manufactured devices
Note: One copy of the above is for the DSC HQ office use, and the other
copies are forwarded to the railroad. In the event that railroad
personnel at the job site need copies of the above information, they
are to obtain them from their headquarters.
The Structure Representative should not stamp the falsework plans

'Approved' until DSC HQ has notified them=that the railroad has reviewed
and accepted the falsework plans.
C-7-2
In order to complete the falsework review within the contract time specified,
the Structure Representative should expedite their review and forward the
submittal to the DSC HQ (Attention: John Gillis) via overnight mail.
Railroad Review and Approval
Incomplete or unsatisfactory data will be returned to the Structure

Representative for correction. The DSC HQ will review this submittal
package. Upon confirming that the plans and calculations are complete and
satisfactory, the information will be forwarded to the railroad via overnight
mail for their review and acceptance.
Please note that all correspondence with the railroad regarding the status of
submittals under their review should be directed to John Gillis. At the railroad’s
request, in no case should you contact the railroad directly.
When the railroad completes their review and finds the plans to be acceptable,
they will advise the DSC HQ who will in turn advise the Structure
Representative that the railroad considers the falsework plans to be
satisfactory. The Structure Representative will then stamp the plans
‘Approved’ and send a letter to the Contractor stating that the plans have been
reviewed and approved. Assuming proper notification has been made to the
UPRR that their horizontal and vertical clearances will be impaired and that a
flagger is required, the Contractor may begin falsework construction. Note that
the Contractor must not begin falsework construction of any components of the
falsework system within the railroad right-of-way, including pads and piles,
until such time as the approval letter has been issued to the Contractor.
Attachments
C-7-3
Timber falsework posts may be spliced. The guidelines
contained herein shall be used to analyze properly located
post splices.
Splice plates shall be assumed to act in pairs, one on either
side of the post. Plates are required on all sides of the
post since horizontal loadings can act in any direction.
Minimum length of splice plates shall be 4 times the maximum
post width (48 inches for 12" x 12" posts) and the splice
plates shall be centered. The minimum thickness of splice
plates for 12" x 12" posts shall be 2 inch nominal lumber.
Splices shall only be located on posts between
upper and lower ends of the members making up-
an X-brace. Post splicing shall not be located
where it can be assumed that moment will be
induced into the post or splice plates, as at
upper and lower post ends beyond bracing
limits, or between pairs of X-braces, as
indicated by the * in the figure to the right.
Longitudinal bracing will often have a
different configuration than the transverse
bracing. Use the longest unbraced length.
The figure to the right assumes transverse
bracing with no longitudinal bracing, or with
longitudinal brace connections matching the
uppermost and lowermost transverse brace
connections. Post splices, for posts braced
both transversely and longitudinally, must be
located within the post length between points
of restraint (or brace connection locations) of
both transverse and longitudinal pairs of
X-brace connections.
Metal banding (strapping) offers no apparent structural
restraint and may not be used as a substitute for nails.
The following criteria is to be used for analyzing splices:
1 . Determine the post loading. The vertical post load
will be the sum of all dead (excluding post weight)
and live loads. If the post is to support falsework
FALSEWORK MEMO NO. 8 (Reissued 4/93)

C-8-1
over traffic the load used shall be the greater of
the following:
(1) 150 Percent of the design load, or
(2) The increased or readjusted loads caused
by the prestressing forces.
Determine the longest unsupported, or unbraced
length, of post between points of restraint
considering both transverse and longitudinal
directions.
Verify that the post is not overstressed for the
longest unbraced length condition.
Determine the smallest theoretical post which will
meet the design vertical load for the longest
unsupported length. This theoretical post will be
smaller than the actual post, but will still have to
meet the stress requirements outlined in 3 above.
Determine the section modulus required for the
splice plates based on the smallest theoretical post
size, but which are to be installed on the actual
post.
Apply a fictitious load equivalent to 0.75% of the
total vertical post load normal to the axis of the
post and splice plates for a splice hypothetically
located midway between the most widely spaced points
of restraint.
Evaluate horizontal shear using only the side
plates.
Determine the number of nails required. The number
of nails required is determined from the force
induced in the cover plates from the fictitious
loading. Verify a minimum of 11 diameters
penetration in the post or use reduced values for
lesser penetration. Load duration factors for
splice plates shall not exceed 1.0.
Physical testing at the Transportation Laboratory
has indicated that nail resistance equal to twice
the normal permitted value for lateral loading-may
be used for splice plate connections.
An example problem demonstrating the analysis of square post

splicing follows:

C-8-2
EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
This example problem consists of 2 parts, the purpose of which

is to demonstrate the analysis of two separate posts which are
to be spliced.
w
Posts: 12 x 12": Unsupported 12 feet transversely
and 20 feet longitudinally.
Splice located near mid-height of single X-braced
post.
Splice plates: 2" x l0" x 4'-0" each side of post
with 15 - 16d duplex nails in each half of the
splice.
Good workmanship with full bearing and with no
built in eccentricity is required.'
PART l. Post No. 1: Load = 55,000 Lbs. Post is
adjacent to, and supporting falsework over traffic.
PART 2. Post No. 2: Load = 92,500 Lbs. Post not
adjacent to, nor supporting falsework over traffic.
PART 1. Analysis of Post No. 1
1 . Determine load on post adjacent to traffic:
Load = 150%(55,000) = 82,500 Lbs
Determine section modulus of post and compare to

required:
2 . Longest distance between laterally restrained points

equals 20 feet in the longitudinal direction. Use
longest unbraced length = 20 feet.

C-8-3
3. Verify that the post is not overstressed for the longest
unbraced length.
Determine the allowable stress based on unbraced length:
480,000 480,000 = 1,200 < 1,600 psi
Determine stress in post due to vertical load:
82,500 Lbs = 573 < l,200 psi

144 In2
4. Determine the minimum post dimensions required by the

maximum post loading. The minimum post dimensions will
be those of a square post which is capable of carrying
the applied vertical load. This may be determined by
equating
f c= Fc
P = (55,000)(1.5) = 82,500 Lbs; L = (20) (12) = 240 inches
P = 480,000 where A = d2
A
5 . Compare minimum post section modulus to section modulus

developed by splice plates.
Minimum post section modulus (S):
Check against section modulus of planned splice plates.

Calculate splice plate section modulus for plates
installed on a full dimensional post.

C-8-4
Splice plate section modulus:
3
A section modulus of 250 in is the minimum post section
modulus required for a post adjacent to traffic. This
splice is not acceptable for use on a post adjacent to
traffic since the net section modulus of the splice
plates (195.7 in3) is less than the 250 in3 minimum wood
section modulus specified in Section 51-l.O6A(3), Special
Locations, of the Standard Specifications.
The proposed splice for Post No. 1 as submitted cannot be
used for the p&pose intended.
PART 2. Analysis of Post No.2

Post No. 2 will be analyzed for a load of 92,500 pounds. This
post is not adjacent to, nor is it supporting falsework over
traffic; therefore, no section modulus requirements are
specified for an unspliced post at this location. However,
the splice plates will need to develop the theoretical minimum
post section modulus.
1 . Post loading not adjacent to traffic condition = 92,500
LbS.
2 . Longest distance between lateral restraint points = 20
feet.
3 . Determine the allowable stress based on unbraced length:
Determine stress in-post due to vertical load:

C-8-5
4. Determine the minimum post dimensions required by the
maximum post loading. The minimum post dimensions will
be those of a square post which is capable of carrying
the applied vertical load. This may be determined by
equating
5 . Compare minimum post section modulus to section modulus

developed by splice plates.
Minimum post section modulus (S):
Check against section modulus of planned splice plates.

The section modulus of the splice plates is the3
same
as determined for the post in Part 1: l95.7 in >
180 in3. The section modulus of the splice is
satisfactory for this post loading at this location.
6 . Apply a fictitious lateral load (P') equivalent to 0.75%
of the post loading (P) normal to the post-axis at the
post splice location hypothetically centered between
restraint points).
Lateral load: P' = 0.75%(92,500) = 694 Lbs.

C-8-6
From the rotated post depicted in the previous figure,
the top and bottom splice plates will be referred to as
'cover plates', with the other two splice plates referred
to as 'side plates'.
3. Evaluate the side plates for shear. Only the side plates
are to be considered for shear resistance.
Horizontal Shear:
8 . Determine number of nails required.

The required number of nails in each half of a splice
plate is to be determined in the following manner:
a. Determine end reactions (V) of a beam equivalent to
the longest unrestrained length (L) loaded centrally
with a fictitious concentrated load (P') equal to
the applied lateral load. This assumes the splice
is located centrally between the largest spaced
points of lateral restraint (longest unbraced
length).
b. Determine the moment at the center of the splice.

M = V(L/2) = P'/2(L/2) = P'L/4
c. Determine length of a resisting moment couple arm of
forces (F) between the centers of thickness of the
cover plates. Arm = post width + 2(1/2)t of the
splice plates. For a 12" x 12" post with 2" cover
plates:
Arm= 12 + 2(1/2)1.5 Inches.
d. Determine F by dividing the moment determined in
part b above by the couple moment arm determined in
part c above.
F = (P'L/4)/Arm
e. Determine the lateral load resistance value of one
nail in a cover plate. This value may be doubled
for splice plate usage.

C-8-7
f. Number of nails required then equals the force (F)
divided by the value of one nail for lateral
loading.
No. of Nails = F/Nail Value (round up)
a. Reaction V = 694/2 = 347 Lbs.
b. Moment M = 694(20)/4 = 3,470 Ft-Lbs.
c. Arm = 12 + 2(1/2)1.5 = 13.5 Inches.
d. Force F = M/Arm = 3,470(12 In/Ft)/l3.5
= 3,084.4 Lbs.
e. NDS Nail value is doubled:
Desired penetration of 16d nail = 11d = 1.78 In.
Actual penetration of 16d = 3.125 - 1.5 = 1.625 In.
Nail value must be prorated.
Nail value for full 11d penetration = 108 Lbs.
Nail value for min. of 0.59 Inches = 36 Lbs.
Prorated nail value:
= 2[36 + (O.8697)(72)]
= 2(98.62)
= 197 Lbs/nail
f. Number of 16d nails required:
The proposed splice is not acceptable since the

number of 16d nails provided is less than the number
required.
For curious comparison, determine the number of 20d
nails that would have been required.
Desired penetration of 20d = 2.11 inches.

C-8-8
Actual penetration = 3.625 - 115 = 2.125" OK
Nail value for 20d nail = 139 Lbs.
The design splice plates will be satisfactory for the maximum

unbraced length, for the post loading, and for the location of
intended use with a total of either 16 or more 16d duplex
nails or 12 or more 2Od duplex nails per each half of each
splice plate.
It will be necessary to verify that splices will not be
located on unbraced portions of posts, as at upper and lower
post ends beyond bracing limits, or between pairs of X-braces
where moments might occur.

C-8-9
SHORT POURED-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES
TO RESIST UPLIFT AND LATERAL LOADS
INTRODUCTION
Occasionally it is necessary to determine the capacity of short

poured-in-place concrete piles used to resist uplift and
lateral loads. The following is a brief review of the
technical aspects and a procedure which can be used for
investigating rigid piles. This is not a comprehensive
coverage of the subject - there are soil complexities not
covered, and some caution should be used in its application if
primary loads of extended duration are to be supported.
The pile must have the structural capacity to resist tensile,
shear and bending stresses. Reinforcing steel should extend
the full length of these piles.
The Office of Geotechnical Engineering of the Division of New
Technology, Materials and Research in Sacramento has furnished
the Office of Structure Construction criteria for the analysis
of loadings on poured-in-place concrete piles. The analysis is
dependent on proper selection of soil type. It will be
important to determine whether the soil into which the pile is
constructed is principally cohesive or cohesionless.
Analytical results for pile uplift and lateral loading
represent ultimate resistance values.
Load resisting capacity is dependent upon the characteristics
of the soil into which the pile has been cast. Preliminary
assumptions may be made about soil properties at the time of
review of the working drawings. A final determination of the
pile's capacity should be made, however, when the pile hole is
excavated and the actual soil can be inspected. The type of
soil in the upper third of the hole, its degree of compaction
and whether ground water is (or may be), encountered are of
primary importance.
Pile loadings are considered in three separate categories;
Pile Uplift, Lateral Loads, and Resistance to Combined Uplift
and Lateral Loads - all with sample problems.
FALSEWORK MEMO NO. 9 (11/91)

C-9-1
PILE UPLIFT
Pile uplift, acting either vertically or at an angle is
resisted by soil-pile friction (shearing resistance) and the
physical weight of the pile.
The shearing resistance of the soil-pile interface is computed
differently for cohesive soils than it is for cohesionless
soils. The internal angle of friction of the soil is not
utilized for poured-in-place piles because in hard ground (high
friction angle) the drilling operation loosens the adjacent
soil, and in loose ground (low friction angle) the drilling
operation tends to compact the adjacent soil particles.
Ultimate pile resistance to uplift is determined by adding the
weight of the pile to the quantity of the appropriate unit
shearing resistance value multiplied by the surface area of the
pile. No additional provisions are made for irregularities
along the pile-soil interface.
where:
d = Pile diameter
z = Depth below ground surface
S = Unit shearing resistance on the soil-pile
interface, psf
Generally, working load values are to be limited to no more
than one-half the ultimate load values, which should provide a
minimum safety factor of 2.
Pages C-9-2 through C-9-3 illustrate pile uplift in
cohesionless type soils and pages C-9-4 through C-9-5
illustrate pile uplift in cohesive soils.
PILE UPLIFT IN-COHESIONLESS SOIL
For cohesionless soil, the soil-pile friction (shearing
resistance) may be computed using the following equation:

