Unit-2

MODELLING OF EXCITATION AND SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEMS

Excitation and Prime Mover Controllers

 The synchronous generator is provided with two automatic (feedback)

controllers for the regulation of the terminal voltage and
frequency.
 These controllers indirectly influence the reactive power and
active power outputs of the generator respectively.
 The regulation of the voltage is the faster of the two controllers and
has bearing on the system stability much more than the regulation of
speed.
 The modelling of the excitation and prime mover controllers for the
purposes of stability analysis of power systems.

 For each control system, the models are grouped into a few standard
types 1which are conveniently handled in computer simulation and
analysis.
 The functions of an excitation system:

Control and Protective functions

1.

2.

EXCITATION SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS

The performance requirements of the excitation system are determined by
a)Generator considerations:
b)Power system considerations:

2
a)Generator considerations:

 It is respond to transient disturbances with field forcing consistent with

the generator short term capabilities:
 The generator capabilities are limited by several factors
1. Rotor insulation failure due to high field voltage
2. Rotor heating due to high field current
3. Stator heating due to high VAR(Armature Current) loading
4. Core end heating during under -excited operation and heating due
to excess flux (volts/Hz)

3
b)Power system considerations:
 contribute to effective control of system voltage and improvement of system
stability.

4
1. Meet specified response criteria.
2. Provide limiting and protective functions are required to prevent damage to itself,
the generator, and other equipment.
3. Meet specified requirements for operating flexibility
4. Meet the desired reliability and availability, by incorporating the necessary level of
redundancy and internal fault detection and isolation capability.

5
ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

6
 ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
 Exciter: provides dc power to the generator field winding

 Regulator: processes and amplifies input control signals to a level and form appropriate for
control of the exciter

 Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator: senses generator terminal voltage,
rectifies and filters it to dc quantity and compares with a reference; load compensator may be
provided if desired to hold voltage at a remote point

 Power system stabilizer: provides additional input signal to the regulator to damp power
system oscillations

 Limiters and protective circuits: ensure that the capability limits of exciter and generator are
not exceeded

7
Exciter System
 The main objective of the excitation system is to control the field current of the
synchronous machine.
 The field current is controlled so as to regulate the terminal voltage of the machine.
 As the field circuit time constant is high (of the order of a few seconds), fast control of
the field current requires field forcing.
 Thus exciter should have a high ceiling voltage which enables it to operate transiently
with voltage levels that are 3 to 4 times the normal.
 The rate of change of voltage should also be fast. Because of the high reliability
required, unit exciter scheme is prevalent where each generating unit has its
individual exciter.
 There are three distinct types of excitation systems based on the power source for
exciter.
1. DC Excitation Systems (DC) which utilize a DC generator with commutator.
2. AC Excitation Systems (AC) which use alternators and either stationary or rotating
rectifiers to produce the direct current needed.
3. Static Excitation Systems (ST) in which the power is supplied through transformers
and rectifiers.
The first two types of exciters are also called rotating exciters which are mounted on the
same shaft as the generator and driven by the prime mover. 8
9
10
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13
MODERN CONTROL AND PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS

 A modern excitation control system is much more than a simple voltage

regulator.
 It includes a number of control, limiting and protective functions which
assist in fulfilling the performance requirements identified earlier
 Figure illustrates the nature of these functions and the manner in
which they interface with each other
 any given system may include only some or all of these functions
depending on the specific application and the type of exciter
 Control functions regulate specific quantities at the desired level
 Limiting functions prevent certain quantities from exceeding set
limits
 if any of the limiters fail, then protective functions remove
appropriate components or the unit from service

14
15
 1. AC Regulator and DC Regulator
AC Regulator:
 basic function is to maintain generator stator voltage
 In addition, other auxiliary control and protection functions act through the ac
regulator to control generator field voltage.
DC Regulator:
 It is holds constant generator field voltage and in commonly referred to as manual
control.
 It is used primarily for testing and start-up, and when ac regulator is faulty.
 In this mode of operation , it is the field voltage that is regulated; only operator
intervention by adjusting the set-point will modify the field voltage.(For manual )
 In some excitation systems, facilities for automatic set-point tracking are provided.
2. Excitation System Stabilizing Circuits
 Excitation systems with significant time delays have poor characteristic dynamic
performance.
 This is particularly true of DC and AC type excitation system.
 unless very low steady-state regulator gain is used, the excitation control action is
unstable when generator is on open-circuit.
 Therefore, excitation control system stabilization, comprising either series or feedback
compensation is used to improve the dynamic response of the control system . 16

 most commonly used form of compensation is a derivative feedback (Figure)

