WELDING

Welding is the process of joining two metallic

pieces together in permanent manner. Heat and/or
pressure is applied to get the joint.

•Gas welding
•Arc welding
•Resistance welding
•Solid state welding
HISTORY OF WELDING…..
•Began when people found they could shape rocks by chipping them with
other rocks

•Copper probably first metal to be worked

Ductile (easily hammered, bent or drawn)

In Egypt as early as 4000 B.C. and USA before 2000 B.C.

•Welding began more than 3000 years ago

•Bronze developed between 3000 and 2000 B.C.

•Iron became known to Europe about 1000 B.C.

•Working of metals followed one another in great ancient civilizations

Copper, bronze, silver, gold, and iron
•Chinese developed ability to make steel from wrought iron in 589 A.D.

• Belgians responsible for progress with steel in Europe

• Japan manufactured steel by repeated welding and forging and

controlling amount of carbon by use of fluxes
•Industrial Revolution in the middle of the eighteenth century brought
many improvements

•Working of dies and molds became commonplace by beginning of

nineteenth century
 Early Developments in Welding
 Edmund Davy discovered acetylene at beginning of nineteenth century

 Sir Humphrey Davy discovered the electric arc in 1801

 Workable electrical generating devices invented and developed on

practical basis by 1850
Bare Metal Electrode Welding
 Introduced in 1888 by N. G. Slavianoff (Russian)

 Discovery first recognized in western Europe in 1892

 C. L. Coffin was pioneer of welding industry in United States

 1889 received patent on equipment and process for flash-butt

welding

 1890 received additional patents for spot welding

 In 1908, Benardos patented electroslag process of welding thick

plates in one pass
Welding Associations
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• American Petroleum Institute (API)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• American Welding Society (AWS)
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
Welding is joining two pieces of metal by:

• Heating to temperature high enough to cause softening

or melting

• With or without application of pressure

• With or without use of filler metal

ELEMENTS OF WELDING PROCESS
• FILLER MATERIAL

Filler materials are used to fill the space between the welded joint.

Filler material is melted and added to the joint during the welding process.

It adds strength to the joint.

FLUXES-
is a cleaning agent used to avoid the contamination of welded joint
by impurities like oxides, by oxygen combined with metal during welding.

Flux dissolve oxide, trapped gases and slag(impurities) from base metal.
WELD POOL -
dime-sized workable portion of a weld where the base metal has
reached its melting point and is ready to be infused with filler material.

Weld pool is central to the success of the welding process.

Weld pool solidifies to become weld beed.
WELDING
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Classification of Joining Processes
Different Welding Processes
Five basic joint designs
Four basic types of fusion welds
Five Welding Positions
Arrow shows the direction of
motion of the electrode / torch.
The torch is held approximately
normal to this direction.
Classification of Welding
Terminology in welding

•Traverse rate : velocity of the welding source : m/s

•Heat Input : ratio of power to velocity : J/m
•Rate of heat input or heat intensity : W/m2
•Heat intensity distribution
Arc Welding (AW)
 A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the metals is
achieved by the heat from an electric arc between an electrode and
the work

 Energy from the arc produces temperatures ~ 10,000 ͦ F (5500ᵒ C),

hot enough to melt any metal

 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume and strength

of weld joint
ELECTRIC ARC ?
 An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a
circuit

 It is sustained by an ionized column of gas (plasma) through which

the current flows

 To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into contact with work
and then quickly separated from it by a short distance
Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes
• Consumable
o consumed during welding process
o Source of filler metal in arc welding

• Nonconsumable
o not consumed during welding process
o Filler metal must be added separately if it is added
 Arc Shielding
•At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically reactive to
oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air

 Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by these reactions

 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding air in
AW processes

•Arc shielding is accomplished by:

 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2

 Flux
Flux
• A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other
contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and facilitates removal

 Provides protective atmosphere for welding

 Stabilizes arc

 Reduces spattering
Various Flux Application Methods
• Pouring granular flux onto welding operation

• Stick electrode coated with flux material that melts during welding to
cover operation

• Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the core and released

as electrode is consumed
Power Source in Arc Welding
Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

• AC machines less expensive to purchase and operate, but generally

restricted to ferrous metals

• DC equipment can be used on all metals and is generally noted for

better arc control
Consumable Electrode

AW Processes • Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

• Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

• Electrogas Welding

• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal

rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding

Sometimes called "stick welding"