C-9-2
EXAMPLE PROBLEM, PILE UPLIFT IN COHESIONLESS SOIL
Determine the vertical load capacity of an 18 inch diameter
poured-in-place concrete pile 12 feet long embedded vertically
10 feet in the ground. The water table will rise about 4 feet
up from the pile tip at the anticipated time of load
application. Soil parameters are as follows:
Soil internal friction
angle = 30°
Unit weight of concrete
Unit weight of soil
Where:
AB = The pressure due to the weight of the soil.
BC = The pressure due to the weight of the
water.
= Length of the pile.
d = Pile diameter = 1.5 feet.
Solution:
Unit shearing resistance:
Net pile shearing resistance = (Pile surface area)S
= 17,671 Lbs
Ultimate load capacity = Net pile shearing resistance

+ Pile weight
= 17,671 + 3,075 = 20,746 Lbs

C-9-3
PILE UPLIFT IN COHESIVE SOIL
The soil-pile friction equations for cohesive soils differ

substantially for pile penetrations of less than 5 feet versus
piles over 5 feet in depth. The equations also depend on
whether the pile is greater or less than 18 inches in diameter.
Shearing resistance =
Where S =
S = Unit shearing resistance, but S 5,500 psf.
C = Soil cohesion (undrained shear strength).
z = Depth below ground surface in feet.
d = Diameter of the pile.
= An empirical unitless reduction factor derived
from load testing which accounts for clay
shrinkage and lateral pile loadings. This
variable depends on the depth of pile pene-
tration, having one value for a depth up to 5
feet, and another for penetration over 5 feet.
Reduction factor for pile diameters (d) greater than 18":
The reduction factor for the first 5 feet of

penetration is 0. The reduction factor remains constant
at = 0.55 for all depths greater that 5 feet. This may
be expressed in equation form as:
1. For short piles, 5' or less embedment:
2 . For pile lengths with 5' or more embedment:
Reduction factor for pile diameters (d) 18" or less:
The reduction for the top 5' of pile varies from 0 at

z = 0' to 0.55 at z = 5', then remains constant at 0.55
for all depths greater than 5'. For lengths of pile
between 0 and 5', prorate the reduction factor. This
concept may be expressed in equation form as:
1 . For short piles, 5' or less embedment:
= (O.055)z

C-9-4
2. For pile lengths with 5' or more embedment:
= (0.055)z
EXAMPLE PROBLEM. PILE UPLIFT IN COHESIVE SOIL

Determine the vertical load capacity of an 18 inch diameter
poured-in-place concrete pile 12 feet long embedded vertically
10 feet in-cohesive soil with an average undrained shear
strength value of 910 psf where the concrete unit weight is
145 pcf and the soil unit weight is 110 pcf.
Solution:
= 0.55(910) = 500 psf

Where:
AB = The pressure due to the weight of the soil.
= Length of the pile.
d = pile diameter = 1.5 feet.
Ultimate load capacity = Net pile shearing resistance

+ Pile weight
= 17,671 + 3,075 = 20,746 Lbs

C-9-5
Tests have shown that soil resistance to lateral pile loading
is greater than that predicted by Rankine equations. For clays
the ultimate passive resistance can be as large as 9 times the
shear strength (C), and for cohesionless soils the ultimate
resistance can be 3 times as large as computed Rankine values.
The soil resistance acting on isolated piles to a lateral force
applied at or near the ground surface may be somewhat depicted
as shown in Figure 1.
Convenient concepts and equations have been developed by Broms
for cohesive and cohesionless soils. If a few important soil
properties are known, or Can be determined, it is possible to
compute soil resisting values and pile moments resulting from
the application of lateral pile forces at or near the ground
surf ace.
Ultimate pile resistance to lateral loading may be determined
by failure of the soil along the total pile length in the case
of short piles, or by the yield moment of the pile itself for
longer piles. Short unrestrained piles are those piles
having a length to diameter ratio (L/d) of 20 or less providing
the yield moment (My) of the pile will be greater than the
maximum resisting moment furnished by the soil.
FIGURE 1
Embedment of piles should be a minimum of 4 times the pile

diameter to achieve sufficient soil resisting capacity. The
point of rotation of rigid short piles may be assumed to occur
between 0.70 to 0.75 times the embedded length; where the
larger value coincides with the largest lateral loadings.
Soil resisting values are determined by using the lateral
resisting value of up to 3 times the passive coefficient KP for
cohesionless soil and as much as 9 times the undrained shear
strength Cu of cohesive soils.

Piles may be considered to act individually provided the pile
spacing exceeds 4 pile diameters. When piles are spaced closer
than 2 pile diameters, the piles and the soil within the pile
group may be considered to act as a single unit.
As piles under load deflect they place the forward soil in a
passive condition. When a pile is in clay, a void will be left
behind the pulled pile until the clay crumbles or swells. When
a pile is in granular material, the soil will soon fill the
void behind the pulled pile. When a pile is unloaded, it will
generally not return to its original position; some of the
pulled deflection will remain. It can readily be seen that
unloading and reloading a pile greatly decreases the soils
moment capacity for that pile.
Generally, working load values are to be limited to no more
than one-half the ultimate load values, which should provide a
minimum safety factor of 2 assuming a one time loading of the
soil around the pile.
For each subsequent time a pile is to be loaded in the same
direction, an additional safety factor of 0.25 is to be added
to the previous value as defined by the following:
SF = 2 + (X-1)(0.25)
where:
SF = Safety factor
x = Number of uses in the same direction for
the same horizontal component.
LATERAL LOADING IN COHESIONLESS SOILS

Considerations used for piles in-cohesionless soil include
increasing the Rankine passive resistance by a factor of 3,
ignoring active pressures on the back side of the pile, and
assuming that soil along the total length of buried pile
provides resistance at the moment of loading.
Figure 2 depicts soil pressure diagrams for short and long
isolated piles in cohesionless soil. The passive resistance at
the toe of the short piles is replaced by a concentrated load
acting at the pile tip to simplify the moment equation. A
plastic hinge is assumed for long piles and the maximum bending
moment will be limited to the yield moment (MY) of the pile.
The maximum moment for short piles occurs at the location of
zero shear. For granularsoils this plane of zero shear is
located at a pile depth of e + fg below the plane of
application of the lateral load. The distance equals the
length from the ground surface to the plane of zero-shear.

C-9-7
FIGURE 2
Equating lateral forces gives:
The maximum moment occurs at a depth of e +
Based on failure of the soil.

If the moment is calculated to be greater than the pile
limiting yield moment MY a long pile is indicated and therefore
must be limited by using = MY.
Figure 3 contains curves developed by Broms which relate the
pile embedment length ratio L/d to the ultimate lateral soil
resistance for various e/L ratios. can be determined for
short piles by using Figure 3.
Figure 4 may be used for long piles. Broms' curves for values
of e/d relate the soil ultimate lateral resistance to the yield
moment of the pile. This figure is used when the pile
embedment length ratio L/d is greater than 20 and when the

C-9-8
FIGURE 3

C-9-9
yield moment of the pile is less than the ultimate lateral soil
resistance.
The maximum safe single use working load for free headed piles
in cohesionless soils may be taken as one-half of the ultimate
load values.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM, LATERAL LOADING IN COHESIONLESS SOIL
Design = 3,800 Lbs

H = 2,687 Lbs
V = 2,687 Lbs
Single use loading
Solution:
= 3.00 (for level ground surface)
L/d = 5.33 e/d = 1.33

From Figure 3:
H ULT
when e = 2'-0"
3
H ULT = = (3.0)(110)(1.5) (5) = 5,569 Lbs
Working Load Value for H = 5,569 = 2,784 > 2,687 Lbs

2

C-9-10
LATERAL LOADING IN COHESIVE SOILS
The ultimate soil resistance for piles in cohesive soils
increases to some maximum value at approximately 3 pile
diameters below the ground surface then remains fairly constant
at greater depth. Literature suggests using a soil
distribution of zero between ground surface and a depth of 1.5
times the pile diameter (1.5d) and then using a value of 9
times the undrained shear strength for the remainder of
the pile depth.
SHORT
PILE
LONG
PILE
FIGURE 5
Figure 5 depicts soil pressure diagrams for short and for long
piles in cohesive soils. Short piles have a limiting embedment
C-9-11
length ratio of L/d = 20. Piles having L/d ratios in excess of
20 are considered to be long piles. For long piles a plastic
hinge is assumed in the vicinity of the maximum moment. The
yield moment MY of long piles will generally limit the soil
resisting maximum moment so that should be used.
The maximum moment for short piles occurs at the location of
zero shear. For cohesive soils the plane of zero shear is
located at a pile depth of e + 1.5d + below the plane of
application of the horizontal force. The distance develops
from equating horizontal forces:
Based on failure of the soil.

If the moment is calculated, to be greater than the yield
moment MY of the pile, a long pile is indicated and must be
limited by using

C-9-12
Figure 6 contains curves developed by Broms for short piles
which relates the pile embedment depth ratio L/d to the
ultimate lateral soil resistance for various e/d ratios.
FIGURE 7
Figure 7 may be used for long piles. Curves developed by Broms

for e/d values relate the soils ultimate lateral resistance to
the yield moment of the pile. This figure is used when the
pile embedment length ratio L/d is greater than 20 and when the
yield moment of the pile is less than the moment due to the
ultimate lateral soil resistance.
The safe single use working load for free headed piles in
cohesive soil may be taken as one-half of the ultimate load
value.

C-9-13
EXAMPLE PROBLEM, LATERAL LOADING IN COHESIVE SOIL
Single use loading

Determine the allowable
loading for this pile:
Solution:
L/d = 5.33 e/a = 2/l.5 = 1.33
From Figure 6:

C-9-14
CONCRETE STRESSES
Concrete stresses in the pile may be computed by rigorous
analysis; or may be approximated by assuming an average
compressive condition over one-half of the pile width. The
maximum compressive stress is located on one face of the pile.
It should be assumed that the concrete will not take tensile
forces on the other half of the pile. Tensile forces will be
resisted by reinforcing steel.
For simplified compressive analysis use:
Where: d = Pile diameter.

= Moment of Inertia on the gross pile
section.
= Gross cross-sectional pile area.
V' = Tensile force (vertical force component)
less pile weight above plane of zero Shear.
Distance from pile top to the plane of zero
shear is defined as
The computed maximum compressive stress shall not be greater
than one-half of the concrete cylinder strength
anticipated at the time the pile is to be loaded.
The allowable shear in the pile (VU) normal to the pile
should not exceed 2 times the square root of
EXAMPLE PROBLEM, CONCRETE STRESS
Single use loading

Determine the concrete stress
for this pile:

C-9-15
Solution:
With forces acting through the center of the pile consider one-
half of pile in compression.
Use the simplified equation:
where V' = 6,188 minus the pile weight above the plane of zero
shear.
V' = 6,l88 - 1,717 = 4,471 Lbs
BAR REINFORCING STRESSES

Bar reinforcing steel stresses may be analyzed by rigorous
methods; or may be approximated by making several assumptions.
Ignore concrete stress and assume the pile moment is to be
resisted by the reinforcing steel. For symmetrical reinforcing
it can be assumed that the reinforcing takes compression as
well as tension. A simplified equation may be used to
determine the tensile reinforcingsteel stress.
Tensile stress =
Where: d3 = Distance between center of gravity of bars

either side of the pile neutral axis.
V' = Tensile force (vertical force component)

less weight of pile above plane of zero
shear, which is located a distance of
below the pile top.
Area of bars either side of the neutral
axis.
C-9-16
For 2 reinforcing bars, one either side of the pile center line
symmetrically placed, the simplified equations is:
The allowable stress in the reinforcing steel should not

exceed 0.70
EXAMPLE PROBLEM, BAR REINFORCING STRESS
Reinforcing = 2 - #8
grade 60 bars full
length installed 2"
clear placed
symmetrically along the
pile axis.
Single use loading
Determine the bar reinforcing
stress in this pile:
Solution:

C-9-17
RESISTANCE TO COMBINED UPLIFT AND HORIZONTAL LOAD
Pile load tests have confirmed that the uplift resistance of
piling is increased when the pile is also subjected to a
lateral loading. Therefore it is believed acceptable to simply
limit combined loadings so as not to exceed the permissible
(safety factors considered) and loadings.
FIGURE 8
Design load is limited to the smaller of either or
FIGURE 9

C-9-18
Tests have also demonstrated that when the top of the pile is
battered toward the load its lateral capacity is substantially
greater than when battered away from the load. H and V force
components for battered piles are derived in the same manner as
for plumb piles. The design load is then limited to the lesser
of the H or V load resolved to the slope at which the design
load will be acting. Piles battered toward and away from the
design loading are depicted in Figure 9.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM. COMBINED UPLIFT AND LATERAL LOAD
A plumb pile has these load capacities:
VULT = 15,800 Lbs H ULT = 11,900 Lbs
What single use Design load would the pile resist:
a) For a plumb pile?

b) For a pile that is battered 15º towards the load?
Solution:
The design loading of 13,741 pounds governs.

