Power System Operation and Control Notes:15EE81 2019_20

MODULE 2: Hydro-thermal Scheduling and AGC

Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Scheduling Hydro Systems
2.3 Discrete Time Interval Method
2.4 Short Term Hydro Thermal Scheduling Using 𝛾 − 𝜆 Iterations
2.5 Short Term Hydro Thermal Scheduling Using Penalty Factors.
2.6 Automatic Generation Control (AGC): Introductions
2.7 Basic Generator Control Loops
2.8 Commonly used Terms in AGC
2.9 Functions of AGC
2.10 Speed Governors.

Objectives

1. To explain issues of hydrothermal scheduling and solutions to hydro thermal

problems

2. To explain basic generator control loops, functions of Automatic generation control,

speed governors and mathematical models of Automatic Load Frequency Control

2.1 Introduction

 Modern Power system consists of a large number of thermal and hydel plants
connected at various load centre through a transmission network.
 Our important objective is generate and transmit power to meet the load demand at
minimum cost by optimal mix of different types of plants.
 Therefore the study of the optimal scheduling for power generation at different
plants in a power system is of high importance.

2.1.1 Comparison between Thermal and Hydel Plants

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2.2 Scheduling Hydro Systems

1. The operating cost of thermal plant is very high , though their initial cost is low.
2. On the other hand the operating cost is low in case of hydroelectric generation .
3. Due to the low operating cost in case of hydel plants so we can operate it in
conjuction with thermal plants which will lead to save fuel
4. So Hydrothermal scheduling is a power system optimization problem which gives us
idea how to manage the hydel and thermal plant combinely.

Hydrothermal scheduling is classified into two parts , that are:

a)Long range Problem : This type of scheduling having the scheduling interval of a
month or a year.

b)Short range Problem : This type of scheduling having the scheduling interval of a
day or a week.

According to this different mathematical formulations are made

2.3 Discrete Time Interval Method

For a certain period of operation T (one year, one month or one day, depending upon the
requirement), it is assumed that (i) storage of hydro reservoir at the beginning and the end of
the period are specified, and (ii) water inflow to reservoir (after accounting for irrigation use)
and load demand on the system are known as functions of time with complete certainty
(deterministic case). The problem is to determine q(t), the water discharge (rate) so as to
minimize the cost of thermal generation

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2.4/2.5 Short Term Hydro Thermal Scheduling using

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2.6 AGC: Introduction

In an electric power system, automatic generation control (AGC) is a system for :

Adjusting the power output of multiple generators at different power plants, in response to
changes in the load.
Since a power grid requires that generation and load closely balance moment by moment,
frequent adjustments to the output of generators are necessary
As our development has increased, there has been a higher demand of electrical power
loads both on industrial and domestic scale.
As the number increases, it is also imperative to manage load properly since a failure to do
so results in frequency fluctuation and voltage drops.

An effective regulatory strategy is available in the form of:

• Automatic Voltage Regulator Systems (AVR) and
• Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC)
The main function of ALFC system is to assess and rectify the power and frequency
while that of AVR system is to regulate voltage and reactive power.

What is AGC ?

S=P+JQ
P Depends on Frequency; Depends on Speed---Speed Governor
Permissible Limit is +/- 0.5%
Q Depends on Excitation- Excitation Control
Permissible Limit is +/- 5%
Even though P~f and Q~V control loops are working simultaneously both frequency
and voltage control loops do not interfere with each other?
Answer:
Different Time Constant
T (Gen-Field) < T( Speed Governor)
Transients in Excitation control vanishes faster and do not interfere with dynamics of
frequency control

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In Power System, the Active and Reactive power are never Steady. It is time varying
quantity.
1. When reactive power increase, the voltage starts dropping and when the demand
of active power increases, the frequency of supply decreases.
2. To compensate frequency the steam input to turbo generator (or water input to
hydro generator) must be continuously regulated.

2.7 Basic Generator Control loops

An effective regulatory strategy is available in the form of:

1. Automatic Voltage Regulator Systems (AVR)
2. Automatic Load Frequency Control(ALFC)
The main function of ALFC system is to assess and rectify the power and frequency
while that of AVR system is to regulate voltage and reactive power.

Block diagram representation of load frequency and excitation control

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2.8 Commonly used Terms in AGC

• Control Area:
A control area is a part of the system to which common generation is applied.
• Tie line:
The transmission lines connecting two or more areas are called tie lines.
Active power flows from one area to another via the tie lines.