SMAW
Welding Stick in SMAW
• Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal

• Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with oxides and carbonates, and held
together by a silicate binder

• Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder connected to power source

Disadvantages of stick welding:

 Sticks must be periodically changed

 High current levels may melt coating prematurely
SMAW Applications
 Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and certain
nonferrous alloys

 Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its alloys,

copper alloys, and titanium
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or MIG
• Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode with shielding by
flooding arc with a gas

• Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a spool through the

welding gun

• Shielding gases include argon and helium for aluminum welding, and
CO2 for steel welding

• Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate slag on weld bead
GMAW
GMAW Advantages over SMAW
• Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode
• Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
• Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
• End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
• Higher deposition rates
• Eliminates problem of slag removal
• Can be readily automated
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
 Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome limitations of
stick electrodes - two versions

Self-shielded FCAW - core includes compounds that produce

shielding gases

Gas-shielded FCAW - uses externally applied shielding gases

 Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in coils) containing flux

and other ingredients (e.g., alloying elements) in its core
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Presence or absence of externally supplied shielding gas distinguishes:

(1) self-shielded - core provides ingredients for shielding,

(2) gas-shielded - uses external shielding gases

FCAW
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
• Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, with arc shielding
by a cover of granular flux

• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil

• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by gravity from a hopper

• Completely submerges operation, preventing sparks, spatter, and

radiation
SAW
SAW Applications
• Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I-beams)
• Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels
• Welded components for heavy machinery
• Most steels (except hi C steel)
• Not good for nonferrous metals
 ELECTROSLAG WELDING

This initial charge heats a layer of loose flux that becomes molten and
extinguishes the arc.
 ARC WELDING – NONCONSUMABLE ELECTRODES

- GTAW (Gas tungsten arc welding) or TIG welding

- Plasma arc welding

 TIG WELDING or GTAW

Typical flow rate of shielding inert gas may vary from 5-50 liters/min.
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRODES, SHIELDING GAS
AND FLUX
• Consumable electrodes materials are selected such that finished weld
metal should have similar mechanical properties that of base metal
with no defects,
Consumable Electrodes contains de-oxidising metals (Si, Mn, Ti,
Al) and de-nitriding metals (zirconium) in small percentages to
prevent entrapment of oxygen and nitrogen in the weld, reducing the
porosity and giving continuous weld.
• Shielding gas is necessary to protect weld area from atmospheric
gases, thereby reducing porosity and cracking.
EG. argon, helium, carbon dioxide etc
• Flux when melted by the arc, mixes with the impurities in the weld
pool and forms slag and covers the weld pool from contamination.
E.G. lime, silica, manganese dioxide, calcium flouride etc
flux is either coated on the electrode surface, or inside the
electrode, or provided additionally(non-consumable electrodes).
GAS WELDING
 OXY – ACETELYNE GAS WELDING
OXYGEN + ACETELYNE

WELD NOZZLE

FILLER MATERIAL
OXY-ACETELYNE GAS WELDING SETUP
• Gas welding is a fusion welding process.
• Acetylene burned in oxygen is used as source of heat. This heat is used to fuse the metal joints.

ADVANTAGES
1. Simple
2. Portable
3. Easy maintenance

DISADVANTAGES
1. Very low welding speed,
2. Large amount of heat is required, some amount of heat is wasted, since heat is distributed
over a large area.
3. large heat affected zones.
4. Should not be used with reactive metals like Titanium and Zirconium.
TYPES OF FLAMES
 WELD DEFECTS
• WELD SPATTER-
Caused by a long arc length, very high current, or a phenomenon called
arc blow (electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool by
magnetic forces).
Damages appearance of the weld and increases cleaning cost.
• POROSITY-
Caused due to arc blow
• POOR FUSION-
Caused by low current, contaminated joint surface, improper electrode
• SHALLOW PENETRATION –
Caused by decreased melting of electrodes. This can be prevented by
decreasing weld speed, increasing the current , using smaller electrodes
• CRACKING-
High carbon content, high allow content, high sulphur content and
Excessive restraining of base metal which causes internal stress inside
the weld, which leads to cracking when cools down or contracts.
 TYPES OF WELD JOINTS