C-9-19
b) Battered pile
The forgoing equations may be used when the horizontal force H

is to be less than the computed ultimate lateral force
REFERENCES
Broms, B. B. (March 1964) Lateral Resistance of Piles in

Cohesive Soils, ASCE Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, Vol. 90, No. SM2.
Broms, B. B. (May 1964) Lateral Resistance of Piles in

Cohesionless Soils, ASCE Journal of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Division, Vol. 90, No. SM3.
Broms, B. B. (May 1965) Design of Laterally Loaded Piles, ASCE

Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, Vol. 91, No,
SM3.
FHWA (1983) Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design

Methods, Publication No. FHWA-HI-88-042, 564p.
Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E.H. (1980) Pile Foundation Analysis

and Design, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

C-9-20
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A contractor proposes to use an 18 inch diameter poured in-
place concrete pile as an anchorage for his falsework cable
bracing. Prior. to being used for bracing the falsework this
pile will be used as an anchorage for the column reinforcing
cage and form.
This anchor pile will be subjected to three short term loads in
the same direction.
Constant Parameters
8.0 < 20 (meets short pile criteria)

C-9-21
1. Clearance
Check distance from center of pile to center of bar.
= 2b = (2)(6.25) = 12.50 in
2. Load Components
= Design cos 35° = (8,OOO)(cos 35°) = 6,553 Lbs
= Design sin 35° = (8,00O)(sin 35°) = 4,589 Lbs
3. Safety Factor
SF = 2.0 + (x-1)(0.25) = 2.0 + (3-1)(0.25)
= 2.5 for lateral soil loading
4. Uplift Capacity Dependent Upon Soil Properties

S= where:
S = .41(1,195) = 490 psf < 4,000 psf 0.K.

Net pile shearing resistance =
= 27,709 Lbs
Pile weight =
Ultimate load capacity = 27,709 + 3,382 = 31,091 Lbs
Working load = 31,091 = 15,546 Lbs > 4,589 Lbs O.K.

2
This soil is capable of resisting the applied vertical load.

C-9-22
5. Lateral Capacity Dependent Upon Soil Properties
4d = (4) (1.5) = 6.0 < 12' (Meets minimum embedment length
requirements)
Use weighted average of effective soil densities to

account for variable soil layers.
The soil is capable of resisting the applied horizontal load.
6. Pile Adequacy

C-9-23
This pile is capable of resisting the applied loads. The pile
is satisfactory for use as designed by the contractor.

C-9-24
FALSEWORK WELDING
The following guidelines are applicable to projects advertised after December

3, 2001.
Occasionally and depending on material availability, it is necessary to weld

two steel members to produce a longer falsework member. The Falsework
Manual makes two references to welding (Section 9-1.05A- “ Welded Splices
in Falsework Beams”, and Section 9-1.08- “ Miscellaneous Field Welding”).
The importance of the welding inspection in conjunction with the public
safety warranted the update to the existing specifications.
The new falsework welding specifications require Contractors to include the

welding standard they intend to follow (e.g.: AWS D1.1, AWS D1.5, etc.) on
the falsework plans. It also distinguishes between on-site and off-site
welding:
On-site welding is any welding done at the project site for the purpose
of erecting the falsework and adjoining two falsework members. On-site
welding is further divided into minor or major welding.
Minor welding entails welding falsework members where the

stress demand is less than 1000 lbs. per inch for each 1/8” (175 N per
mm for each 3mm) of fillet weld. In such a case the method of
inspection need not be called out on the plans.
Major welding involves stress demand level above 1000 lbs. per
inch for each 1/8” (175 N for each 3mm) requirement for fillet weld or
other weld types utilized and must conform to AWS D1.1 or other
recognized welding standard. The falsework working drawings should
specify the welding standard to be utilized and the Contractor shall
follow the welding and inspection standards. Generally these would
include; procedure specification for qualifying the weld, certification
procedure for welders and inspection utilizing certified welding
inspector. Most specifications only require visual inspection for this
type of weld (e.g.: pipe columns, pile splices).
In addition to the major welding requirements above, the

specifications also require that for beams (stringers) welded on-site,
the Contractor shall perform nondestructive testing (NDT). At the
option of the Contractor, either ultrasonic testing (UT) or radiographic
testing (RT) shall be used as the method of NDT for each field weld
C-10-1
and any repair made to a previously welded splice in a steel beam.
Testing shall be performed at locations selected by the Contractor. The
length of a splice weld where NDT shall be performed shall be a
cumulative weld length equal to 25 percent of the original splice weld
length. The cover pass shall be grounded smooth at the locations to be
tested. The acceptance criteria shall conform to the requirements of
AWS D1.1, Section 6, for cyclically loaded non-tubular connections
subject to tensile stress. If repairs are required in a portion of the
weld, additional NDT shall be performed on the repaired sections. The
NDT method chosen shall be used for an entire splice evaluation
including any required repairs. This specification applies to beams
subjected to flexural stresses (stringers, cap and sill beams). For the
purpose of this memorandum, flexural and non-flexural members are
defined as following:
- Flexural falsework members can be identified as those

for which the applied loading results in a bending stress
(moment resisting members) that governs the design and where
shear/axial stresses are considered a secondary component of the
applied load (e.g.: stringers, caps, sill beams).
- Non-flexural falsework members can be identified as

those for which the applied loading results in a shear/axial
stress that governs the design and where the bending stress is a
secondary component of the applied load (e.g.: pipe columns, pile
splices).
Off-site falsework member welding is defined as any previous

weld/splice that is made prior to the member being shipped to the site. In
such cases the Contractor shall perform any necessary testing and inspection
required to certify the ability of the falsework members to sustain the
stresses imposed by the falsework design. This effort shall be at the
discretion of the Contractor and their falsework design engineer of record.
In all cases above, the specifications require that the contractor shall certify
in writing the ability of the falsework to carry the loads imposed on it, shall
be signed by a Civil Engineer licensed in the State of California, and shall
be provided to the Engineer before any concrete is placed.
C-10-2
FALSEWORK TOWER STABILITY
Falsework towers with discontinuous legs require additional

analysis to ensure stability (see Chapter 5) in the various
stages of loading. The stages of loading are when the tower is
unloaded, when loaded with falsework stringers, and during
various loaded conditions involving concrete placement.
In addition to resisting collapse, the tower must be able to
resist overturning and sliding at each plane that the tower is
discontinuous.
It is essential to remember that loaded towers generally will be
more than adequately capable of resisting overturning moments.
However, unloaded towers, both during erection and during removal
sequences are the most vulnerable to overturning. Removal of
portions of tower units while other portions are still loaded can
lead to very unstable conditions.
The best way to illustrate proper methodology is with an example
problem. In the following example assume that the bracing and
other falsework features are adequate. It is important to
consider the effects of concrete pour sequences, that is, what
will happen with concrete weight in one long span but not in the
other long span. The purpose of the example problem is solely to
demonstrate stability analysis. Refer to Figure on
Sheet C-12-2.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Shear Resistance
The shear at the elevation of the plane B discontinuity will
govern since frictional resistance increases with the weight of
additional material below that elevation.
Check shear resistance at plane B. The active horizontal
load of 1,050 pounds will be resisted by the frictional
capacity of 2 tower legs.
Single post weight= 40(35) = 1,400 Lb
Single cap weight = 10(35) = 350 Lb
Resistance = 0.3[6,700 + 7,000 + 2(1,400) + 2(1/2) (350)]
= 5,055 > 1,050 Lb

C-12-1
FIGURE 1

C-12-2
Overturning Resistance
Check overturning resistance at plane B, C, and D by taking
moments about the heavier loaded post.
At Plane B:
= 41(H) = 41(1,050) = 43,050 Ft-Lbs.
= 8(6,700) = 53,600
8(1,400) = 11,200
8(350/2) = 1,400
66,200 Ft-Lbs.
Safety Factor = 66,200/43,050 = 1.54
At Plane C:
= 44(1,050) = 46,200 Ft-Lbs.
= Previous = 66,200 Ft-Lbs.
2 (350) (4) = 2,800
(l/2)(350)(8) = 1,400
(l/2)(350)(6) = 1,050
(1/2)(350)(4) = 700
(1/2) (350) (2) = 350
72,500 Ft-Lbs.
Safety Factor = 72,500/46,200 = 1.57
At Plane D:
= 84(1,050) = 88,200 Ft-Lbs.
= Previous = 72,500 Ft-Lbs.
8(1,400) = 11,200
83,700 Ft-Lbs.
Safety Factor = 83,700/88,200 = 0.95 < 1.00
External bracing will be required to prevent
overturning!

C-12-3
ALUMA FRAME SHORING SYSTEMS
Aluma Frame Shoring System (Aluma-Systems aluminum shoring) is

approved for use up to a maximum height of 9 tiers. This
system will be initially furnished by the Burke Company, a
subsidiary of Aluma-Systems, on a rental basis.
This approval is based on the results of load tests for 22
foot maximum height towers, and on three dimensional computer
modeling for higher tower configurations. Testing was
performed on a plumb 3 tier high tower with various jack-head
and extension-staff extensions. The results from the computer
modeling were correlated to this test loading. The company's
weaker braces were used in the test loading and for the
computer modeling, but were not a factor in tower failure;
tower failure was always by leg buckling. Leg buckling was
found to be the most critical near the bottoms of the towers;
therefore, jack extensions at the bottoms of towers should be
kept to a minimum. As might be expected, maximum leg loadings
decrease with increasing tower heights, principally because of
constraints involving horizontal stability.
Falsework plans for Aluma-Systems aluminum shoring should
include engineering data supplied from the manufacturer. Such
data should include, as a minimum, two sheets approximately
24" x 36" numbered CALBR-01 AND CALBR-02, along with thirty
8 1/2" x 11" sheets dated DEC 92, titled "CALIFORNIA BRIDGE
SHORING", numbered 1 of 30 through 30 of 30.
Tower leg load charts and other plan information apply
specifically to 3 different tower height configurations: 1 to
3 tiers high, 4 to 6 tiers high, and 7 to 9 tiers high. The
charts relate leg loadings to curves representing horizontal
loadings for towers not adjacent to traffic. The Caltrans
controlling horizontal load, along with a safety factor of 2.5
for the tower leg loadings is included in the load charts.
For tower heights of less than 22 feet wind loadings do not
control. Curves are included in the charts, for towers over
three tiers high, which permit higher leg loadings if certain
specific horizontal load restraints are furnished in the form
of external bracing. External bracing in the direction of the
cross bracing will always be required for towers over 6 tiers
high.
The term H(s) is used in the charts to represent that portion
of horizontal loads greater than the Caltrans controlling
(wind or 2% of the dead load) horizontal load that may be
applied to the towers above the soffit elevation. For
Caltrans usage H(s) will normally be zero since the
controlling wind or 2% of the dead loading is included in the
curve plots.

C-13-1
A one-tier high tower consists of 2 end frames separated by
pin end connection cross bracing on each. side of the frames.
End frames are composed of extruded aluminum legs and fixed
end connection type bracing. Cross braces may be Waco Shore-X
of 1 inch round steel tubes which provide frame spacings of 4,
6, 8, and 10 feet; or Hi-Load cross braces of 1 l/4" x 1 l/4"
steel angles which provide frame spacings of 4, 5, 7, and 10
f e e t .
Extension staffs are 3'- 10" long straight aluminum members

which fit into tower legs and are held in place vertically
with pins placed through holes in the legs and the extension
staff. Extension staffs may be installed in tower legs at
either the top or bottom of towers. Extension staffs, when
used, constitute a tier in a tower makeup-
PERMITTED USE
Aluma-Systems aluminum falsework shoring towers may be used

for all locations not adjacent to traffic provided the
limitations for live load eccentricity, tower height, length
of jack extensions (18 inches maximum) and extension staffs
(25 inches maximum), maximum permitted leg loadings, and leg
load ratios are not exceeded. External bracing may be
required at the tops of towers more than 3 tiers high.
Jack extensions, to be used within the parameters shown on the

various graphs, are measured between the end of the post or
extension staff and the nearest side of the jack plate, as
shown on sheet 5 of 30. Direct interpolation may be used
between the 12" and 18" maximum jack extensions shown on the
graphs.
All cross bracing within a tower composition shall have the

same dimension between connecting holes so that all legs of
the tow&s can be erected plumb.
Single tower legs may be bar-braced to tower end frames as

depicted on plan sheet 11 of 30 provided additional bracing is
installed in accordance with the included instructions.
Towers Up to 3 Tiers High
For towers up to 3 tiers high, falsework plan sheets 5 of 30

and 6 of 30 relate safe working load per tower leg to the
amount of jack extension.
Sheet 5 of 30 pertains to tower heights of 20 feet or less

when extension staffs are not used, and jack extensions do not
exceed l8 inches. When the shoring towers are to resist
horizontal loads, the maximum leg loadings are 11.7 and 15.6

C-13-2
Kips for maximum jack extensions of 18 and 12 inches
respectively. Slightly higher leg loads may be used if
horizontal loads will not be transferred to the towers.
Sheet 6 of 30 pertains to tower heights of 22 feet or less
where extension staffs may be used at both tops and bottoms of
the towers. When the shoring towers are to resist the
horizontal loads the maximum leg loadings are 7.5 Kips and
12.4 Kips for jack plus extension staff extending 43 inches
and 25 inches maximum respectively. Slightly higher leg
loadings may be used if horizontal loads will not be
transferred to the towers.
Towers up to 9 Tiers High