 Figure : Derivative feedback excitation control system stabilization

3. Power System Stabilizer (PSS)

 The input signal for PSS is derived from speed/ frequency, or accelerating
power or a combination of these signals.
 The objective of PSS is to provide damping of the rotor oscillations
whenever there is a transient disturbance.
 Power system dynamic performance is improved by the damping of the
rotor oscillations .
17
18
 with RC and XC positive, the compensator regulates a voltage at a point
within the generator; and provides voltage droop.
 used to ensure proper sharing of reactive power (VARs) between generators
bussed together at their terminals , sharing a common step-up transformer.
 Such an arrangement is commonly used with hydro units and cross-
compound thermal units.

19
 With RC and XC negative, the compensator regulates voltage at a point beyond
the generator terminals.
 Commonly used to compensate for voltage drop across step-up transformer
when two or more generator are connected through individual transformers

In most cases , the resistance component of the in apedance to be compensated

is negligible and Rc may be set to Zer o
Under excitation Limiter (UEL):
 Intended to prevent reduction of generator excitation to a level where steady-
state (small-signal) stability limit or stator core end-region heating limit is
exceeded
 control signal derived from a combination of either voltage and current or
active and reactive power of the generator
 There are a wide variety of forms used for implementation
 It should be coordinated with the loss-of-excitation protection 20

Other names are under excitation reactive-ampere Limiter (URAL)

and minimum excitation Limiter (MEL)
Overexcitation Limiter (OXL)
 Purpose is to protect the generator from overheating due to lengthy field
overcurrent. maximum excitation limiter ( M X L)
 OXL detects the high field current condition and, after a time delay, acts
through the ac regulator to ramp down the excitation to about 110% of rated
field current; if unsuccessful, trips the ac regulator, transfers to dc regulator,
and repositions the set point corresponding to rated value
 two types of time delays used: (a) fixed time, and (b) inverse time
 with inverse time, the delay matches the thermal capability

Figure : Coordination between UEL, LOE relay and stability

limit

21
Volts per Hertz Limiter and Protection:
 used to protect generator and step-up transformer from damage due to
excessive magnetic flux resulting from low frequency and/or overvoltage
 excessive magnetic flux, if sustained, can cause overheating and damage the
unit transformer and the generator core
 Typical V/Hz limitations:

V/Hz (p.u.) 1.25 1.2 1.15 1.10 1.05

Damage Time in GEN 0.2 1.0 6.0 20.0 

Minutes XFMR 1.0 5.0 20.0  

 V/Hz limiter (or regulator) controls the field voltage so as to limit the
generator voltage when V/Hz exceeds a preset value
 V/Hz protection trips the generator when V/Hz exceeds the preset value for
a specified time 22
Note: The unit step-up transformer low voltage rating is frequently 5% below
the generator voltage rating
Modeling of Excitation Systems

Detail of the model required depends on the purpose of study:

 The control and protective features that impact on transient and small-
signal stability studies are the voltage regulator, PSS and excitation
control stabilization
 The limiter and protective circuits normally need to be considered only for
mid-term, long-term and voltage stability studies.
 Some excitation systems are provided with fast-action terminal
voltage limiters in conjunction with PSS ; these have to be modelled in
transient stability simulation.

23
Excitation System Modelling

 The general functional block diagram of an excitation system (for

all the three types defined earlier) is shown in Figure. The
modelling of the various components of the excitation system

Where ESS= Excitation System Stabilizer

24

Figure: Functional block diagram of excitation control system

1 Terminal voltage Transducer -and load compensation

 The terminal voltage of the generator is sensed and transformed to a dc

quantity. Although the filtering associated with the voltage transducer
may be complex, it is usually modelled as a single time constant TR.
 In many systems, TR is very small and can be assumed to be zero for
simplicity.
 The purpose of the load compensation is to synthesize a voltage which differs
from the terminal voltage by the voltage drop in an impedance (Rc+ jXc).
 Both voltage and current phasors must be used in computing Vc. The
objectives of the load compensation are as follows.
a) sharing of reactive power among units which are transported together with
zero impedance between them. In this case, Rc and Xc are positive and the
voltage is regulated at a point internal to the generator.
b) when the generating units are connected in parallel through unit
transformers, it may be desirable to regulate voltage at a point beyond the
machine terminals to compensate for a portion of the transformer impedance.25
In this case both Rc and Xc are negative values.
In most cases, Rc is negligible and can be ignored.
2 Exciters and Voltage Regulators
 The modelling of various excitation systems has been reported in two IEEE
Committee reports.
 Modern Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) are continuously acting electronic
regulators with high gain and small time constants.