Net interchange:
Between control areas, there is a mutually prearranged net power on the area tie lines,
called the scheduled net interchange.
The algebraic sum of powers on the area tie lines of a control area is called the net
interchange.
If the net interchange is positive, there is generation out of the area.
Frequency:
There are different frequencies commonly used.
System frequency: It is the actual frequency of the system AC voltage.
Standard frequency: It is the frequency intended to be used as reference.
Rated frequency: It is the frequency for which the generating equipment is designed.
Scheduled frequency: It is the frequency which the system attempts to maintain.

• Frequency bias:
It is the offset in the scheduled net power interchange of a control area. It is varied
proportional to the frequency deviation and is in a direction so as to bring the system
frequency to the scheduled frequency.
• Time deviation:
It is the ratio of the accumulated (or integrated) difference between the system
frequency and rated frequency, to the rated frequency.
• Load-frequency characteristic:
For a control area, it is the change in total area load resulting from a change in system
frequency.

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• Station control error:

It is the station generation minus the assigned station generation.
• Unit control errors:
It is the unit generation minus the assigned unit generation.

2.9 Functions of AGC

• The frequency of the various bus voltages are maintained at the scheduled frequency.
• The tie-line power flows are maintained at the scheduled levels.
• The total power is shared by all generators economically (economic dispatch). The
first two functions are realized using the ALFC whereas third using AVR
• Yield a generation acceptably matching the changing load at scheduled
frequency
• Should accumulate lower fuel cost
• Maintain sufficient level of reserved control range
• Provide higher security margins
• Provide meaningful alarms at control centres for deviations

Load Regulation between Units in Parallel

• WNL -----No load Speed

• WFL-- Full Load Speed
• W0---Nominal Speed

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2.10 Speed Governors

The system consists of the following components:

I. Fly ball speed governor
II. Hydraulic amplifier
III. Linkage mechanism
IV. Speed changer
I. Fly ball speed governor:
This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed frequency. As the speed
increases the fly balls move outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism moves
downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases

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II.Hydraulic amplifier:
It comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement. Low power level pilot valve
movement is converted into high power level piston valve movement. This is necessary in
order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.

III.Linkage mechanism:
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D. This link
mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to change in speed. It
also provides a feedback from the steam valve movement

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IV. Speed changer:

It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine. Its downward movement opens
the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the turbine under steady conditions.
The e reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer

MODES OF SPEED GOVERNOR

• ELECTRONIC HYDRAULIC GOVERNING SYSTEM

• ISOCHRONOUS GOVERNORS

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Speed Maintained Constant from No-Load to Full Load

Normally used in Isolated systems
When one generator is required to meet demand

DROOP MODE
Speed Droop is a decrease in speed or frequency proportional to the load

Speed Droop Curve with Change in Governor Set Point

R=∆f/∆P

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NUMERICAL

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3.Two machines operate in parallel to supply a load of 400MW. The capacities of the
machines are 200MW and 500MW. Each has a droop characteristic of 4%. Their
governors are adjusted so that the frequency is 100% on full load. Calculate the load
supplied by each unit and the frequency at this load. This is a 50Hz system

Solution:
Step 1: Plot the droop characteristics in p.u since machine have different ratings
Step 2: Let us take the base power be 100MW
Step 3:Full load output of Unit 1= Actual/ Base = 200/100= 2pu
Full load output of Unit 2= Actual/Base =500/100 =5pu
50Hz =1pu frequency
Step 4: Since droop characteristic has 4% droop, the no load speed is 4% greater than
full load speed.
When load is thrown off frequency raises by 4% from 100--104% or 1.04pu
Step 5: For Unit 1 frequency drops from 1.04pu at no load to 1pu (2pu)
For Unit 2 frequency drops from 1.04pu at no load to 1pu (5pu)

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Step 6: Load is 400MW=4pu

Step 7: Let Load supplied by Unit 1 be x pu
Unit 2 be 4-x pu
Frequency deviation ∆f
Step 8: ∆f / x = 0.04/2 ---------(1)
∆f/4-x = 0.04/5 ----------(2)
Step 9: Dividing equations
4-x /x = 5/2
Solving
x=8/7 =1.142 pu
Step 10: From (1) ∆f = 0.02 x x = 0.02 x 1.142
= 0.0228 pu
Step 11: New frequency f1= 1.04- ∆f
=1.04-0.0228
=1.017PU
=1.017 x 50 =50.85Hz
Step 12: Power supplied by unit 1= 114.28MW
Power supplied by unit 2= 285.71MW
Frequency of system =50.85Hz

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Outcomes

At the end of the module, students will be able to:

CO2: Apply the issues concerning hydrothermal scheduling and its solutions to hydro
thermal
problems [L3]

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