When towers are to be erected more than 3 tiers high they are
to be braced with diagonal and horizontal tube bracing into
"Super Tower" configurations as depicted on sheet CALBR-02. A
"Super Tower" is a group of towers arranged in a quadrilateral
configuration with horizontal tubes installed so that they
connect all towers at the tops of every third tier, and with
diagonal tubes at the corner towers connecting every third
tier in a zigzag pattern. When towers are to be spaced closer
than 6 feet, and the tower height is to be more than 3 tiers,
two adjacent towers must be laced together to form corner
tower units. The tube bracing may be either steel or aluminum
with properties as shown on sheet 26 of 30.
For towers up to 9 tiers high, falsework plan sheets 7 of 30
through 10 of 30 delineate permissible leg loads for towers in
a "Super Tower" configuration. The graphs on these pages
relate maximum leg loads of P(max) to leg load ratios of
P(min)/P(max). The minimum to-maximum leg load ratios are
important when considering the sequence and direction of
placing concrete. In bridge work, for example, one or two
tower legs can be heavily loaded during concrete placement
while remaining legs support only the formwork and
reinforcing.
Falsework plan sheets 7 of 30 and 8 of 30 pertain to towers up
to 6 tiers high. External bracing will be required when leg
loadings will exceed the loads provided for in the lowest
curve (labeled "unrestrained") of the charts. This external
bracing will need to resist specified horizontal loads, in
addition to limiting lateral deflections at the tops of the
towers to the amounts shown on the graphs.
The graphs on sheets 9 of 30 and 10 of 30 pertain to towers up
to 9 tiers high. External bracing will be required for all
leg loadings for tower heights exceeding 6 tiers. This
external bracing will need to resist specified horizontal

C-13-3
loads, in addition to limiting lateral deflections at the tops
of the towers to the amounts shown in the graphs.
An additional refinement for towers heights between 4 to 9
tiers is that external bracing will be required to limit
lateral deflections at the tops of the towers to the amounts
shown in the graphs.
Extension staffs are allowed at the tops of towers only for
tower heights greater than 3 tiers. Extension staffs are
considered to constitute a tier even though the maximum
permitted extension is limited to 25 inches.
General
Elastic shortening of the aluminum posts must be included in
net settlement considerations. The modulus of elasticity for
the extruded aluminum alloy composition of the tower legs is
approximately 10.2 x l06 psi.
Wind loadings on towers may be computed as outlined in Section
3-1.05A of the Falsework Manual. The shape factor for Aluma-
System shoring shall be assumed as 2.2; which is the same as
for heavy-duty shoring. The value to use for the projected
area as defined in Figure 3-l of the falsework manual for two
legs per face is 1.50 square feet per foot of tower height.
The maximum load on one leg of a tower, or on one end frame
section of a tower, should not exceed four times the load on
the opposite leg or frame under any given sequence of loading
conditions.
The foundation design should be scrutinized to ensure that the
vertical loads are uniformly distributed and differential
settlements are minimized.
Additional or connecting members such as legs, external
bracing, and aluminum stringers were not included in physical
load testing or in computer modeling. Additional strap
connected legs, if shown on the plans, may not be considered
for use in the loading analysis.
Section 51-l.O6A(3), of the Standard Specifications permit
only steel or wood posts adjacent to traffic openings,
therefore Aluma-Systems aluminum shoring may not be used at
these locations.
Aluma-Systems shoring will often be rental units with the
tower falsework designed by the rental company's engineer who
will then be responsible for compliance with the requirements
of Section 1717 in the Cal/OSHA Construction Safety Orders.

C-13-4
Aluma-Systems aluminum shoring components will generally be
identifiable by paste on stickers or by alpha-numeric stamped
impressions.
A list of current distribution centers for Aluma-Systems
Shoring is included below:
ENGINEERING AND DISTRIBUTION CENTERS OF THE BURKE COMPANY
Livermore, CA 94550
5340 Brisa Court l
(714) 556 3900
Fountain Valley. CA 92708
11140 Talbert Ave.
(714) 556 4510
Sacramento, CA 95815
1730 Lathrop Way
(916) 920 4343
DISTRIBUTION CENTERS ONLY OF THE BURKE COMPANY
Fresno, CA 93711
313 West Falbrook Ave.
(209) 276 2415
Milpitas, CA 95035
1550 Gladding Court
(408) 262 9100
Montebello, CA 90640
1625 West Washington Blvd.
(213) 724 6690
Oakland, CA 94607
310 Union Street
(415) 465 3900
San Diego, CA 92102
4937 Market Street
(619) 297 0357
Santa Rosa, CA 95407
3401 Standish Ave.
(707) 585 3900

C-13-5
WACO 25 KIP TOWERS
THE PROBLEM - WITH WACO 25 KIP SHORING:
In November, 1992 during placement of concrete for stems and

soffit of a box girder bridge a single 25 kip capacity WACO tower
appeared on the verge of collapse and had to be augmented with a
secondary tower and auxiliary posts. The compressive bracing in
the long direction bowed or buckled about the time that concrete
was being placed up to mid-height for the stems. The end frames
of the 25 kip towers were aligned under the structure stems,
while the long tower direction matched the structure stem spacing
of 8'-0".
The 25 kip WACO tower units are supposed to have a safety factor
of 2.5 at rated load. The end frames have a pair of horizontal
structural tube struts in the upper 2 feet, and circular tube X-
brace in the lower 4 feet, with all end connections welded to the
structural tube legs. Studs welded to the inside upper and lower
portions of the legs serve as connectors for the round tube cross
bracing (also X type bracing) which is erected in the alternate
direction to make up a square or rectangular tower. The cross
bracing for the 25 kip towers look very similar to much lower
capacity (11 kip) towers or to conventional painters scaffold
bracing. In the cross bracing direction there is no horizontal
top member to distribute transverse loading to compression and
tension members.
Site investigation showed that the bottom of some of the towers
in the long (8' -0") direction measured about 7'-11", 6 foot
higher at the top of the lower tower unit the horizontal
measurement was about 8'-l", and the top of the next tower unit
measured less than 8'-0". These measurements were all supposed
to measure very close to 8'-0", but more importantly the
measurements were all supposed to be the same to insure plumb
tower legs. It was noted that the top jack plates were fixed to
the top cap with clamps, and that irregularities in leg alignment
extended through the extension frames and into the upper jacks.
WACO 25 kip towers can normally be erected as described above
because of the extremely loose tolerance at the leg to leg
connections, because of loose connections at the cross brace
midpoints and at the end connections, because of uneven
foundations, because of bent or worn components and because of
poor workmanship.
The site investigation also demonstrated that there is a large
amount of looseness or tolerance in the leg to leg connections
made with coupling pins, for the leg extensions, and for the jack
connections. The jacks come in two configurations, either with
swivel or with fixed plate connections. It was noted that fixed
head jacks were used at the tops of the towers.

C-14-1
A WACO representative who visited the job site commented on the
falsework in the following manner:
End frames must be plumb, and uniform spacing between end

frame legs as falsework erection progresses upward must be
maintained by measuring or by use of gage blocks. The leg
coupling pins furnished some moment capacity which probably
prevented total collapse of the distorted tower.
Copies of photographs that follow depict potential alignment

problems with WACO 25 kip towers,
Typical tower configuration. Note bowed bracing.
Offset tower legs

C-14-2
Bent or bowed X and cross bracing.

Tower leg misalignment
THE SOLUTION - FOR WACO 25 KIP SHORING:

WACO towers have previously been tested and approved for use at a
rated capacity of 25 kips maximum per leg with a safety factor of
2.5. Testing was performed with undamaged tower units erected
properly.
If proper care is exercised in erecting WACO 25 kip towers in
conformance with proper guidelines, circumstances similar to
those pictured previously should not occur.
Guidelines for proper erection of WACO towers are outlined in the
WACO publication titled "ERECTION INFORMATION FOR SHORE "X"
TOWERS"; in Chapter 6 of the falsework manual under the heading
of, "Intermediate strength shoring"; and in accordance with the
instructions set forth in Chapter 9 of the falsework manual, with
particular attention being given to the section titled "Steel"
Shoring".

C-14-4
When falsework plans are received which include "WACO-SHORE 'X'
25 K" vertical shoring be sure to receive all pertinent
information about the tower components, including the cross
bracing sizes according to the WACO numbering system. If not
furnished, request from the contractor the publication titled
"ERECTION INFORMATION FOR SHORE "X" TOWERS".
When reviewing the falsework keep in mind that the tower capacity
is reduced to 20 kips if swivel head jacks are to be used, that
the jack extension is limited to 14 inches, that extension frames
are to be braced, that leg loadings are not to have greater than
4 to 1 ratios, that additional bracing is required for tower
heights greater than three frames, and that system stability must
be considered. WACO 25 kip towers are not designed to resist
lateral loadings, so alternate support will be required for wind
and for 2% of the dead load or greater lateral loadings. When
tower height is to be greater than 5 frames plus an extension a
written statement that the shoring will carry the design loads
will be required from the shoring manufacturer before the
drawings are approved.
As soon as practical after WACO materials are received on the job
review the components to ascertain that they conform to the
falsework drawings and that they are undamaged.
When WACO tower falsework erection starts, become involved to
confirm that the end frames and extensions are erected plumb,
that cross bracing is the proper type and is in good condition,
that tower legs are erected symmetrically without offsets at the
connector locations, and that the entire assembly conforms to the
intent of the falsework drawings and to WACO recommendations.
If there is some question as to whether components are truly WACO
parts, require in writing, a statement from a WACO representative
that all parts are as represented, and that the system is
appropriate for the intended use.
Keep an eye on the falsework, not only when the towers are being
loaded, but periodically thereafter because of possible eccentric
loadings which can develop due to differential settlement between
tower legs or between adjacent towers. Those legs which settle
the least will be picking up additional load from the tower legs
which settle more.
Attached are three sheets from WACO literature. The first two
sheets (numbered -3- and -4-) describe tower parts and the last
sheet lists some of the Steel Frame Shoring Safety Rules.

C-14-5
SCREW
ADJUSTMENTS 4" TO 28"
EXTENSION 1'- 0" TO 5'-0"

1 TIER
2 TIERS
3 TIERS 25,000 lbs./leg
4 TIERS
5 TIERS
6 TIERS CONSULT WACO ENGINEERING
2.5:1 safety factor (average)
ALLOWABLE WORKING LOADS
1.) For towers over 37'-4” high consult with Waco Engineering
Department.
-0" to 2' -O"
2.) Extensions: 1) 1' require side crossbraces only.
2) 3’-0”, 4'-0" and 5'-0" require side
crossbraces and end cross braces on the face
of the extension frame.
3.) Cross Braces:l) For frame spacing of 2'-7-3/4" to 7'-0",
Series #0244-XX, 20XX-00, 21XX-00, or 25XX-00
may be used.
2) For frame spacing over 7'-0" to 10'-0" in-
clusive, Series 25XX-00 braces must be used.
3) When 12'-0", 13'-0" or 15'-0" crossbraces are
used in a tower, consult with the Waco
Engineering Department.
4.) Adjustments: Screw adjustment is the sum total of the top

and bottom screw adjustment.
5.) Bracing: For Stability during erection, 2" X 6"

minimum bracing with #2570-02 nailing plates
located at every third (3rd) frame up the
tower, is recommended for towers over 3
frames high. Additional lateral bracing may
be required due to wind, etc., and should be
considered on a job to job basis.

