GAS TURBINE Engine 3.

Turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine

that delivers power to a propeller. Power
produced by a turboprop is delivered to a
reduction gear system that spins a
A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat propeller. A turboprop engine is a variant of
engine using a mass of air as a working fluid a jet engine that has been optimised to
to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass drive a propeller. Turboprop equipped
of air passing through the engine has to be aircraft are very efficient at lower flight
accelerated, which means that the velocity, speeds (0.6 mach
(or kinetic energy), of the air is increased.
To obtain this increase, the pressure energy Or 741km/hr, burning less fuel per seat-
is first of all increased, followed by the mile and requiring significantly less runway
addition of heat energy, before final for takeoff and landing than a turbojet or
conversion back to kinetic energy in the turbofan powered aircraft of the same size.
form of a high velocity jet efflux.

4. A turbofan engine, sometimes referred

There are 4 types of gas turbine engine: to as a fanjet or bypass engine, is a jet
engine variant which produces thrust using
1. Turbojet engine a combination of jet core efflux and bypass
2. Turboshaft engine air which has been accelerated by a ducted
3. Turboprop engine fan that is driven by the jet core. The ratio
4. Turbofan engine of the mass of air bypassing the engine core
5. versus the mass of the air going through the
core is referred to as a the bypass ratio.

1. A turbojet engine is a jet engine which

produces all of its thrust by ejecting a high
energy gas stream from the engine exhaust
nozzle. In contrast to a turbofan or bypass
engine, 100% of the air entering the intake
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is
of a turbojet engine goes through the
the turbojet engine, which has three major
engine core.
parts; the compressor, the combustion
section and the turbine. A shaft connects
the compressor and the turbine to form a
Air enters through the air intake, single, rotating unit. These engines produce
compressed by the compressor, fuel is thrust in the manner described in the
added and burned in the combustion Brayton Cycle.
chamber, heat causes the compressed air to
expand rearward, passes through the
turbine and spins it, which drives the
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit
compressor, and the air then exit the
shown below with a single centrifugal
engine at a much higher velocity than the
(Double Entry) compressor and a single
incoming air.
stage turbine. This type of engine can still
be found in certain special installations but
generally, they have been superseded by
engines with axial compressors and multiple
2.A turboshaft engine is a variant of a jet stage turbines. The advantages and
engine that has been optimised to produce disadvantages of the two types of
shaft power to drive machinery instead of compressor will be discussed in depth later
producing thrust. Turboshaft engines are in this module.
most commonly used in applications that
require a small, but powerful, light weight
engine, inclusive of helicopters and auxiliary THE BRAYTON CYCLE
power units. This is an engine that delivers
The working cycle of the gas turbine engine
power to a shaft that can drive something
is similar to that of the four-stroke piston
else.
engine. There is induction, compression,
ignition and exhaust in both cases, In four

1
stroke piston engines this process is called By considering incompressible fluid flow we
the Otto cycle. In Gas turbines however the can assume that density will remain
process is called the Brayton cycle. In the constant. Now consider an incompressible
Otto cycle the four stages happen in fluid as it flows through the duct system
separate stages. In the Brayton cycle they shown in the fig. 1.7. We know that the
form a continuous process. The combustion mass flow is constant and as the fluid is
during the Otto cycle is done with constant incompressible we can treat the density as
volume while in the Brayton cycle it is done constant. Naturally, as the fluid enters the
in constant pressure. larger cross sectional area it will take up the
new shape and the initial volume will now
occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in
SECOND TOPIC a given time, less distance is travelled and
therefore the velocity is reduced. Thus we
conclude that if the mass flow is to remain
Temperature, Pressure, constant, as it must, an increase in duct
area must be accompanied by a reduction
And Velocity in flow velocity. A decrease in
Duct area must bring about an increase in
VELOCITY AND PRESSURE velocity; we can express this action as –
velocity varies inversely with changes in
During the passage of the air (gas) through duct area.
the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its
velocity and pressure. For example, during BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
compression a rise in the pressure of the air
is required with no increase in its velocity. This theorem can be related to the
After the air has been heated and its relationship between pressure and velocity
internal energy increased by combustion, existing in the air flowing through a duct,
an increase in the velocity of the gases is such as a jet engine. The theorem states
necessary to cause the turbine to rotate. that the total energy per unit mass is
Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity constant for a fluid moving inside a duct
is required, for it is the change in and that total energy consists mainly of
momentum of the air that provides the pressure energy and kinetic energy:
thrust on the aircraft. Local decelerations of a. Pressure energy.
gas flow are also required – for example, in
the combustion chambers to provide a low In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is
velocity zone for the flame. more often called ‘static pressure’ and it
can be defined as the pressure that would
be felt by a body which was submerged in
DUCTS AND NOZZLES the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the
same velocity as the medium. When we
MASS FLOW THROUGH A DUCTED SYSTEM refer to pressure in a gas turbine it is Static
Pressure we are referring to.Kinetic energy.