 The exciters can be of the following types

1. Field controlled dc generator - commutator
2. a) Field controlled alternator with non-controlled rectifier (using diodes)
i) With slip rings and brushes (stationary rectifier)
ii) Brushless, without sliprings (rotating rectifier)
b) Alternator with controlled rectifier

3. Static exciter with

a) potential source controlled rectifier in which the excitation power is supplied
through a potential transformer connected to generator terminals
b) Compound source (using both current and voltage transformers
at the generator terminals) with
(i) non-controlled rectifier (control using magnetic elements such as
saturable reactors)
(ii) controlled rectifier (for controlling the voltage)
26
IEEE Type 1 Excitation system
In the first IEEE committee report published in 1968. excitation systems were
classified not according to their power source but in an arbitrary manner.

 However the IEEE Type 1 excitation system defined in that report

represents a majority of the excitation systems in service and is widely used.
 It essentially represents rotating exciters but with some modifications can
also represent static exciters.

 Here, VR is the output of the regulator, which is limited.

 The regulator transfer function has single time constant TA and a
positive gain of KA.
27
 The saturation function SE = f(EFD) represents the saturation of the
exciter.
It is to be noted that the limits on VR also imply limits on EFD. Actually the
latter are usually specified, and the former can be found from the equation
(in steady state)

IEEE Type 1 can also represent the static excitation system by specifying the
following parameters KE = 1, TE = 0, SE = 0 and VRMAX = KpVT
shows that the upper limits on the regulator and exciter outputs are directly
related to the terminal voltage (Vr) of the generator.

28
3 Excitation System Stabilizer (ESS) and Transient Gain Reduction
(TGR)

 This is used for increasing the stable region of operation of the excitation
system and permit higher regulator gains.
 It is to be noted that feedback control systems, of which the excitation system
is an example, often require lead/lag compensation or derivative (rate)
feedback.
The feedback transfer function for ESS is shown in Figure

This can be realized by a transformer (assumed to be ideal) whose secondary

is connected to a high impedance
The turns ratio of the transformer and
the time constant (L/ R) of the impedance
determine KF and TF according to the
relations

29

Realization of ESS
30
Transient Gain Reduction(TGR)

 The time constant is usually taken as 1 second. Instead of feedback

compensation for ESS, a series connected lead/lag circuit can also be used as
shown in Figure.
 Here Tc is usually less than TB. Hence, this means of stabilization is termed
as Transient Gain Reduction (TGR).
 The objective of TGR is to reduce the transient gain or gain at higher
frequencies, thereby minimizing the negative contribution of the regulator to
system damping.
 However if Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is specifically used to enhance
system damping, the TGR may not be required. A typical value of the
transient gain reduction factor (TB /Tc) is 10. 31
4 Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
 The stabilization provided by PSS is not to be confused with that by ESS.
 While ESS is designed to provide effective voltage regulation under
open or short circuit conditions, the objective of PSS is to provide damping
of the rotor oscillations whenever there is a transient disturbance.
 Its function is to suppress power system low-frequency oscillations or
increase system damping.
 The damping of these oscillations (whose frequency varies from 0.2 to 2.0
Hz) can be impaired by the provision of high gain AVR, particularly at high
loading conditions when a generator is connected through a high external
impedance (due to weak transmission network).
 Its basic principle is to provide the AVR with an auxiliary control signal to
make the generator produce an electrical torque in phase with the deviation
of rotor speed.
Mathematical Model of Power System Stabilizer
There are several forms of PSS. Here we give a commonly used block diagram of
a PSS transfer function as shown in Fig

32
1) Is the gain of PSS;‚
2) Is the measurement unit with a time Constant T6 (usually very small and
can be ignored);
3) ƒIs a wash-out unit or low frequency filter to block steady-state input signal
to disable PSS at steady-state operation.T5usually is as large as about 5 s.„;
4) and (5)… ; are two lead-lag networks. PSS should consist of at least one lead-
lag network.†;
(6) Is a limiter.
Input signal to PSS,VIS , usually is generator speed, terminal voltage, power,
system frequency, or combination of some of them. Output signal Vs is
superimposed on the AVR input signal.
For PSS to play an effective role, its installing location must be selected and
parameters be set properly.