C-14-6
C-14-7
C-14-8
PILE COLLARS
A field test was performed to determine working load
capacities of a pile collar. The pile collar depicted below,
which emulates testing and proposed usage, was made up of two
individual components consisting of a friction collar and a
yoke assembly. The yoke assembly and the friction collar were
interconnected by two 1 l/4 inch threaded coil rods. The
friction collar was fabricated by the Gayle Manufacturing
Company
The friction collar consisted of specially manufactured

brackets welded to 5" x 5" x 3/8" structural tubes, The
brackets were placed on opposite sides of a pile and were
connected by threaded coil rods of 1 l/4 inch diameter which
ran through the structural tubes near their ends. The
threaded rods were torqued to 1,000 Ft-Lbs to provide the
desired frictional resistance.
Additional support for the friction collar was provided by a
yoke assembly mounted atop the pile. The yoke assembly
consisted of double steel bars which were supported on steel
bars and which carry a 1 l/4" threaded rod on either side of

C-15-1
the pile such that the threaded rods extend through the
structural tubes of the friction collar.
The test was performed with a pair of calibrated jacks to
evaluate the pile collar capacity, up to desired non-
destructive loadings, for the following conditions:
a. friction collar alone.
b . friction collar in combination with the yoke
assembly.
C. to determine the amount of pile collar slip with
load only on one side of the pile collar.
The specific method used for evaluating the pile collar and
the observations made under the various loading conditions
during the testing were as follows:
a. The test load was applied simultaneously with the
jacks to both sides of the friction collar to twice
the desired working load. Approximately 1/8 inch of
friction collar slippage occurred during this
loading condition.
b. While the load in the jacks was maintained, the rods
connecting the yoke assembly to the friction collar
were tightened to a snug fit. The loads in both
jacks were again simultaneously increased to twice
the desired final working load capacity. A maximum
additional l/8 inch slip of the friction collar
occurred.
c. To ascertain the amount of differential slip for
application of load on one side of the friction
collar only the load from one jack was completely
removed. No significant movement of the friction
collar was noticed as the load was being removed.
The total slip of the pile collar components under full test
loading was no more than l/4 inch, and no discernable slip
differential was noticed when load was removed from one side
of the test pile while the maximum test load was held on the
opposite side. Throughout the testing procedure no pile
damage was noticed at the location of the friction collar due
to slip.
PERMITTED USE:
The purpose of the pile collar is to permit erection of
falsework on the friction collars before the piles for flat
slab bridges are cut to grade. The falsework will normally be
set on sand jacks which will be mounted atop the friction

C-15-2
collar brackets. Once the piles are cut to grade the yoke
assemblies may be installed atop the pile.
The yoke assemblies furnish additional support to the friction
collar for carrying the reinforcing and concrete load of the
superstructure and will limit the total amount of friction
collar slip.
The Office of Structure Design has determined that the working
load values tabulated below will not overstress the Caltrans
standard 15" octagonal concrete piles provided the unsupported
length of piling will be no longer than 18 feet.
Working loads, including an appropriate safety factor of 2,
are indicated in the following table:
The threaded rods of the friction collar are to be torqued to

1,000 Ft-Lbs and are to remain torqued tight until the
supported falsework is removed. All threaded rods must have a
minimum safety factor of 2 for the intended maximum loads to
be used.
The steel yoke bars should be no smaller than 3/4" x 3 l/2".
The yoke assembly should be supported on the piling in such a
manner that it will not interfere with the bar reinforcing of
the pile, slab, or cap and will not over-stress the concrete
in the piles. The distance between the top of pile and the
yoke bars should provide satisfactory clearance above the
bottom mat and cap reinforcing. No revision to the structural
reinforcing should be made to accommodate support bars or
other yoke components. Distortion to the pile reinforcing
spiral to accommodate the yoke components should be kept to a
minimum. The vertical threaded rods shall have a minimum
safety factor of 2 for the intended maximum loads to be
supported.
The support bars for the yoke are to be located a minimum of 3
inches from the edges of the concrete piles, and are to be
supported on smooth undamaged pile tops, or alternately on dry
pack or similar hard concrete surfacing. This requirement is
essential to keep local compressive stresses on the top of the
piling as low as possible.
It should be anticipated that friction collar slip will be
slight after the load transfers to the yoke assembly.

C-15-3
To facilitate removal of the falsework, sand jacks will
generally be installed atop the friction collars. Grease may
be placed on that portion of the threaded rod to be embedded
in the concrete.
The threaded rods shall be removed as part of the falsework
removal and the remaining holes in the structure shall be
finished in the usual manner. Also, any damage to the piling
may be corrected in the usual concrete finishing manner.
Friction collar assemblies will be manufactured by the Gayle
Manufacturing Company. A certification of manufacture
including working load values should be obtained through the
contractor in the usual manner.
The pile collars may be identified by the CCM stenciled on the
friction collars.

C-15-4
100K Hi-Cap BRIDGE SHORING
Hi-Cap Shoring System (Aluma-Systems 100K Hi-Cap Bridge

Shoring) is approved for use up to a height of 100 feet. This
approval is based on the results of a three dimensional
computer analysis. This system will initially be furnished by
the Burke Company, a subsidiary of Aluma-Systems, on a rental
basis.
Falsework plans for 100K Hi-Cap Bridge Shoring should include
engineering data supplied from the manufacturer. Such data
should include, as a minimum, 1 sheet approximately 24" x 36"
numbered CALBR-03, along with thirty-three 8 l/2" x 11" sheets
dated March 93, titled "100 K Hi-Cap BRIDGE SHORING", numbered
1 of 33 through 33 of 33.
Charts on sheets 4 of 33, 5 of 33 and 6 of 33 are to be used
to determine safe leg loads and allowable horizontal
deflection at the tops of the towers. The maximum leg loads
derived from the charts include consideration for leg load
ratios, tower height, jackscrew extension length, external
bracing, and limiting top of tower deflection. The Caltrans
controlling horizontal load on the tower assembly, along with
a safety factor of 2.5 for the tower leg loadings is included
in the load charts. Controlling assumed horizontal loads
transmitted to falsework components above the jack will need
to be additionally considered. The charts are for tower
heights up to 100 feet including jackscrew extensions for
frame spacings of 6, 8, and 10 feet and up to 60 feet for
frame spacings of 4 feet.
The chart on sheet 4 of 33 show curves which relate "Maximum
Tower Leg Capacity" to "Tower Height" for four different
levels of bracing. For each of the bracing levels a
horizontal force will need to be resisted by external bracing.
The horizontal force H required to be restrained is
represented by the equation H = H(s) + xxxx pounds, where H(s)
equals the applied horizontal force above the top of the jack
screws and xxxx is in increments of 2,000 pounds for the four
levels of bracing.
The horizontal bracing force will normally be accounted for
with cables attached to the falsework system above the top of
the tower jacks. Applicable vertical load components of the
cable bracing must be included in the leg loadings.
The chart on sheet 5 of 33 contains "Capacity Reduction
Factors" for towers having unequal leg loads. The chart
depicts two curves which relate the "Capacity Reduction
Factor" to the leg load ratio of "P(min)/P(max)" dependent
upon the amount of jack extension to be used. The leg load

C-16-1
values derived from the "Maximum Design Leg Load" chart on
sheet 4 of 33 are to be multiplied by the appropriate
"Capacity Reduction Factor" as interpolated from the curves on
sheet 5 of 33.
Plan sheet 6 of 33 contains a graph relating the "Horizontal
Bracing Force" to the total allowable "Horizontal Deflection"
at the top of the tower for various height configurations and
bracing levels of the towers. It is possible to use this
graph to determine the horizontal bracing force needed for a
specified tower height and a given horizontal deflection at
the top of the tower (the horizontal tower deflection might
represent cable stretch for example).
Plan sheets 8 of 33 through 16 of 33 include example problems
regarding tower stability. The example problems follow the
format of example problems 8 and 9 currently in Section D of
the Falsework Manual.
The remainder of the plan sheets include diagrams and section
property descriptions of the various tower components.
End frame and cross bracing configuration is in the pattern of
a "Z" atop a reversed "Z". This bracing pattern should
distinguish Hi-Cap shoring towers from other previously
approved heavy duty towers.
Temporary bracing may be connected to the towers at the
locations of the coupling pins for erection stability only.
Temporary bracing shall not impart loads to the towers at the
time the legs are loaded. Design bracing for the loaded
condition used to furnish the horizontal bracing force must be
connected above the tops of the upper jack screws. Temporary
bracing should be adequately slackened at the time that the
loaded condition bracing is installed.
Tower foundations will have to be designed level and provide
for uniform settlement under all legs of a tower.
100 K Hi-Cap Bridge Shoring towers may be used adjacent to
traffic since the section modulus of a tower leg is 10.1
inches cubed which exceeds the minimum section modulus
provisions in Section 51-l.O6A(3), Special Locations, of the
Standard Specifications. The Falsework Manual provisions
included in Section 6-1.09, Heavy Duty Shoring Systems, apply
to 100 K Hi-Cap Bridge Shoring except as otherwise provided
for herein.
A list of current engineering and distribution centers for
Aluma-Systems is included in Falsework Memo No. 13 "Aluma-
Frame Shoring Systems".

C-16-2
CONCRETE PADS
Appropriately designed portable concrete slabs may be used as

falsework pads.
One portable concrete slab, 6 feet by 4 feet by 5 l/2 inches in

depth, reinforced with a bottom mat of welded wire mesh, as
depicted below has been reviewed as a substitution for timber
pads.

C-17-1
Design and analysis were completed using text-book load factor
design for concrete. The concrete pads meet the criteria of wood
pads as outlined in Section 7-2.03B, "Pad Analysis at Exterior
Posts", of the falsework manual.
PERMITTED USE
Concrete pads which are fabricated as indicated above may be used
in lieu of timber pads for falsework. Concrete strength shall
not be less than f'c = 3,500 psi.
The reinforcing welded wire mesh is to be grade 60. The concrete
pad is to be fabricated with the reinforcing mat 1 l/2" clear
above the base of the pad and with the 9" spacing placed in the
long direction of the pad.
The location of the corbels on the concrete pads is critical
because of flexural considerations. Two corbels per concrete pad
shall be located only as shown in the drawing on the previous
page. Corbels shall be long enough to extend the full width of
the concrete pads.
Design soil bearing pressure for these portable concrete pads is
not to exceed 4,000 psf.
A certificate of compliance from the pad fabricator should be
obtained for concrete pads to be used on the project. The
certificate of compliance should contain the following
information:
1 . It should certify that the concrete meets the
compressive strength requirements.
2 . It should certify that the steel mesh is of the type
and quality specified.
3 . It should certify that the pad is fabricated as
indicated in the sketch.
4 . It should bear the seal of the design engineer.
5 . It should indicate how the individual pads may be
identified.

C-17-2
MEMO C - 18 AUGUST 2013
Memo C-18: Pre-Authorized Wood Sand Jack

and Proof Testing Guidelines
When wood sand jacks are used, the contractor has the following two options:
1. Construct and use the pre-authorized wood sand jacks detailed here (proof testing by the
contractor is not required).
2. Construct, test, and use sand jacks that deviate from the pre-authorized wood sand jack
(proof testing by the contractor is required) and provide testing data with their falsework
shop drawings.
This memo provides proof testing guidelines for the second option, and details for both options.
Background
Wood sand jacks have been used without testing for a considerable length of time and have
become increasingly larger, both in area and height. Contractors installed these onto substandard
supports (e.g., rounded corbels), which caused sand jack bases to separate, resulting in sand loss
and unexpected settlement. Wood materials have ranged from good solid lumber, with plywood
bases, to attempts at using particle board bases. This necessitated the need for determining the
protocol for sand jack use and testing.
The University of California, San Diego, conducted research using several configurations of sand
jacks. A pre-authorized sand jack detail was developed with the protocols that were required for
testing of other sand jacks.
Test Methods and Results

Wood sand jacks with two steel bands were loaded vertically by a steel plate attached to a
hydraulic jack. A 3-inch thick piece of hardwood was used as a spacer to prevent the loading
plate from loading the sides of the sand jack. The spacer replicated the hardwood wedges, and
the steel plate at the bottom of the sand jack replicated the corbel typically used in the field for
the sand jack to sit atop.
Figure C-18-1: Pre-Authorized Wood Sand Figure C-18-2: Pre-Authorized Wood Sand
Jack without Plastic Liner. Jack with Plastic Liner.
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL MEMO C-18 - 1

The capacity data was compiled for the two band wood sand jack with the following details:
1. Sides are 2″ x 6″ members.
2. Three 16d common nails at each corner joint.
3. Base is 1/2″ plywood.
4. Maximum spacing for the base nails is 7″.
5. Base nails are a minimum of 6d.
6. Plywood plunger is 1/2″ plywood.
7. Two single crimp 3/4″x 20 gage steel bands with 2000 lb yield strength.
8. Filler material is #30 sand, level with the top of the 2″ x 6″ side members.
9. No plastic liner is used.
The pre-authorized sample in Figure C-18-1 did not use a plastic liner, and Figure C-18-2 did use
a plastic liner. Test results indicated that the plastic liner had no noticeable influence on the
capacity or stiffness of the wood sand jacks.
The most common failure progressed as follows:

 First, the wood sand jack dilated. The sides bent outward and the corners began to
separate. Often this was accompanied with sand leaking from the corners.
 Second, the nails attaching the plywood base to the side members tore out, resulting in
the sand flowing through the joint along the bottom of the side members. Once the side
members were no longer connected to the base, the lateral load was solely supported by
the steel bands. Failure was consistently defined by slipping of the crimp connection of
the lower band. At this point when the band connection failed, there was a sudden
decrease in load carrying capacity of the wood sand jack, but not a total loss.
 Lastly, the compressed sand in the middle third of the box continued to support the load.
After significant increase in displacement, the load carrying capacity would begin to
increase. The residual strength of the sand jack, after losing the banding, was not
investigated.
Figure C-18-3 depicts the load vs. displacement for the four configurations of sand jacks tested.
Two bands Sand Jack:
P = 137.5 kips at 1″ displacement
Displacement (in)
Figure C-18-3: Closer Look at Zero, One, Two, and Three Bands

Pre-Authorized Wood Sand Jack

The wood sand jack (Figure C-18-1) constructed with two steel bands around 2″ x 6″ side
members nailed to a 1/2″ plywood base with 6d nails per side evenly spaced, filled with #30 sand
and a 5/8″ Ext. BB plywood plunger bearing on it, has been tested and is authorized for use.
Pre-Authorized Wood Sand Jack Details

The wood sand jack with two steel bands as depicted in Figure C-18-4 has been reviewed and is
authorized for use in falsework construction and removal. Additional proof testing by the
contractor is not required. This wood sand jack can be used to withstand the following maximum
allowable vertical load applied directly on the plunger:
No. of Bands Allowable Load (Notes 1,2,3,4,5, 6, 8 Anticipated Settlement

& 9) (KIPS) (of wood sand jack only)
2 (Minimum) 68 ½″
Plywood Plunger –
¼″ Gap 5/8″ Min. Exterior B-B Plywood
(Typical) 1’- 6” (Partial view shown for clarity).
A Side Member – 2X6 DF-L, #2 or better.