If we investigate what happens when a This kind of energy is more often called
steady stream of air passes through a ‘dynamic pressure’ and this term is used to
steady flow machine, such as a gas turbine define the extra pressure created by the
engine which is operating at a fixed rpm movement of the medium. For gas turbine
and air inlet density, we find that the mass theory we can state that dynamic pressure
flow at any point in the system is of a is proportional to ½ mass x velocity 2 (ie.
constant value. ½mv2). When the medium (gas or fluid) is
moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.

b. Kinetic energy.
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW This kind of energy is more often called
‘dynamic pressure’ and this term is used to

2
define the extra pressure created by the A convergent duct is such that the space
movement of the medium. For gas turbine inside reduces as the airflow progresses
theory we can state that dynamic pressure through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of
is proportional to ½ mass x velocity 2 (ie. this kind of duct is to increase the velocity
½mv2). When the medium (gas or fluid) is and decreases the pressure and
moving, the total energy = static pressure + temperature of the air passing through it.
dynamic pressure.

SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND

Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere) CONVERGENT DUCTS
Compressible fluid flow refers to the air
flow through a gas turbine engine and,
When a flow of fluid (i.e. gas) flows at sonic
because the air is compressible, flow at
speed the relationship between the shape
subsonic speeds causes a change in the
of the duct and pressure/velocity reverses
density of the air as it progresses through
across the shock wave i.e. convergent –
the engine.
pressure increases, velocity decreases:
divergent – pressure decreases velocity
increases.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig
1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1) and
velocity (V1); then as the air enters the
The airflow in the exhaust duct is normally
increased area of the duct at B it will spread
subsonic but is accelerated by a convergent
out to fill the increased area and this will
nozzle. As the velocity increases to the local
cause the air flow to slow down (continuity
speed of sound a shock wave forms at the
equation) and give a change in velocity to
exit area of the duct. The exit area is said to
V2. The static pressure of the air will
be choked. Behind the shock wave the
increase (Bernoulli’s theorem) to become
pressure will increase and velocity
P2 in the wider section of the duct and,
decrease. The increase in pressure will act
because air is compressible, the air density
on the nozzle area and effectively push the
will increase as it is compresses by the rise
engine forward. This force (area x pressure)
in pressure in section B of the duct.
must then be added to the basic thrust
formula.
Diffuser action
The flare, which increases the area of the To make more efficient use of the choked
duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig 1.12.)and its nozzle principle a convergent divergent
shape determines the rate of compression nozzle may be used. In the convergent
and the amount by which the air is section the subsonic airflow is increased to
compressed. For best results, the airflow sonic velocity at the narrowest part. A
must remain smooth and, because of this, a divergent section is added to the nozzle
most important design feature is the angle which, as the airflow is now supersonic will
of divergence. When air is compressed by cause the pressure to decrease and velocity
this process it is called subsonic diffusion to increase. Although this will reduce the
and it is a principle that is used extensively pressure thrust it will increase the reaction
in jet engine. thrust.

DIVERGENT DUCT 3rd Topic

A divergent duct widens out as the airflow
progresses through it. At subsonic speeds
the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease Cold Section and
the velocity and increase the pressure and Hot section
temperature of the air passing through it.