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34
Inclusion of Limits
There are two types of limiters
1. Windup Limiter
2. Non-Windup Limiter
As the behavior of these limiters are different, it is necessary to indicate the
type of the limiter in the block diagram using the convention shown in Figure

Windup limiter

Non-windup limiter
In the case of the windup limiter, the output variable (y) of the transfer
function is not limited and is free to vary. In this case the limiter can be treated
as a separate block whose input is y and the output is z. If

35
the equations with the windup limiter are

If

In the case of the non-windup limiter, the output of the transfer function is
limited and there is no separate block for the limiter. The equations in this case
are

Note that
1. Windup limiter can result in slow response as the output z of the limiter
does not change until y comes within the limits.
2. Generally, all integrator blocks have non-windup limits.
36
Excitation Systems-Standard Block Diagram
 The second IEEE committee report published in 1981. distinguished
between the excitation systems based on their power source.
 This classification is more logical and can avoid gross approximations in the
representation of different excitation systems.
1 DC Excitation System
 Usually used for small generation units (100 MW or below) 37
 The type DC 1 which represents field controlled DC commutator exciters
with continuously acting voltage regulators, is shown in Figure.
 Figure : Type DC1-DC commutator exciter
 This is similar to the IEEE Type 1 excitation system. The block with the
transfer function (1 + sTc)/(1 + sTB) represents Transient Gain Reduction
(TGR) as TB > TC·
 TBandTCare time constants of the excitation regulator itself.
 They are usually very small and considered to be zero.
 This has the similar function as Excitation System Stabilizer (ESS)
which is used in the feedback path. Normally, either TGR (in the forward
path) or ESS is used. By choosing TB = TC, the TGR is neglected. Similarly by
38
choosing KF = 0, ESS is avoided.
(i) Derivation of the Transfer Function for separately Excited DC
Generator
Consider the DC exciter shown in Figure
The equation for the field circuit
of the exciter is

-----------------(1)

The exciter voltage Ex is a nonlinear function of If as shown in Figure

Figure : Exciter load saturation curve

39
 The speed of the exciter is assumed to be constant as it is normally driven by
the generator shaft.

From graph, we can express

-----------------(2)

It is convenient to express If in per unit of lfb where

Exb is the rated voltage which is defined as the voltage which produces rated
open circuit voltage in the generator neglecting saturation.

Thus, in per unit quantities, Eqs.1&2

40
41
(ii) Self Excited DC Generators

Ea represents the voltage of the

amplifier in series with the exciter shunt
field.
Hence,

Using this relation along with the

block diagram.

𝐸𝑎
with the modified value of KE as

The field resistance RF, is periodically

adjusted to maintain VR = 0 in steady
state.

where SEo is the value of saturation

function SE at the initial operating
point.
42
It is to be noted that KE is generally
negative for self-excited exciter.
2. AC Excitation System
 Excitation system with an AC exciter is widely used for 100 MW or above
generation units.
 Type AC 1 (Field controlled alternator rectifier, with non-controlled rectifiers)
excitation system is shown in Figure .

a) The armature reaction of the alternator (KDIFD) and

b) Rectifier regulation (FEX) are considered. The constant KD is a function 43
of the alternator synchronous and transient reactance. The constant Kc
is a function of the commutating reactance.
 The function FEX is defined as follows

This signal VFE is proportional to the exciter field current. This signal is also used
as input to the Excitation System Stabilizer (ESS).

 Most excitation systems with AC exciter adopt uncontrollable power

rectifier.
 They can be classified into two groups: stationary rectifier excitation
systems and rotating rectifier excitation systems.
 This kind of arrangement is to use the field voltage of the generator Vf as the
feedback input signal.
 Field current If is also an input signal of the excitation regulator and
constant KD represents the equivalent load effect of the AC exciter.
 the exciter is self-excitation system . 44
 When separately excited is used, we need to replace the block kE+SE by
1+SE, where kE and SE are the self-excitation coefficient and saturation factor
of the AC exciter, respectively.
 The block diagram of an AC excitation system adopting a controllable rectifier
to supply generator excitation is shown

Fig: Block diagram of transfer function of excitation system with AC exciter

adopting controllable power rectifier

 The rectifier is controlled by an independent voltage regulator and hence its

output is kept approximately constant.
 This has been combined with an equivalent composite amplifying
unit, where time constant TA and gain KA represent the dynamic performance
of the controllable rectifier and its regulator.
 To improve system dynamic performance, this type of excitation system 45
usually adopts a series regulator instead of a shunt regulator.
 The time constants of the series regulator are TB and TC. We should point out
that the load of the controllable rectifier is limited to ensure IN between 0 and
0.433
 Load effect of the excitation system is reflected in the upper limit of the
bidirectional limiter.