Filler Material (sand) – Dry and pre-packed
with 30 Mesh Silica Blast Sand.
1’ – 0” Corner Connection –
16d Common Nail, 3 per corner (Typical).
Corbel/ support, See note 7.
A
PLAN
1’- 0” ¾″ X20 GA. Steel Band (Yield Strength

= 2000 lbs) With Minimum Single
EQ. Crimp (Typical).
EQ.
½″ CDX Plywood with 6d Nails 2 per
EQ. side, evenly spaced (typical).
Corbel/ support, See note 7.
SECTION - AA
Figure C-18-4: Pre-Authorized Wood Sand Jack with Two Steel Bands

Notes for Figure C-18-4

1. No load increase may be taken for the use of additional band crimps.
2. Materials listed are minimum grade. Higher quality materials may be substituted.
Materials should maintain their strength in wet conditions.
3. Reuse of sand jack is not allowed.
4. Plywood plunger resting on filler materials (sand) must have full bearing and must clear
all side members by a maximum of 1/4″. Wood wedges used for falsework adjustment
must have full bearing on plywood plunger and must be clear of side members of the
sand jack.
5. Filler material (sand) should be level with top of 2″ x 6″.
6. Filler sand of wood sand jack must be fully supported.
7. Nails shall not be overdriven.
Use of the pre-authorized wood sand jack does not relieve the contractor from the responsibility
to ensure that high quality material and workmanship is used to achieve the design load in field
and the anticipated falsework settlement.
Proof Testing
Wood sand jacks designed by the contractor that deviate from the pre-authorized wood sand
jacks must be proof tested using the following guidelines. These guidelines may also be used for
sand jacks using steel or other suitable materials. Test criteria, evaluation and conclusion must be
discussed with the Structure Construction Falsework Specialist prior to proof testing. The testing
guidelines are as follows:
1. Compressive testing of the sand jack will be performed at an independent qualified
testing laboratory with the following:
 Proper facilities, including a compressive testing frame capable of applying the
largest compressive force anticipated.
 Written procedures for performing the compressive testing.
 Operators who have received formal training for performing the compressive testing.
 Annual calibration record of the compressive testing equipment performed by an
independent third party with:
a. Standards that is traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
b. A formal reporting procedure that includes published test forms.
2. A minimum of three identical specimens must be tested for each wood sand jack
proposed. Result = sum of three resultant tests divided by 6.
3. Test will measure the applied load and the vertical displacement of the plunger.
4. Each result must be twice the design load with less than 1″ vertical displacement of the
plunger.
5. The proposed wood sand jack must be able to maintain the design load with less than
1/16″ increase of vertical displacement over 20 minutes. This load hold must be applied
to all three specimens.
6. During load testing each load increment must be held for 1 minute prior to taking the
displacement reading.
7. Contractor must include a statement certifying that:

 All components of the tested wood sand jack duplicates field use of the proposed
wood sand jack used in the falsework:
a. Material type & size.
b. Nailing pattern and or connection details.
c. Banding and crimping.
d. Plunger thickness and size.
e. Filler material.
f. Bearing area under sand jack.
 For timber corbels, no crushing of the corbel shall be evident at the specified
loading.
8. Test results must be certified and stamped by an engineer who is registered as a Civil
Engineer in the State of California.
9. Contractor must notify Caltrans one week prior to performing proof testing.
10. Caltrans personnel must witness proof testing.
11. Proof test results for each proposed wood sand jack must be submitted with the falsework
drawings every time it is specified on the drawings.

State of California Business, Transportation and Housing Agency
Memorandum
To: ALL HOLDERS OF THE FALSEWORK MANUAL Date: May 2, 1994
Subject: PIPE FRAME SHORING
Pipe Frame Shoring as furnished by Patent Construction

Systems has been reviewed for general use by the Falsework
Section in Sacramento.
Effective May 2, 1994 the product Patent Shoring as
furnished by Patent Construction Systems may be used in the
manner prescribed as outlined in Sections 6-l.01,
"Introduction", through Section 6-1.03, "Investigate Foundation
Supports" of the Falsework Manual. All are reminded that the
previously approved pipe frame shoring was the Superior Shoring
System.
Office of Structure Construction

C-20
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE LUMBER
Introduction
In recent years the increasing cost of timber and timber products
has led to the development of various substitute materials. One
such product is structural composite lumber, which is marketed
commercially as an engineered wood product intended for use as a
structural building material. Structural composite lumber (SCL)
has been used for general building purposes, including limited
use in falsework construction. The use of SCL as a falsework
material is expected to increase in future years.
This memo sets forth Division of Structures policy with respect
to the use of SCL as a falsework material on California highway
construction projects.
General Information
Structural composite lumber is a natural wood product in which
the harvested logs are debarked and either peeled or stranded.
The resulting veneers or strands are then coated with adhesives
and compressed to permanently bond the wood fibers. The finished
product is a stronger, straighter and more homogeneous material
than conventional lumber.
A recently issued ASTM specification (ASTM Designation: D 5456-93)
covers test specimen qualification procedures, testing methods
and procedures, evaluation of test results, and assignment of
design values. The ASTM specification covers composite lumber
products which meet the following definitions:
Structural composite lumber (SCL) is either laminated veneer
lumber, laminated strand lumber or parallel strand lumber
intended for structural use.
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is a composite of wood veneer
sheet elements with wood fibers primarily oriented along the
length of the member. Veneer thickness shall not exceed
0.25 inches.
Laminated strand lumber (LSL) is a composite of wood strand
elements having a least dimension of approximately l/32 inch
and a length of approximately 6 to 12 inches. The wood
fibers in each strand are oriented primarily along the
length of the member.
Parallel strand lumber (PSL) is a composite of wood strand
elements with wood fibers primarily oriented along the
length of the member. The least dimension of the strands
shall not exceed 0.25 inches and the average length shall be
a minimum of 150 times the least dimension.
C-21-1
Typically, NDS dimension lumber sizes (2x4's, 4x4's, 2x6's, etc.)

are manufactured from LVL composites, while PSL composites are
used for the NDS timber sizes (5" x 5" and larger).
Allowable working stress values are obtained from strength tests
on material specimens. Since SCL is a more uniform product than
natural wood, the ASTM adjustment factors from which allowable
working stresses are derived are considerably lower than the
corresponding factors for wood. These lower adjustment factors
result in higher design working stress values than are allowed
for even the best grades of lumber.
Design stress values are a function of grade and wood species,
and in some cases the depth and orientation of the member as
well. The grade (quality) of a particular lot of material is
determined by the modulus of elasticity. (Higher modulus values
generally correlate with higher allowable design values.)
The ASTM specification covers procedures for evaluating specific
material properties and for determining design values, including
bending strength and stiffness, tensile strength parallel to the
grain, compressive strength parallel and perpendicular to the
grain, and horizontal and vertical shear, along with procedures
for maintaining quality assurance in manufacturing. However, the
specification expressly excludes determination of design values
for connections.
Administration
Structural composite lumber is not covered by Section 51-1.06 of
the Standard Specifications. However, the use of SCL will be
permitted for falsework construction, as provided herein.
Structural composite lumber may be used for horizontal members;
for vertical members except as noted in the following paragraph;
for framing that supports sloping girders, deck overhangs and
similar locations where dimension lumber would customarily be
used; and for miscellaneous purposes such as cribbing, blocking
and wedging.
Structural composite lumber may not be used as a post or column,
or as diagonal bracing, in timber bents or towers.
Any intended use of structural composite lumber shall be indicated
by a note on the falsework drawings. The note shall clearly
identify the SCL members by grade (E value), species and type
(e.g., 2.0E DF Trade Name LVL, or similar notation).
C-21-2
Falsework drawings showing the use of SCL shall be accompanied by

a technical bulletin, product data sheet, or similar publication
issued by the manufacturer of the product. The technical data
shown shall include tabulated working stress values for normal
load duration and dry service conditions.
The falsework design shall be based on working stress values that
are no higher than the manufacturer's tabulated working stress
values. The tabulated values shall be adjusted as recommended by
the manufacturer for member size or orientation; however, the
tabulated values shall not be decreased for wet service condi-
tions nor increased for short load duration.
When used as a horizontal load-carrying member, the calculated
deflection due to the weight of concrete shall not exceed l/240
of the span.
Each piece of structural composite lumber shall be marked for
identification. Identification markings shall show the wood
species, material grade, manufacturer's name or identifying
symbol, and date of manufacture or lot number.
The contractor shall furnish a certificate of compliance pursuant
to the provisions in Section 6-1.07, Certificate of Compliance,
of the Standard Specifications for each delivery of structural
composite lumber to the work site. The certificate shall be
signed by the supplier who furnishes the material. In the case
of used material, the certificate shall be signed by the supplier
from whom the contractor originally purchased the material. In
either case, the certificate shall reference the contract number
and shall identify the covered material by manufacturer and date
of manufacture or lot number, or some other positive means of
identification. In addition, the certificate shall state that:
· Qualification sampling and testing, test evaluation and
assignment of design working stress values, independent
inspection and quality assurance for the covered materials
comply in all respects with ASTM Designation: D 5456.
. The covered materials are manufactured in a plant and by a
process approved by (Insert
one of the following: National Evaluation Service, Inc.;
Building Officials and Code Administrators International;
ICBO Evaluation Service, Inc.; or Southern Building Code
Congress International, Inc.)
Except as otherwise provided in this memo, all specification
requirements and all Falsework Manual policy and procedures
governing the use of timber falsework members shall apply to the
use of structural composite lumber.
C-21-3
Index to Appendix D - Example Problems
Date
Problem Issued Subject
Capacity of Bolted Joints
Capacity of Bolted Joints
Adequacy of Diagonal Bracing: Single
Tier Framed Bent - Nailed Connections
4 Adequacy of Diagonal Bracing; Single
Tier Framed Bent - Bolted Connections
5 Adequacy of Diagonal Bracing: Multi-
Tiered Framed Bent
6 Adequacy of Diagonal Bracing: Multi-
Tiered Framed Bents
7 Wind Loads on Conventional Falsework
8 Wind Loads on Heavy-Duty Falsework,
and Horizontal 2% Dead Load
9 Cable Bracing to Resist Horizontal
Design Load
10 Horizontal Forces in the Longitudinal
Direction
11 Individual Falsework Pads
A 05/92 Symmetrical Loading
B 09/92 Asymmetrical Loading
12 05/92 Continuous Pad - Individual Corbels
13 05/92 Continuous Pad - Multiple Corbels
14 Adequacy of Timber Pile Bent Design
A 05/92 (Type I Bent)
B 05/92 (Type II Bent)
C 05/92 (Type III Bent)
15 Failure of Pile to Attain Required
Penetration
A 05/92 Type I Bent
B 05/92 Type II Bent
16 06/95 Bi-Axial Bending
17 08/95 Internal Cable Bracing
D-I-1 Revised l0/95

D-2-1
I
D - 8 - 2
D-9-2
D-10-4
H
D-10-5
D-11-1 Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
D - 1 1 - 4 Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
D - 1 2 - 3 Revised 05/92
D - 1 2 - 4 Revised 05/92
D - 1 2 - 5 Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
D - 1 3 - 3 Revised 05/ 92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
D - 1 3 - 6 Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
D - 1 4 - 1
Revised 05/92
1.
2.
3.
4.
Revised 05/92
D - 1 4 - 5 Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
3.
4.
1.
Revised 05/92
D - 1 4 - 9 Revised 05/92
D - 1 4 - 1 0 Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
D - 1 4 - 1 3 Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
Revised 05/92
FALSEWORK BEAM CANTED 2% OR LESS
a) Check bending using Load A:
18,368 psi < 22,000 psi allowable
b) Check deflection about the 3-3 axis, using Load B:

FALSEWORK BEAM CANTED MORE THAN 2%
Assume lateral bracing is adequate so that Fb = 22,000 psi

maximum of the Standard Specifications is not exceeded.
a) Check bending:
= 21,927 psi < 22,000 psi allowable
b) Check deflections:
Check y and x deflections versus L/240 using Load B:
Load in the y-direction = l000(cos(90-84.29)) = 995.04 Lb/FT
Load in the x-direction = l000(sin(90-84.29)) = 99.49 Lb/FT

Check versus max allowable of 1.5 inches using Load C:
Load in the x-direction = 649(sin(90-84.29)) = 64.57 Lb/FT
Load in the y-direction = 649(cos(90-84.29)) = 645.78 Lb/FT
Lateral deviation = BC.