Cold Section & Hot Section

CONVERGENT DUCT

3
An aircraft gas turbine is divided into two
sections: the cold Section & hot section. The
Cold section includes the air inlet, the
compressor and the diffuser. The Hot
section includes the combustion chamber,
the turbine and the exhaust. Hot section
Combustion chamber

COLD SECTION The combustion section houses the

combustion process, which raises the
temperature of the air passing through the
engine. This process releases energy
Air Inlet
contained in the air/ fuel mixture. The
The inlet is the part of the aircraft that major part of this energy is required at the
brings air into the propulsion system. The turbine or turbine stages to drive the
inlet design affects the performance of the compressor.
propulsion system. In turn, the varying
The primary function of the combustion
airflow demands of the engine affect the
section is, of course, to burn the fuel/air
performance of the inlet and the flight
mixture, thereby adding heat energy to the
envelope of the aircraft. A “good” inlet
air. To do this efficiently, the combustion
design allows the engine to produce high
chamber must:
thrust and low fuel usage over a wide range
of flight conditions and throttle conditions. a. Provide the means for proper mixing
A “poor” inlet design limits the operating of the fuel and air to assure good
range of the engine and aircraft. combustion,
b. .Burn this mixture efficiently,
c. .Cool the hot combustion products
Compressor to a temperature that the turbine
inlet guide vanes/blades can
The compressor section of the gas turbine
withstand under operating
engine has many functions. Its primary
condiefficientl
function is to supply air in sufficient
d. Deliver the hot gases to the turbine
quantity to satisfy the requirements of the
section.
combustion burners. Specifically, to fulfill its
purpose, the compressor must increase the Turbine
pressure of the mass of air received from
The turbine section of the gas turbine
the air inlet duct, and then, discharge it to
engine has the task of producing usable
the burners in the quantity and at the
output shaft power to drive the propeller. It
pressures required. A secondary function of
does this by expanding the high
the compressor is to supply bleed-air for
temperature, pressure, and velocity gas and
various purposes in the engine and aircraft.
converting the gaseous energy to
The bleed-air is taken from any of the
mechanical energy in the form of shaft
various pressure stages of the compressor.
power.The turbine section of a gas turbine
engine is located aft, or downstream, of the
combustion chamber. Specifically, it is
Diffuser
directly behind the combustion chamber
The diffuser is the divergent section of the outlet.Hot section
engine after the compressor and before the
combustion section. It has the all-important
function of reducing high-velocity Exhaust
compressor discharge air to increased
The exhaust section of the gas turbine
pressure at a slower velocity. This prepares
engine consists of several components.
the air for entry into the flame burning area
Although the components have individual
of the combustion section at a lower
purposes, they also have one common
velocity so that the flame of combustion
function: they must direct the flow of hot
can burn continuously. If the air passed
gases rearward in such a manner as to
through the flame area at a high velocity, it
prevent turbulence and, at the same time,
could extinguish the section.
impart a high final or exit velocity to the

4
gases. In performing the various functions, for high altitude high speed flight they are
each of the components affects the flow of in a class of their own.
gases in different ways. The exhaust section
is located directly behind the turbine
section and ends when the gases are Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan
ejected at the rear in the form of a high- engines.
velocity exhaust gases.
These engines will have two or three shafts.
4th TOPIC The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger
diameter compressor. Some of the air
produced bypasses the core engine (hence
ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS the name) and is used to provide thrust.
The core airflow provides power for the
There are two main types of gas turbine
compressors and thrust. These engines are
engines:
quieter than turbojets and more fuel-
a. Reaction engines efficient. The Spey and Tay engines fall into
b. Power engines this category.

Reaction engines The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio

of the air in flowing through the by-pass to
Which derive their thrust by jet reaction. Jet the air passing through the core of the
reaction is defined as an internal reaction to engine. Low by-pass less than 2:1, medium
a mass of air accelerated through the by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than
engine. As they require the energy in the 5:1.
airflow to provide thrust a minimum
amount of energy is withdrawn by the
turbines for engine operation.
High by-pass turbofan engines. These
engines have very large fans driven by a
relatively small core engine. Often the fan is
Power engines geared to run at a lower speed than the LP
Which provide a mechanical output to turbine, which gives the turbine mechanical
drive another device. These engines do not advantage and also allows it to run at
rely on jet reaction and indeed jet reaction higher speed where it is more efficient. The
may cause handling problems. Maximum ALF 502, RB211 and the Trent engines are
energy is withdrawn by the turbines for all high by-pass
engine operation and to power the High by-pass engines are very fuel efficient,
mechanical output. powerful and quiet. These engines have a
very large diameter which does give drag
problems, and are not suitable for high
REACTION ENGINES speed flight as the blade tips will suffer
compressibility problems as they approach
the speed of sound.
Turbojet engines
The turbojet was the first type of jet engine
developed. In this engine all the air passes POWER ENGINES
through the core engine (i.e. the
compressor, combustor and turbine). The
engine may be single shaft as in the Avon
engine, or twin shafted as in the Olympus Power producing engines come in two main
593 fitted to Concorde. The shaft transmits forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
the drive from the turbine to the
compressor. The Turbine, shaft and
compressor assembly is generally referred
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop
to as the spool or rotor.
engines extract most of the energy
These engines are noisy and are not the from the gas stream and convert it
most fuel efficient for normal use, however into rotational energy to drive a