BUTT JOINT, CORNER JOINT, LAP JOINT, TEE JOINT, EDGE JOINT
FLANGE WELDS AND SURFACING WELDS
GROOVE WELDS
 CONSUMABLE TYPE
ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE WELDING HOLDER

Electrode is made anode

(high heat concentration)
to melt more and
penetrate the joint fast
POWER SUPPLY SHIELDING GAS
STEP DOWN PROTECTION
TRANSFORMER Flux mixes with
the impurities filler metal
and rises to top mixed with
of weld pool molten metal
low voltage  and penetrates
short arc length the joint

High current 
faster melting Base metal is
made cathode(-) HEAT WELD POOL
AFFECTED
AREA
NON-CONSUMABLE TYPE
ELECTRODE WELDING
FILLER ROD

ELECTRODE HOLDER
Electrode is made
cathode (-)to prevent
electrode melting
POWER SUPPLY SHIELDING GAS
STEP DOWN PROTECTION
TRANSFORMER Flux mixes with
the impurities filler metal
and rises to top mixed with
Low voltage  of weld pool molten metal
Short arc length and penetrates
the joint
high current
Faster melting
Base metal is made
anode (high heat HEAT WELD POOL
concentration) AFFECTED
AREA
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING
• MIG is a semi-automatic
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES METALS
or automatic, since itAPPLICATIONS
uses constant
1. Speed due to 1. cannot be used in 1. welding metals automobile industries.
voltage(arc
continuously fed length)
areassupply.
of high air with high thermal
• consumable
filler electrodes
wiremovement,
acting
of the need to
Because conductivities like
as bothaluminium
electrode and
and filler metal
is continuously fed, maintain a stable other non-
shroud of shielding ferrous, steels.
• inert or semi-inert gasshielding gas like carbon dioxide flowed
around the wire 2. to protect
Pority the weld site from
of the welded
contamination. joints because
solidification of the
• Constant voltage, weld
DC pool takes source is most commonly used
power
place before the
with GMAW, but escape constant current alternating current are
of entrapped
used as well. gas.
3. Forms Solid impure
Aluminium dross
floating on the weld
pool
4. complicated
equipment
 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING
• Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW or FCA) is a
semi-automatic or automatic arc
welding process.
• Tubular consumable electrode containing
a flux which provides necessary protection
from the atmosphere and metal impurities, is
continuously-fed to weld point.
• constant-voltage or, less commonly, a
constant-current welding power supply.
• An externally supplied shielding gas is
sometimes used
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES METALS APPLICATIONS
1. All position welding 1. cannot be used in a 1. Alloy steels 1. Construction
2. high welding speed windy environment 2. Nickel alloys 2. Automotive industries
3. Portability 2. excessive, noxious
4. thicker and out-of- smoke (making it
position metals difficult to see the weld
5. higher production pool)
rate 3. Skilled operation
6. fewer weld defects 4. Contact tip melting,
7. slag is also easy to preventing flux flow.
remove 5. Costly electrode
6. Irregular wire feed
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
• Arc is struck beneath
ADVANTAGES a covering layer of granular
DISADVANTAGES METALS flux, APPLICATIONS
• The flux starts depositing on the joint to be welded
•1.Flux
No is
weld 1. Limited
insulator when cold, to flatmelted
once 1. Steels 1. Structural
by arc, it becomes and
conductive
spatters
and horizontal between
current flow is maintained 2. Nickel alloys electrode
consumable ship/barge
and
2.base
No fumes
metal through surfaces
the molten metal. constructions
3. No visible 2. Non visibility of
• The upper
spark portion ofprocess.
the flux in contact with the atmosphere and
remains in granular shape and can be reused
4. High welding
• Lower
speedportion melts and becomes slag, and must be removed after
5.welding.
Deep weld
penetration for
thick plates
6. Suitable for
indoor and
outdoor work
7. Minimal weld
defect
 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING
• Uses non-consumable tungsten electrode.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES METALS APPLICATIONS
•1.Great
Weldcontrol
areaoveris protected by inert gases
1. Complex 1. Stainless steel 1. Aerospace
• Welder
weld area need to manually 2. More operator 2. Aluminium
feed the filler industryboth
metal, which required
2. Strong high quality skill 3. magnesium 2. Space vehicles
hand.
welds. 3. Slower process 4. Zinc and alloys 3. Bycycle industry
• Filler
3. Oncemetal
theisarc
not is
in struck the filler
4. Manual welder moves the torch in a 4.small circle
Naval to
aplications
direct contact
create with
a welding metal
pool. feed metal is then added manually into the
Filler
the arc, so no filller 5. Difficult to
molten weld
metal is wasted by
pool but away from the arc.
maintain short arc
• Filler metal and
vaporization length is advanced to the weld pool alternatively
electrode
while keeping the6.filler
Ultra-violet
metal inside the shielding gas.
radiation
7. Formation of
ozone due to arc
plasma
8. If current exceeds,
tungsten inclusion
may take place in
the base metal.
 CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE

FLUX SUPPLY
CONSUMABLE GUIDE TUBE

ELECTRODE WIRE SPOOL

FOR CONTINUOUS FILLER FEED

ELECTRO –SLAG
WELDING
SCHEMATIC
VERTICAL JOINT
 ELECTRO SLAG WELDING
• ADVANTAGES
Electric arc isDISADVANTAGES
struck in the base metal joint atAPPLICATIONS
METALS a desired
1. point. Then
Single pass flux
is 1. is added
Restricted to 1. Cast iron 1. Ship building
sufficient vertical 2. Aluminium 2. Building Construction
•2. This
Thick flux then melt positionand fills the joint. 3. Machine frames
3. Magnesium
materials 2. High heat 4. Copper 4. Heavy pressure vessels
•3. Flux is added
High filler
until molten slag rises
input leads to 5. titanium
and extinguishes the
5. Joining turbine casting
arc.
metal poor weld
utilization quality.
•4. But current will still be flowing through the molten flux and
No weld
still hot due to electrical resistance.
spatter,
because no
• Filler
arc metal is then continuously fed into this molten slag
5. through
Skilled a consumable guide tube and molten filler metal
operators
then not
fills the joint..
required
6. Minimum
joint
preparation
and cleaning
 PLASMA ARC WELDING
• Similar to TIG
• But Tungsten Electrode is positioned inside the torch body
and not exposed.
• Electric arc is struck between non-consumable electrode and
work piece.
• This ionizes the inert gas flowing through the nozzle and his
ionized high velocity plasma is then used to melt the base
metal and filler metal.
• Two inert gases are used, one to ionize, and other as
shielding gas
STEP
STEP
STEP 4:3:
1:
2:
5:
6:
Heat
Enclose
Place thethe
The mixture
Refractory refractory
joint
solidified
barrel
coating coating
toisbe weld
wax
containing
is ignited and
then with
with a metal
another
removed boxisbox
and metal
joint allowed to solidify
Wax
Fill melts
the
thermite
thermite
Extra joint
gap
metal and
with
with
mixture
reaction
is flows
then molten
aon downwax
refractory
the
takes
removed creating
and
material
by a cavity
allow
grinding inside
the wax to the refractory
solidify
coating
Remove
top
placeof to the box coating
refractory
form
Cover
To the
initiate
molten bottom
the
iron and part of refractory cavity with a plug
thermite
reaction,
aluminium mixture WAX
oxide. should
be
Ironignited
being denser than Fe2 O3 + Al  Fe + Al2O3 + heat
For this an ignition
aluminium oxide will wire
be is
inserted into the
at the bottom of mixture
the
barrel
This molten iron then fills
the refractory cavity

THERMITE
WELDING
PRESSURE WELDING METHODS
FRICTION
WELDING
TYPES OF FRICTION WELDING PROCESSES
FRICTION STIR WELDING
 RESISTANCE WELDING

Resistance welding process makes use of the electrical resistance for

generating heat required for melting the workpiece. It is generally used for
joining thin plates and structures. It has different variants such as Seam
welding, Projection welding and Spot welding.
ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING
DISADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

Seam consists of
a series of
overlapping spot
welds.
UPSET WELDING/BUTT WELDING
HOW TO
ACHIEVE
HEAT
BALANCE
PERCUSSION WELDING
 PERCUSSION WELDING
PROCESS IN WHICH HEAT IS PRODUCED FROM AN
ARC THAT IS GENERATED BY THE RAPID DISCHARGE OF
ELECTRICAL ENERGY BETWEEN THE WORKPIECES AND
FOLLOWED BY IMMEDIATELY BY AN IMPACTING FORCE
WHICH WELD THE PIECES TOGETHER
 CROSS SECTION OF A TYPICAL FUSION WELDED JOINT