CD = AD[tan(90° - = 0.12 In.
BC = BD - CD
= 0.31 - 0.12 = 0.19 < 1.5 In.
FIGURE 2

FIGURE 1
FALSEWORK BENT NOT ADJACENT TO TRAFFIC

Given
Posts = 12" Steel sections with wall thickness of 1/4"
Left Post height = 25 feet
Cap slope = + 4% to the right
Sill slope = + 2% to the right
Cap and Sill = W14 x 53
Preload Cables 1 to 1,000 Lbs and Cables 2 to 1,083 Lbs
Cables: One per side, all new l/2" wire rope
D-17-1 08/95
Section Properties
4
Cap: I = 541 In , Weight = 53 Lbs/LF
Posts: A = 9.23 S = 26.56 In3, r = 4.16 In
Cable Data from Manufacturer:
Cables are IWRC 6 x 19
Breaking strength = 11.50 Tons 2
Metallic area of cable = 0.118 In
Cable weight = 0.46 Lbs/Ft
Modulus of elasticity
6
= 13.5 x l06 psi
(12.2 x l0 psi up to 20% of ultimate load
Constructional stretch = 0.5%
Safety factor = 3
Efficiency of cable and connectors:
Equivalent thimble diameter efficiency = 95%
Cable clip efficiency (Table 4-1) = 80% USE
Dimensional Analysis
Use geometry to compute post heights, cable angles and cable
lengths.
Post Heights: A = 25.00'
B = 25.21'
C = 25.42'
D = 25.63'
Vertical components of cables from horizontal bases:
Cable Unit 1: 25.00 - ((3)(10.5) + 3)(0.02) - 6(0.04) = 24.07'
Cable Unit 2: 25.00 + ((3)(10.5) + 5)(0.04) - 2(0.02) = 26.42'
Angles shown in Figure 1:
24.07/40.50 = 30.72°
26.42/34,50 = 37.44°
Cable Lengths (assuming no drape):
Cable Unit 1: 40.50/cos 30.72° = 47.11'
Cable Unit 2: 34.50/cos 37.44° = 43.45'
Design Horizontal Load
Assume the 2% loading controls.
Total dead load of the structure (from Table 1) = 292 Kips
2% of total dead load = (292,000)(0.02) = 5,840 Lbs.
D-17-2 05/95
Cable Capacity
The cable capacity is determined for static loading conditions by
using the breaking (ultimate) strength divided by an appropriate
factor of safety, in this case 3 as recommended by the manufac-
turer.
Working capacity = (11.5 Tons)(2,000 Lbs/Ton)

3
= 7,667 Lbs
Working load = (80%)(7,667) = 6,134 with Crosby clips

Capacity of cable unit (2 cables) = 2(6,134) = 12,268 Lbs
Effects of Cable Stretch

1. Verify Cable Pre-Load Forces
Cables 1 designated preload = 1,000 Lbs each.
The preload in Cable Unit 2 must be such that the horizontal
component of Cable Unit 2 balances that of Cable Unit 1.
Preload the individual cables of Cable Unit 2 to:
Preload = 1,000
= 1,000 cos 30.72°/cos 37.44°
= 1,083 Lbs 1,080 Lbs each
2. Cable Design Load

Cable loads due to design horizontal load:
Cable 1 = (5,840/cos 30.72°)/2 = 3,397 < 6,134 Lbs
Cable 2 = (5,840/cos 37.44°)/2 = 3,678 < 6,134 Lbs
Vertical Component of Cable Loading
Cable Unit 1 = (5,84O)(tan 30.72°) = 3,470 Lbs
Cable Unit 2 = (5,840)(tan 37.44°) = 4,471 Lbs
3. Cable Stretch
The cable will experience two 'stretchs conditions', elastic
stretch and constructional stretch.
D-17-3 08/95
Elastic stretch
For loads up to 20% of the ultimate, use a modulus of elastic-
ity equal to (0.90)E. For the remainder of the load use the
full value of E. The two equations for elastic stretch are as
follows:
20% of ultimate load = (0.20)(11.5 tons)(2,000 Lbs/ton)

= 4,600 Lbs
Constructional stretch
Assume that the total constructional stretch comes out at 65%
of the ultimate load and that the stretch is proportional for
the amount of load applied.
Constructional stretch:
65% of nominal load = (0.65)(11.5 tons)(2,000 Lbs/ton)

= 14,950 Lbs
Constructional Stretch = (Proportional Load)(O.5%)(L)
Cable Unit 1
Cable Unit 2 =
Total stretch
Cable Unit 1 47.11 + 0.08 + 0.05 = 47.24 Ft
Cable Unit 2 43.45 + 0.08 + 0.05 = 43.58 Ft
Note that the effects of cap or sill bending can generally be

ignored for short cantilever conditions.
D-17-4 08/95
Cap Movement
a = vertical distance between the cable connection at the
cap and the point on the sill directly below it.
b= cable length after stretch
c = the slope distance between the point on the sill de-
scribed for a, and the cable connection on the sill.
Cable Unit 1 Loaded
a= 25.00 - (6)(0.04) + (6)(0.02)
= 24.88 Ft
C= 40.5/cos
= 40.50/cos 1.15°
= 40.51 Ft
= 89.39° - (90° - l.l5°) = 0.34°
Cap Displacement = 24.88 Sin 0.34°

= 0.148 Ft = 1.78 In.
Cable Unit 2 Loaded

a = 25.63 + (5)(0.04) - (5)(0.02)
= 25.73 Ft
c = 34.50/cos
= 34.50/cos 1.15°
= 34.51 Ft
Cap Displacement = 25.73 Sin 0.34°

= 0.153 Ft. = 1.84 In.
D-17-5 08/95
Determine Post Adequacy for Loaded Cable Condition
1. Post Loads
Moment distribution was used to compute the post loads result-
ing from the bottom slab and stem reactions along with the
vertical component of one loaded cable unit. The process was
repeated with the other cable unit loaded.
Stresses In Posts
Evaluate each post by using the combined stress expression:
Sample calculation for stress in Post A with Cable Unit 1

loaded:
P = 79,685 Lbs, e = 1.78 inches
Using the combined stress expression:
0.62 + 0.24 = 0.86 < 1.00
Table 3 lists the results for all four posts for both direc-
tions of horizontal loading.
The stesses in all posts are satisfactory for this condition
of loading.
D-17-6 08/95
TABLE 3 SUMMARY OF STRESSES
Note that stresses in the cap and sill still need to be analyzed
separately for both directions of cable loading.
2. Total DL + LL Post Loads and Stresses
Table 4 lists the results of placing the total section (dead and
live loads) on the translated posts.
D-17-7 08/95
When cable Unit 1 is loaded, posts B and C are not considered to
be overstressed for this condition of loading.
When Cable Unit 2 is loaded, post B is the only post not consid-
ered as being overstressed for this condition of loading.
Verifying Preload Condition
An aid to ascertain if the appropriate pre-load is applied to the
cable is to determine and verify the amount of sag from the
straight line between the cable connection points.
Use the equation expressed below to determine the distance from
the chord to the loaded cable:
D-17-8 08/95
For one preloaded cable of Cable Unit 2:
T H = 1,080 cos 37.44°

= 1,715 Lbs
For x = 17.25
Offset = A Cos
= 0.08 Cos 37.44° = 0.06 Ft
A table may be generated for offsets of the cable from the chord
at distances along the horizontal axis if accurate amount and
location of maximum sag is desired.
For close approximation assume that for preloaded cables the

maximum sag occurs at the center of the horizontal distance
between connection points.
D-17-9 08/95
_APPENDIX D-EXAMPLE PROBLEMS DECEMBER 2011
Example 18: Clearances at Falsework Openings
Introduction
Prior to falsework erection the theoretical impaired clearance is calculated to provide
advance notice to the Resident Engineer (RE) and Traffic Operations. This
calculation will require determining clearance between the bridge and the roadway
and the clearance under the falsework. When the stringers are placed, vertical
clearance shall be physically measured to ensure that vertical clearance is equal to or
greater than the reported vertical clearance. The measured vertical clearance needs
to be reported to RE and Traffic Operations. Note both vertical and horizontal
clearances are required to be reported in TR-0029 form.
Determine the impaired clearance for the bridge and the falsework configuration
given below:
Given:
1) Project Plans:
From “General Plan” pick the Pt. Of Min. Clearance = 19’-8” (236.00”)
(Note: This point is the minimum clearance between the bridge and the finished
roadway without the falsework. It should be noted that during construction
due to overlay, stage construction, or roadway profile changes, the point of
minimum clearance and location may be different from that shown on the
project plans.)
185’-4”
89’-2” 96’-2”
*19’-8”
82.00
Falsework Plans:
Partial Falsework Elevation
CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL D-18 - 1

2) Special Provisions:
Vehicle openings: 20’-0” wide and 15’-0” height.
3) Deck Contour Sheet (4-Scale):
Points A, B, C and D are edge of deck grade defined by the K-rail face and edge of
deck.
4) Bridge Camber Diagram

0.05′ 0.08′ 0.05′

Solution:
A) Vertical Clearance (Two step process)
I) Calculate vertical clearance between bridge and roadway:
Points A, B, C and D are the edge of deck grade above the four corners of the
traffic opening defined by the face of K-rail and edge of deck.
Determine the elevation of the pavement by field surveying below the points
described above. The number of plotted points can be more than four for
complex layout. Note in the following table, bridge camber value determined
by plotting on the 4-sacle at the falsework bent is included.
Point Deck Roadway Box Girder Bridge Clearance Clearance

Grade Grade Depth Camber
(ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)* (ft) (inch)
A 129.53 106.00 4 +0.06 19.59 235.1
B 130.18 106.70 4 +0.06 19.54 234.5
C 130.05 104.34 4 +0.01 21.72 260.6
D 130.60 105.96 4 +0.01 20.65 247.8
The minimum vertical clearance between the bridge and the roadway at the traffic
opening is Point B with 234.5” height. * Camber is additive for positive camber.
II) Calculate vertical clearance between falsework and roadway:
a) Calculate Minimum Vertical Clearance
Bridge Clearance from table above =(+) 234.5”

Falsework Depth
Plywood = 5/8 in = (-) 0.6"
Joist (4”X 4”) = (-) 3.5"
Runner (2x wood) = (-) 1.5"
Stringer (W24X131) = (-) 24.5"
Calculated Minimum Vertical Clearance = 204.4"(17.03’)
Note: The camber strip is not included because the bridge is cast higher.
Falsework Plans

b) Subtract Pavement elevation changes (- or 0)

If the roadway under the bridge is to be paved prior to removal of the
falsework, the net thickness of overlay will need to be subtracted from the
clearance. The net thickness accounts for any grinding that may take place
prior to paving.
∆b =0 (For no paving)
c) Subtract Adjustment of Falsework grades (- or 0)

Often contractors set the falsework bent lower prior to final grading. In that
case subtract the value. If the falsework is kept higher than theoretical value
and then adjusted downward a value of zero must be used.
∆c= 0 (In this example no FW adjustment)
d) Subtract Falsework settlement (-)

The probable or anticipated settlement of the falsework per falsework plans.
Note theoretical, this value can be zero because the FW in actuality will be
erected higher to account for settlement.
∆ d = - 0.8” (It will be appropriate to include if settlement
exists)
e) Subtract Falsework stringer deflection (-)

Note that stringer will deflect even with the use of camber strips.
Conservatively, in this calculation stringer deflection at the center of falsework
span is used
∆ e = -1.13 = -1.1”
f) Subtract Release of sand jacks/ wedging (-)

If traffic will be allowed under the structure after the sand jacks/wedging is
blown /removed and prior to stringers being removed, then this allowance
needs to be included.
∆ f= -5.5” (Sand jacks w/ 2X6 side members)
g) Calculated clearance
This is equal to the value of line “a” minus summation of lines “b” thru “f”.
a) Min. Vertical clearance = 204.4"
Allowances:
b) Pavement Surfacing = -0.0"
c) Falsework Grade = -0.0"
d) Falsework Settlement = -0.8"
e) Deflection = - 1.1"
f) Sand Jack = - 5.5"
g) Net vertical clearance height = 197"
Net vertical clearance height 197”= 16’- 5” > 15’-0”
Value is greater than or equal to that given in the Special Provisions therefore
acceptable
h) Clearance to report
This is the value “g” rounded down to the nearest 3”
From 16’-5” to 16’-3"
Value = 16’- 3" > 15’-0”
B) Check horizontal clearance:

The horizontal opening shown on the falsework plans is 28’-6” which is
greater than 20’-0” given in the contract Special Provision, Section
“Maintaining Traffic”, therefore acceptable.
`
Summary
1. Use items a) to h) calculated in this example to complete Form No. SC -12.6.1

(New 04/08).
2. Use 28’-6” for clear horizontal opening in Form No. SC-12.6.1.
3. Above item 1 & 2 provide all the values required to complete form “Form No.
SC-12.6.1. Refer to the following BCM to complete form “Form TR-0019 or
TR-0029” when required to complete them on behalf of the Resident
Engineer:
a) BCM 2-20.0 - Notice of Change in Structure Clearance or Permit Rating.
b) BCM 120-2.0 - Impaired Clearances at Falsework Traffic Openings
c) BCM 120-2.1 - Reporting of Impaired Clearances at Falsework Traffic
Openings

Completed Form No. SC-12.6.1 (New 04/08)

APPENDIX E - TIMBER FASTENERS
CONNECTOR DESIGN VALUES
Table E-l Design Values for Bolts . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . Page E-l

Table E-2 Lag Screw Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-2
Table E-3 Lag Screw Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-3
Table E-4 Common Nail Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-4
Table E-5 Box Nail Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-5
Table E-6 Double Head Scaffold Nail Design Values . . . . . . . . E-6
Table E-7 Spike Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-7
Table E-8 Wood Side Plate Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . E-8
DESIGN OF MULTIPLE BOLT CONNECTIONS
Section 1. General Information