46
 3 Static Excitation System
 In these systems, transformers are used to convert voltage (and also current in
compounded systems) to the required level of the field voltage.
 Controlled or uncontrolled rectifiers are used to provide the dc voltage for the generator
field.
 Although negative field voltage forcing is used, many of the excitation systems used do
not permit negative field current.
 This aspect is normally ignored in computer simulation but can be significant
sometimes (particularly in asynchronous operation).
 As the exciter ceiling voltage tends to be high in static exciters, field current limiters
are used to protect the exciter and field circuit.
 However, this protection is also not modelled except in special cases.
The block diagram of the potential source, controlled-rectifier excitation system is shown
in Figure

47
 The internal limiter following the summing junction can be neglected, but field
voltage limits which are dependent on both VT and IFD must be considered.
For transformer fed systems Kc is small and can be neglected.

 It also similar to that of alternator supplied controlled rectifier excitation

system. The only difference is that the field voltage limits are not dependent
on the generator terminal voltage VT in the case of alternator supplied
system.
 Both series regulation and shunt regulation are displayed in the diagram.
 Usually only one of them is used. Hence when series regulation is used, we 48
can set KF to zero.
 when shunt regulation is used, we just set time constants TB and TC to zero
Modeling of Complete Excitation Systems

Figure depicts the general structure of a detailed excitation system model having
a one-to-one correspondence with the physical equipment.
 While this model structure has the advantage of retaining a direct relationship
between model parameters and physical parameters, such detail is considered
too great for general system studies.
 Therefore, model reduction techniques are used to simplify and obtain a
practical model appropriate for the type of study for which it is intended.
49
The parameters of the reduced model are selected such that the gain and phase
characteristics of the reduced model match those of the detailed model over the
frequency range of 0 to 3 Hz. In addition, all significant nonlinearities that
impact on system stability are accounted for. With a reduced model, however,
direct correspondence between the model parameters and the actual system
parameters is generally lost.

1. Type DC1A Exciter model

50
 The type DC1A exciter model represents field controlled dc commutator
exciters, with continuously acting voltage regulators. The exciter may be
separately excited or self excited, the latter type being more common.
 When self excited, KE is selected so that initially VR=0, representing
operator action of tracking the voltage regulator by periodically trimming
the shunt field rheostat set point.

2. Type AC1A Exciter model

The type AC1A exciter model represents a field controlled alternator
excitation system with non-controlled rectifiers, applicable to a brushless
excitation system. The diode rectifier characteristic imposes a lower limit
of zero on the exciter output voltage. The exciter field supplied by a pilot 51
exciter, and the voltage regulator power supply is not affected by external
transients.
52
3. Type AC4A exciter model

The type AC4A exciter model represents an alternator supplied controlled rectifier
excitation system - a high initial response excitation system utilizing full wave thyristor
bridge circuit. Excitation system stabilization is usually provided in the form of a series
lag-lead network (transient gain reduction). The time constant associated with the
regulator and firing of thyristors is represented by TA. The overall gain is represented by
KA. The rectifier operation is confined to mode 1 region. Rectifier regulation effects on
exciter output limits are accounted for by constant KC.

53
4. Type ST1A exciter model
The type ST1A exciter model represents potential-source controlled-rectifier
systems.
The excitation power is supplied through a transformer from generator terminals;
therefore, the exciter ceiling voltage is directly proportional to generator terminal
voltage. The effect of rectifier regulation on ceiling voltage is represented by KC. The
model provides flexibility to represent series lag-lead or rate feedback stabilization.
Because of very high field forcing capability of the system, a field current limiter is
sometimes employed; the limit is defined by lLR and the gain by KLR.

54
55
 Prime-Mover Control System
 The regulation of frequency in the system requires the speed control of
prime-mover using governor. However, parallel operation of generators
requires a droop characteristic incorporated in the speed-governing system
to ensure stability and proper division of load. Hence, to maintain
constant frequency, an auxiliary control is required which responds to a
load unbalance.
 Also, it is necessary for the prime-mover control to adjust the generation
according to economic dispatch.