The fusion zone consists of a mixture of filler metal and base metal that have
completely melted.
 Electrical

Solid
State Chemical
Welding
Friction

Ultrosonic
Mechanical Pressure
Weld
Ultrasonic welding (USW)

Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts

and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies
is used in a direction parallel to the contacting
surfaces. The combination of normal and vibratory
forces results in shear stresses that remove surface
films and achieve atomic bonding of the surfaces.
Definition of Ultrasonic Welding
A solid state welding process in which coalescence is
produced at the faying surfaces by the application of
high frequency vibratory energy while the work pieces
are held together under moderately low static pressure.
 Ultrasonic Welding Process
Clamping
Process force

Mass
Description:
• Components of wedge Transducer
ultrasonic welding
system include: Sonotrode
tip
• Transducer Vibration
• Sonotrode Weldment

• Anvil Anvil
Force
 Ultrasonic Welding Mechanism
• A static clamping force is applied Clamping
perpendicular to the interface force

between the work pieces. Mass

• The contacting sonotrode

oscillates parallel to the interface. wedge Transducer

• Combined effect of static and

Sonotrode
oscillating force produces tip
deformation which promotes
welding. 10-75 KHz workpiece

Anvil
Force
 ultrasonic
spot-type welding machine
Courtesy AWS handbook
AWS Welding Handbook
Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding

• No heat is applied and no melting occurs.

• Permits welding of thin to thick sections.
• Welding can be made through some surface coatings.
• Pressures used are lower, welding times are shorter, and the thickness
of deformed regions are thinner than for cold welding.
 Limitations of Ultrasonic Welding

• The thickness of the component adjacent to the sonotrode tip must not
exceed relatively thin gages because of power limitations of the
equipment.
• Process is limited to lap joints.
• Butt welds can not be made because there is no means of supporting
the workpieces and applying clamping force.
 SOLDERING

•Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined

together by melting and flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint
•the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining
metal.
•Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve
melting the work pieces.
•In brazing, the filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but in
soldering filler alloy melts at lower temperature than brazing.
•Used for low strength applications like electronics and plumbing
TYPES OF SOLDERS
• Tin Lead solders
• 60% Tin and 40% lead
• 50% Tin and 50% lead
• Tin-Antimony-Lead solders
• Lead Silver solders
• Cadmium Silver Solders
FLUXES USED FOR SOLDERING

1.INORGANIC ACIDS

2.NON CORROSIVE RESIN BASED FLUXES

TYPES OF SOLDERING METHODS

1. SOLDERING IRON METHOD

2. DIP AND WAVE METHOD

 BRAZING Brazing is a metal-joining process in
which two or more metal items are
joined together by melting and flowing
a filler metal into the joint, the filler
metal having a lower melting point than
the adjoining metal.

Brazing differs from welding in that it

does not involve melting the work
pieces and from soldering in using higher
temperatures for a similar process.

It is similar to soldering, except the

temperatures used to melt the filler
metal are higher for brazing than
soldering.

A major advantage of brazing is the

Aluminum or copper alloys ability to join the same or different
are used as filler materials metals with considerable strength.
FILLER METALS IN BRAZING

1.ALUMINIUM & SILICON

2.COPPER & PHOSPHEROUS
3.COPPER & ZINC
BRAZING PROCESSES

1. TORCH BRAZING
2. VACUUM BRAZING
Multipass Welds

Ability to make multipass welds

such as this one, on plate and pipe,
led to growth of industry. Welds are
sound and have uniform appearance.
•Patent issued in 1930 to Hobart and Devers for use of electric arc
within inert gas atmosphere

•Tungsten electrode replace magnesium procedure Patent issue in 1942

•Linde Company developed gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

 Also called tungsten inert gas (TIG) process or HELIARC

An aluminum weld made using
the TIG process. The welding
of aluminum is no longer a
problem and can be done with
the same ease as that of steel.
HIGH ENERGY BEAM WELDING

- ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

- LASER BEAM WELDING

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

EBW set up

a) Electron gun,
b) Power supply,
c) Vacuum Chamber,
d) Work piece handling device
RUBY LASER
LASER WELDED RAZOR BLADE
WELDING DEFECTS