5
 propeller. The engines are either modified by adding a decimal figure for
single or twin shaft and may be each stage. Behind the turbine it becomes
direct drive where the LP or main
Station 5 air, becoming
shaft drive the propeller through a
gearbox, or they may have a Station 6 or 7 air aft of the tail cone.
separate power turbine to drive the
propeller. Turboprop engines differ Station 7 air is just before the propelling
from high by-pass turbofans in that nozzle and
the propeller does not have an Station 8 air at the narrowest point of the
intake to slow and prepare the air propelling nozzle.
before passing through it. The
propeller therefore has to meet the Finally the air behind the nozzle is referred
demands of airspeed etc. Examples to as station 9.
of turboprops are the Dart, PW125
and Tyne engines.
INLET
b. Turboshaft Engines. These engines INTRODUCTION
are used in helicopters. They share
many of the attributes of turboprop An air intake should deliver air to the
engines, but are usually smaller. engine compressor with a minimum loss of
They do not have propeller control energy and at a uniform pressure under all
systems built into the engine and engine operating conditions. The inlet duct
usually do not have many is built in the shape of a subsonic divergent
accessories attached such as diffuser, so that the kinetic energy of the
generators etc. as these are driven rapidly moving air can be converted into a
by the main rotor gearbox. Modern ram pressure rise within the duct. This
turboshaft and turbo prop engines condition is referred to as “Ram Recovery”.
run at constant speed which tends
to prolong the life of the engine and
also means that they are more RAM COMPRESSION
efficient as the engine can run at its
optimum speed all the time.
The degree of Ram Compression depends
upon the following:
ENGINE STATIONS
Frictional losses at those surfaces ahead of
Engines are divided up into section or
the intake entry which are “wetted” by the
stations. These help identify the source of
intake airflow.
air pressure or temperature when looking
at more complex systems such as the fuel Frictional losses at the intake duct walls.
system.
Turbulence losses due to accessories or
structural members located in the intake.
Station 0 air is air before the intake, this
becomes
Aircraft speed.
Station 1 air in the intake and by pass
In a turbo-prop, drag and turbulence losses
casing.
due to the prop blades and spinner.
Station 2 is air in the fan and compressor
and may be further divided down by adding
a decimal figure after the 2. This is usually Ram compression causes a re-distribution in
indicates the stage, however some engines the forms of energy existing in the air-
do not conform in this area. stream. As the air in the intake is slowed up
in endeavouring to pass into and through
Station 3 is compressor discharge air which
the compressor element against the air of
is the highest pressure air in the engine.
increasing pressure and density which exists
After combustion this becomes
therein so the kinetic energy of the air in
Station 4 air and remains station 4 air the intake decreases. This is accompanied
through the turbine, again this may be by a corresponding increase in its pressure

6
and internal energies and consequently reduce the intake efficiency as speed
compression of the air-stream is achieved increases. To overcome this problem the
within the intake, thus converting the compression intake was designed.
unfavourable intake lip conditions into the
compressor inlet requirements.
IDEAL INTAKE CONDITIONS
For air to flow smoothly through a
Although ram compression improves the
compressor, its velocity should be about 0.5
performance of the engine, it must be
mach at the compressor inlet; this includes
realised that during the process there is a
aircraft flying faster than the speed of
drag force on the engine and hence the
sound. Hence intakes are designed to
aircraft. This drag must be accepted since it
decelerate the free stream airflow to this
is a penalty inherent in a ram compression
condition over the range of aircraft speeds.
process. (The added thrust more than
Intakes should also convert the kinetic
makes up for this drag).
energy into pressure energy without undue
shock or energy loss. This means that the
ideal compressor inlet pressure should be
TYPES OF AIR INTAKES
the same as the total head pressure at the
PITOT INTAKES intake lip.