1.01 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. E-9
1.02 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-9
1.03 Spacing and Clearance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . E-10
1.04 Fastener Placement for Loads at Angle to Grain . . . . . E-11
1.05 Cross-Sectional Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-11
1.06 Connector Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-12
Section 2. Example Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-13
Revised 06/95
E-l Revised 06/95

LAG SCREWS WITHDRAWAL AND LATERAL LOAD DESIGN VALUES

DOUGLAS FIR-LARCH
(a) Species Group II, specific gravity 0.51. Values for other
species available by contacting the Sacramento Office of
Structure Construction.
(b) Design values of withdrawal in pounds/inch of-penetration of
threaded part into side grain of member holding point,
(c) Lateral load per lag screw in single shear.
(d) Parallel to grain.
(e) Perpendicular to grain.
TABLE E-2
E-2 Revised 06/95

DOUGLAS FIR-LARCH
See TABLE E-2 for footnotes.
TABLE E-3
E-3 Revised 06/95

E-4 Revised 06/95
Revised 06/95
E-6 Revised 06/95

E-7 Revised 06/95

E-8 Revised 06/95
1
DESIGN OF MULTIPLE-FASTENER CONNECTIONS
Section 1 General Information

1.01 Introduction
The procedure for evaluating the adequacy of connections made
with bolts and lag screws, as discussed in Section 4-3, Timber
Fasteners, applies only to connections made with one fastener
or two fasteners installed in a line parallel to the side
member. In a two-fastener connection where the fasteners are
not installed in a line parallel to the side member, or in any
connection where more than two fasteners are used, the design
procedures are modified in accordance with industry design
criteria for multiple-fastener connections.
Industry requirements for multiple-fastener connections that
are applicable to falsework construction, and the procedures
necessary to accommodate them, are explained in the following
sections.
1.02 Definitions
1.02A Row of Fasteners
A row of fasteners aligned with 'the direction of the applied
load consists of the following:
. Two or more bolts of the same diameter loaded in single
shear or double shear.
. Two or more lag screws of the same type and size loaded in
single shear.
1.02B Group of Fasteners
A group of fasteners consists of one or more parallel rows of
the same type of fastener arranged symmetrically with respect
to the axis of the load.
1.02C Width of Fastener Group
The overall width of a fastener group is defined as the center-
to-center spacing of the adjacent rows, except as provided in
the following paragraph.
1
The design criteria and procedures discussed herein apply
to both bolt and lag screw connections. In the text, the term
"fasteners" includes bolts and lag screws. For simplicity, in
some cases the term "bolts" is used alone; however, such use is
understood to include lag screws as well.
E-9 Revised 06/95

When the fasteners in adjacent rows are staggered and the

distance between the adjacent rows is less than one-fourth of
the distance between the closest fasteners in the adjacent
rows, the adjacent rows are considered to be a single row when
determining the design value for the. fastener group.
When only one row of fasteners is used, or when adjacent rows
are considered to be a single row as provided in the preceding
paragraph, the width of the fastener group for design purposes
will be the minimum parallel-to-grain spacing of the fasteners.
1.02D L/D Ratio
L/D is the ratio of the length, L, of the fastener in the main
member to its diameter, D.
1.03 Spacing and Clearance Requirements
1.03A Spacing Along a Row
Fastener spacing is measured between the centers of adjacent
bolts or lag screws.
For parallel-to-grain loading when the actual bolt load equals
the allowable design load, the minimum spacing between bolts in
a row parallel to the grain is 4 times the bolt diameter. If
the actual bolt load is less than the allowable load but not
less than 75 percent of the allowable load, the spacing may be
reduced proportionately, but 2not below 3 bolt diameters regard-
less of the actual bolt load.
For perpendicular-to-grain loading, spacing between bolts or
lag screws in a row perpendicular to the grain is limited by
the spacing requirements of the attached member or members
loaded parallel to the grain.
1.03B Spacing Between Rows
Spacing between adjacent rows is measured between the row
centerlines.
For parallel-to-grain loading, the minimum spacing across the
grain between rows of bolts is l-1/2 bolt diameters. 2
For perpendicular-to-grain loading, as with brace to post
connections, the spacing parallel to the grain between rows of
2
When lag screws are used, the minimum spacings are the same
as required for bolts of a diameter equal to the shank diameter
of the lag screw used.
E-10 Revised 06/95

MULTIPLE-FASTENER CONNECTIONS
bolts must be at least 2-l/2 bolt diameters for L/D ratios of 2.

or less and 5 bolt diameters for L/D ratios of 6 or more. For
ratios between 2 and 6, the minimum spacing may be obtained by
straight-line interpolation.
The maximum spacing between adjacent rows of fasteners may not
exceed 5 inches, regardless of other considerations.
1.03C Edge and End Distance Requirements
Except as provided in the following paragraph, edge and end
distance requirements for multi-fastener connections are 3the
same as the requirements for single fastener connections.
For parallel-to-grain loading in tension or compression, the
minimum edge distance is 1-l/2 bolt (or lag screw) diameters,
except that when the L/D ratio is more than 6, the minimum edge
distance is l-1/2 diameters or one-half the distance between
adjacent rows, whichever is greater.
1.04 Fastener Placement for Loads at an Angle to Grain
When the load is applied at an angle to the grain, as is the
case with falsework bracing, industry practice requires that
the gravity axis of all members in the connection must pass
through the center of resistance of the fastener group.
l-05 Cross-Sectional Areas
The procedure for evaluating the adequacy of multiple-fastener
connections uses reduction factors that are a function of an
equivalent cross-sectional area based on the width of the
fastener group in each of the members making up the connection.
For bolted connections, the equivalent cross-sectional area is
the product of the width of the fastener group (as defined
herein in Section 1.02, Definitions) and the thickness of the
member under consideration. When lag screws are used, the
thickness of the main member is the depth of penetration of the
lag screw into the main member.
When a member is loaded in the perpendicular to the grain
direction, as a falsework post loaded by the bracing, its
equivalent cross-sectional area is the product of the thickness
of the member and the overall width of the fastener group under
consideration.
For the calculations, gross cross-sectional areas are used with
no reduction for bolt or lag screw holes.
3
See Chapter 4, Section 4-3, Timber Fasteners.
E-11 Revised 06/95

1.06 Connector Design Values

(a) The design value for a group of fasteners is the sum of
the design values for the individual rows in the group.
(b) The design value for a row of fasteners of the same

size and type cannot exceed the value of as given by
the following formula:
where = the resultant design value, in pounds, for

the row of fasteners.
K = the modification (reduction) factor for the

number of fasteners in a row. Modification
factors are shown in Table E-8.
E-12 Revised 06/95

Section 2 Example Calculations

Example 1
Given:
12 x 12 post with single 2 x 8 brace.
3 - 5/8" bolts in a single row.
Center of gravity of the bolt group
coincides with the center of gravity
of the members.
Determine the allowable load on the group
of fasteners.
Spacing of bolts in a row

4D = (4)(0.625) = 2.5 inches minimum (used)
End distance
Use the more critical value for tension since the brace could
be in either tension or compression.
7D = (7)(0.625) = 4.375 inches minimum < 5"
Edge distance
For the main member:
4D = (4)(0.625) = 2.5 inches minimum < 4.125"
For the side member:
1.5D = (l-5)(0.625) = 0.938 inches < 1.25"
Determine the single bolt value
Side member value = (O.75)(1960) = 1470 lbs.
Main member value using the modified Hankinson's formula:
(0.75)(1990)(1260) = 1114 lbs.

(1990)(sin250) + (1260)(cos250)
The value for the main member controls.
E-13 Revised 06/95

Example 1 (Continued)
Determine the capacity of the bolt group
PGROUP = K(no. of fasteners)(single bolt value)

= K(3x1114)
= K(3342) lbs/row
The value for reduction factor K is obtained from Table E-8,

after calculating the cross-sectional area of the side and main
members. (See Table E-8.)
(main member) = (2.5) (12) = 30.00 in2
A2 (side member) = (1.5) (2.5) = 3.75
= 30.00/3.75 = 8.00
Since > 1, use the value of when entering
Column A and use the value of A2 when entering Column B.
= 3.75/30.00 = 0.125
For Table E-8, Column A values are: 0.0 < O.125 < 1.0; Column B
value is: < 12; and the K value is found by interpolation:
Column A Column B Column for 3 fasteners

0.0 <l2 0.87
0.125 <l2 K
1.0 <12 0.97
Solve for K:
E-14 Revised 06/95

Example 2
Given:
12 x 12 post with a 2 x 8 brace on
each side.
6- 5/8" bolts arranged in two rows
of 3 connectors each.
Center of gravity of the bolt group
coincides. with the center of gravity
of the members.
Determine the allowable load on the group
of fasteners.
1. For the side member (loading parallel to grain):

Spacing of bolts in a row
4D = (4)(.625) = 2.5 inches minimum
Spacing between rows of bolts
1.5D = (l.5)(.625) = .938 inches minimum
End distance
Use the value for tension since brace could be either in
tension or compression..
7D = (7)(.625) = 4.375 inches minimum
Edge distance
1.5D = (1.5) (.625) = .938 inches
Number of rows of fasteners
Distance between adjacent rows = 4.75", which is greater
than 2.5/4 = O.625. Therefore, analyze as 2 rows of bolts.
E-15 Revised 06/95

2 . For the main member (loading perpendicular to grain):

Spacing between rows
L/D = 12/(0.625) = 19.2
5D = (5)(.625) = 3.125 inches minimum < 4.75"
Edge distance
Use 4D since load reversal is possible.
4D = (4) (.625) = 2.50 inches minimum < 4.125"
Determine single bolt value
Side member value = (0.75)(1960) = 1470 Lbs.

Main member value using modified Hankinson's formula:
(0.75)(1990)(1260) = 1114 LBS

(1990) + (126O)
The value for the main member controls.

Determine the capacity of the bolt group
PGROUP = K(No. of fasteners) (single bolt value)

= K(3)(1114)
= K(3342) LBS/row
Reduction factor K is obtained from Table E-8. To enter

Table E-8 it is necessary to calculate the cross-sectional
-area of the side and main members.
Al (main member) = (4.75)(12) = 57.00
A2 (side member) = (1.5)(4.75) = 7.125
= 57.00/7.125 = 8.00
E-16 Revised 06/95

Since > 1, use the value of when entering

Column A and use the value of A, when entering column B.
(See Table E-8.)
= 7.125/57.00 = 0.125
For Table E-8, Column A values are: 0.0 < 0.125 < 1.0; Column B
value is: < 12; and the K value is found by interpolation:
Column A Column B Column for 3 fasteners
0.0 <l2 O.87
0.125 <l2 K
1.0 <l2 0.97
By interpolation, K = 0.883
and =
= [(O.883)(3342 lbs/row](2 rows) = 5902 lbs.
E-17 Revised 06/95

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Change Letter – Revision No. 39

SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

The following is an explanation for each manual revision or addition.

1. Revisions to Chapter 3, Design Considerations include:

CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER

v. Figure 3-15 (a): C-Clamp with Angle Iron Clamped to Stringer

CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER ● PAGE 2 OF 2

Change Letter – Revision No. 38

SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

To follow is an explanation for each manual revision or addition.

CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER PAGE 1 OF 1

Change Letter – Revision No. 37

SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

To follow is an explanation for each manual revision or addition.

1. Revisions to the Chapter 8 Traffic Openings include:

ROBERT A. STOTT, Deputy Division Chief

CALTRANS ● FALSEWORK MANUAL CHANGE LETTER PAGE 1 OF 1

February 17, 2012

SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

To follow is an explanation for each manual revision or addition.

1. Revisions to Memo C-1, “Falsework Reminder List” include:

ROBERT A. STOTT, Deputy Division Chief

December 12, 2011

SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

To follow is an explanation for each manual revision or addition:

2. Example 18 “Clearances at Falsework Openings”, is a new example which provides broad

ROBERT A. STOTT, Deputy Division Chief

July 27, 2010

SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

Revisions to the Falsework Memo No. 1 “Falsework Reminder List” include:

ROBERT A. STOTT, Deputy Division Chief

SECTION REMOVE DATED SECTION INSERT DATED

FALSEWOR PRE-APPROVED WOOD 07/10

Section 9-1.03C “Sand Jacks” of Chapter 9 “Inspection” is revised to expand information

ROBERT A. STOTT, Deputy Division Chief

File: Falsework Manual

Attached are revisions to Chapter 5 and two falsework memorandums for

The revisions entail changes to Chapter 5, “Falsework Stability”, by

Falsework Memo 10, “Falsework Welding”, provides guidelines for

1- 1.01 Purpose and Scope............................................................................................. 1-1

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW AND APPROVAL OF

2- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 2-1

CHAPTER 3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

3-1 Loads ..................................................................................................................

CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL i 06/16

.07 Falsework at Deck Overhangs .......................................................................... 3-26

CHAPTER 4. STRESS ANALYSIS

4-1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 4-1

CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL ii 06/16

CHAPTER 5. FALSEWORK STABILITY

5- 1.01 Introduction .................................................................................................. 5-1

CHAPTER 6. STEEL SHORING SYSTEMS

6- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 6-1

CHAPTER 7. FALSEWORK FOUNDATIONS

7-1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 7-1

CHAPTER 8. TRAFFIC OPENINGS

8- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 8-1

9- 1.01 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 9-1

CALTRANS FALSEWORK MANUAL iii 06/16

.07 Metal Shoring Systems ..................................................................................... 9-11