 Thus, different prime-mover controls are classified as

(a) Primary (speed governor),
(b) Secondary (load frequency control) and
(c) Tertiary (involving economic dispatch).
 With increase in the system size due to interconnections, the frequency
variations (in normal conditions) become less and less and load frequency
control assumes importance. However, the role of speed governors in rapid
control of frequency cannot be underestimate.
 In stability studies, the secondary and tertiary controls are usually
neglected. Only speed-governing systems including turbines need to be
represented.
56
 Prime-Mover Control System
Variable Pm in the rotor movement equation of the generator is the mechanical
power output from the prime mover.

 Pm is related to the operating condition of the prime mover and controlled by

a governing system.
 Excluding wind, sun, and wave power generation, there are two types of
prime mover used for large-scale power generation, hydraulic turbines,
and steam turbines.
 The hydraulic turbine (or steam turbine) converts hydraulic energy (or
steam thermal energy) into rotating kinetic energy of the prime mover which
is then converted into electric power by the generator.
 Obviously, the amount of power being converted is associated with the
opening position of the wicket gate of a hydraulic turbine and steam
valve of a steam turbine. 57
 Because the generator rotor is driven by the prime mover and rotates on the
same shaft with the prime mover,
 If we assume that the generator output power is fixed, when the opening position
increases, the generator will accelerate; and conversely it decelerates.
 Therefore, regulation of the gate or valve position will change the output power
from the prime mover to control generator speed.
 Hence it is easy to see that the main control signal to the opening position should
be generator speed.
 From the rotor movement equation , we can see that when a power system is
subject to a disturbance at steady-state operation, electric power output from the
generator changes.
 This change destroys the balance between electric power output from the
generator and mechanical power input to the generator from the prime mover,
leading to variation of the generator speed.
 Change of generator speed results in a response of the governing system to adjust
the opening position of the wicket gate (of a hydraulic turbine) or steam valve (of
a steam turbine).

58
Mathematical Model of Hydro-turbine and
Governing System
(1) Mathematical Model of Hydraulic Turbine

 Dynamics of hydraulic turbines are closely related to those of water flow

through a penstock,
 whereas the characteristics of water flow through a penstock are affected by
many factors, such as water inertia, water compressibility, and pipe wall
elasticity in the penstock.
59
For example, due to water inertia inside a penstock, change of water flow inside a
hydraulic turbine lags the opening position change of the wicket gate.

 When the opening position of the wicket gate increases suddenly, water
volume at the wicket gate increases.
 However, due to the water inertia, speed of water flow at other points inside the
pipe cannot increase immediately.
 This results in input water pressure of the hydraulic turbine decreasing instead
of increasing for a short of period of time after the change, leading to a decrease
of input power of the hydraulic turbine instead of an increase.
 On the other hand, when the opening position of the wicket gate decreases
suddenly, input water pressure and input power will increase temporarily and
then decrease. This phenomenon is usually called the water hammer effect.
 A detailed derivation of the mathematical model of input water pressure on the
turbine with wave effects considered requires extensive application of fluid
mechanics.
 This is only necessary for the case with a long pressure pipe. In the following, we
shall establish a mathematical model of a hydraulic turbine, useful for the
analysis of power system stability, with the wave effect of water flow ignored.
 That is, to assume that the pressure pipe is inelastic, and water is not
compressible. 60
Additionally we shall only consider an ideal hydraulic turbine, i.e.,
(1) Neglecting the mechanical power loss caused by the resistance against water
flow from the penstock wall;
(2) Power output of the hydraulic turbine being proportional to the product of net
water head and water flow volume; and
(3) Speed of water flow being proportional to the product of the opening position of
the wicket gate and square root of the stationary water head.
Hence we can obtain the hydraulic equations as follows:

………….(1) Where
U is the water velocity;
………….(2) KU the proportional constant;
H the net water head of hydraulic turbine;
µ opening position of wicket gate;
………….(3) P the mechanical power output of hydraulic
m
turbine;
KP the proportional constant; g the gravity
acceleration constant;
L the length of penstock; and
H0 is the steady-state value of H.
61
Taking the initial value of various variables as their base value, the above
hydraulic equations can be converted into the following per unit form
………….(4)
………….(5)

………….(6)

Where
………….(7)

 Tw is the time constant of equivalent water hammer effect and physically it

is the time required for water head H0 to accelerate water flow in penstock
from a stationary state to the flowing speed U0.
 Usually under full load condition, Tw is set by the manufacturer between
0.5 and 4 s.
 Assuming that at initial steady state, the operating point of the hydraulic
turbine shifts slightly due to small disturbances from the load, the
above hydraulic equations can be linearized at the initial steady-state
operating point and after Laplace transformation they become
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Small disturbances From eq.(4) ,(5) & (6)
………….(8)

………….(9)

………….(10)

Eliminating variables ∆H and ∆U in the above three equations we can

obtain (per unit value of H0 is 1), substituting (8) & (10) in to (9)
………….(11)

The model above is called the classical model of a hydraulic turbine. Its
transfer function block diagram is shown in Fig

Fig.: Transfer function of classical

model of hydraulic turbine

In the analysis of power system stability, the above classical model of a

hydraulic turbine is used.
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From the assumptions used to derive the model we know that the
classical model is applicable to cases with relatively small variations
of load.
 When load changes over a wide range, the model may cause a large
computational error .
 In the following, we shall establish a nonlinear model of a hydraulic turbine.
 Basic assumptions will be the same as those for deriving the classical model
except that mechanical power loss and dead zone are taken into account.
 Opening position of wicket gate µ in (1) is that of an ideal wicket gate with the
dead zone of the hydraulic turbine caused by factors such as friction being
ignored, i.e., it is assumed that when µ changes from 0 to 1, operation of the
hydraulic turbine goes from no load to full load.
 With mechanical power loss being considered, position change of the wicket
gate from closing to opening, initially has to overcome stationary friction
forces in the hydraulic turbine without affecting the turbine to start rotation
immediately.
 Hence we need to replace the ideal opening position µ by the actual one 𝛾.
we can see their relationship to be ……………(12)
Where
……………(13)

When the actual opening position is γNL, the hydraulic turbine is still at no-load.
When it is γ FL, the hydraulic turbine operates at full load.
With power loss being considered, hydraulic equations eq.(2) become 64
……………(14)
……………(15)
 Where PL is no-load loss of the hydraulic turbine; UNL critical water speed
when the hydraulic turbine changes from stationary to rotating. Obviously that
is when the actual opening position is γNL.
Taking the rated parameters of the hydraulic turbine as the corresponding base
value, we can convert (4), (5), (6), and (7) into the following per unit form

……………(16)

……………(17)

……………(18)

……………(19)

TWis the time constant of the equivalent water hammer effect at rated
load. From (7) we can see that the relationship of the time constant
between any load condition and at rated load is

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……………(20)
In (17), base value of power is the rated power of the hydraulic turbine. To
connect it to the mathematical model of the generator, we can convert the base
value of power to the rated power of generator SB

……………(21)

……………(22)
Rewriting(16)

……………(23)

From (12) and (23) we can eliminate H in (18) and (21) to obtain

……………(24)

……………(25)

The two equations above are the nonlinear model of a hydraulic turbine.
From the physical meaning of UNL we know that when the actual opening 66
position of wicket gate γ is γNL , acceleration of water flow is zero.
 From (24) we have

……………(26)

NormallyH0is 1 and hence UNL is a constant. From (12), (23), (18), and
(21) we can show the nonlinear model of the hydraulic turbine in Fig.

…(12) …(18)

(21) …(23)

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Fig. Block diagram of transfer function of hydraulic turbine

 (2) Mathematical Model of Steam Turbine
Dynamics of steam turbines are mainly related to the volume effect of steam.
In the following, we shall first derive the time constant for the general steam
volume effect.

68
Assuming that the output steam flow is proportional to steam pressure in the
vessel, we have

69
TV is called the time constant of steam volume effect.
From TV equation we can see that the bigger the volume of the vessel, the
higher is the time constant of volume effect.
From Qout equation we can see that when the input steam flow increases (or
decreases) suddenly, the output steam flow will not increases (or decreases)
immediately because the pressure inside the vessel cannot increase (or
decrease) instantly. Change of output steam flow lags that of input steam flow.
This is the steam volume effect phenomena

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There are many types of configuration of steam turbines. Modern steam turbine
units consist of multiple-stage steam turbines to drive a single generator.
According to the difference in rated operating steam pressure, multiple-stage
turbines can be classified as high pressure (HP), intermediate pressure (IP), and
low pressure (LP) turbines.
Medium and small steam turbine units may have only a one-stage turbine. To
increase thermal efficiency, modern steam turbine units usually have an
intermediate reheater (RH).

Fig. Illustration of a
multistage steam turbine

Fig. Block diagram of

transfer function of a
multi-stage steam turbine

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From Illustration of a multistage steam turbine
 we can see that the high-pressure high-temperature steam from the boiler
enters the HP stage through a main valve and steam chest.
 We should note the existence of a certain volume of steam in the pipe and
chest from the main valve to the nozzle of the HP stage.
 Exhaust steam from the HP stage is sent into the reheater section to raise
temperature before entering the IP stage.
 Similarly we should to note that there exists a certain volume of steam
between the output point of the HP stage and input point of IP stage.
 Exhaust steam from IP stage enters the LP stage through crossover that also
has a certain volume.
 Volume effects of the three volumes mentioned above can be described by time
constant TCH, TRH, and TCO, respectively. Usually TCH is between 0.2 and 0.3 s,
time constant of reheater TRH is large, between 5 and 10 s, and TCO is about
0.5 s.
 Output mechanical torque of the steam turbine is proportional to the steam
flow at the nozzle.
 In addition, we assume that input steam flow to the HP stage is
approximately proportional to the opening position of the main steam valve µ.
We denote the proportionality coefficient of mechanical power of HP, IP, and
LP stages to be FHP,FIP ,FLP. Usually FHP, FIP, FLPis 0.3, 0.3, 0.4 and their
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summation is one.
From the analysis above and taking proper base values for per unit expressions,
we can obtain the mathematical model of the steam turbine in per unit to be

Where TmH, TmI, TmLi s the output mechanical torque of HP, IP, and LP
turbines, respectively, flows Q0–Q3 are shown in Fig.

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There are six common steam turbine systems given below
(i) Nonreheat
(ii) Tandem Compound, Single Reheat
(iii) Tandem Compound, Double Reheat
(iv) Cross Compound, Single Reheat with two LP turbines
(v) Cross Compound, Single Reheat with single LP turbine
(vi) Cross Compound, Double Reheat

 Tandem compound has only one shaft on which all the turbines, High
Pressure (HP), Intermediate Pressure (IP) and Low Pressure (LP) turbines
are mounted. Sometimes there is a Very High Pressure (VHP) turbine also.
 Cross compound systems have two shafts driving two independent
generators.

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The configurations corresponding to (ii) Tandem Compound, Single Reheat and
(iii) Cross Compound, Single Reheat are shown in Figure

(a) Steam system configurations for Tandem compound, single reheat

Steam turbine models for Tandem compound, single reheat

75
(b) Steam system configurations for Cross compound, single reheat

76
(b) Steam turbine models for Cross compound, single reheat

77
All compound steam turbines use governor controlled valves at the inlet to the
high pressure turbine, to control the steam flow. The steam chest, reheater and
crossover piping all introduces delays.
The time constants TCH and TRH and TCO represent these delays. The fractions
FHP, FIP, FLP represent fractions of the total turbine power developed, in the
HP,IP and LP turbines respectively. Typical values for TCH, TRH and TCO are

The typical values of FHP, FIP and FLP are 0.3, 0.3 and 0.4 respectively, the
sum adding to unity.

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 The stop valves (MSV and RSV) are primarily emergency
trip valves.
 The CVs modulate steam flow during normal operation.
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 The CVs as well as the IVs limit overspeed.
80
81
82
Steam Turbine Controls

Functions:
The governing systems have three basic functions:
a. Normal speed/load control
b. Over-speed control
c. Over-speed trip
In addition, the turbine controls include a number of other functions such as
start-up/shut-down controls and auxiliary pressure control 83
 (a) The speed/load control is a fundamental requirement
 Achieved through control of CVs
 The speed control function provides the governor with a 4 to 5% speed drop
 The load control function achieved by adjusting speed/load reference
(b) The overspeed control and protection is peculiar to steam turbines
 of critical importance for safe operation
 speed should be limited to well below the design maximum speed of 120%
The overspeed control is the first line of defense
 Involves fast control of CVs and IVs
 Limits overspeed following load rejection to 0.5 to 1.0% below overspeed trip
level
 Returns the turbine to a steady-state condition with turbine ready for
reloading
(c) The overspeed or emergency trip is a backup protection
 Designed to be independent of the overspeed control
 Fast closes the main and reheat stop valves, and trips the boiler 84
 Project or assignment

Speed-Governing Systems

 There are two types of speed-governing systems, namely

 a) Mechanical-Hydraulic

 b) Electro-Hydraulic
 In both types, hydraulic motors are used for positioning the valve or
gate controlling steam or water flow.
 The speed sensing and conditioning (at low power) for electro-
hydraulic governors is done using electronic circuits while for
mechanical-hydraulic governors, it is done using mechanical
components.
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