This intake is suitable for subsonic or low (Total head pressure = stagnation pressure,
supersonic speeds. Examples, 707, 747, ie. Static and dynamic pressure).
A300B, Tristar, etc. The intake is usually
5th topic
short and is very efficient because the duct
inlet is located directly ahead of the engine
compressor. As the duct length increases,
Intake Anti-icing, and
the risk of small airflow disturbances and
pressure drop is increased. This inlet makes Compressors
maximum use of ram effect until sonic
speed is approached when efficiency falls
due to shock wave formation at the intake 1. Engine hot air Anti-icing
lip. Pitot inlets can however suffer from 2. Engine electrical anti-icing
inlet turbulences at high angles of attack 3. Oil anti-ice
and/or at low speeds. 4. Compressor general

DIVIDED ENTRANCE DUCT Intake Anti-icing

On a single engine aircraft with fuselage
mounted engines, either a wing root inlet or
a side scoop inlet may be used. The wing Operations of present day aircraft
root inlet presents a problem to designers necessitates flying in all weather conditions
in the forming of the curvature necessary to plus the fact that high velocity air induced
deliver the air to the engine compressor. into the intakes means a provision must be
The side scoop inlet is placed as far forward made for ice protection. There are three
of the compressor as possible to approach systems of thermal anti-icing; hot air, hot oil
the straight line effect of the single inlet. or electrical There is, however, one
Both types suffer faults, in a yaw or turn, a disadvantage and that is the loss of engine
loss of ram pressure occurs on one side of power. This loss must be corrected for on
the intake and separated, turbulent ground runs and power checks.
boundary layer air is fed to the engine
compressor.
ENGINE HOT AIR ANTI-ICING

SUPERSONIC INTAKES
The hot air system provides surface heating
At supersonic speeds, the pitot type of air of the engine and/or power plant where ice
intake is unsuitable due to the severity of is likely to form. The affected parts are the
shock waves that form and progressively engine intake, the intake guide vanes, the

7
nose cone, the leading edge of the nose
cowl and, sometimes, the front stage of the
COMPRESSORS GENERAL
compressor stator blades. The protection of
rotor blades is rarely necessary, because Compressors impart energy to the air
any ice accretions are dispersed by stream raising its pressure and
centrifugal action. temperature. They are designed to operate
efficiently over as wide a range of operating
conditions as possible. The two basic types
The hot air for the anti-icing system is of compressor are:
usually taken from the latter stages of the
HP compressor and externally ducted,
through pressure regulation valves, to the a. Centrifugal flow
parts requiring protection. When the nose
b. Axial flow
cowl requires protection, hot air exhausting
from the air intake manifold may be
collected and ducted to the nose cowl.
Exhaust outlets are provided to allow the OPERATION
air to pass into the compressor intake or
vent to atmosphere, thus maintaining a
flow of air through the system. The centrifugal impeller is rotated at high
speed by the turbine and centrifugal action
causes the air between the impeller vanes
to accelerate radially outwards until it is
ENGINE ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING
thrown off at the tip into the diffuser. The
There are two methods of electrical anti- radial movement of the air across the
icing: impeller, from eye to tip, causes a drop in
air pressure at the eye and the faster the
1. Spray Mat
impeller is turning, the lower the pressure
at the eye becomes. The low pressure
existing at the eye of the revolving impeller
The spray mat is so called because the
induces a continuous flow of air through the
conductor element is sprayed onto the base
engine intake and into the eye of the
insulator to protect the spray mat from
impeller. The air, in turn, is accelerated
damage. An outer coating is sprayed on,
across the impeller and passed into the
sometimes called “Stone Guard” or
diffuser. The kinetic energy in the air is then
“Erocoat”.
converted to pressure energy ready to
enter the combustion chamber. The action
of the diffuser is illustrated in figure 4.3.
2. Heater mats
The final volume and mass airflow delivered
Heater mats differ in design and by the centrifugal compressor is dependent
construction according to their purpose and on:
environment. The latest mats have
elements which are made from a range of a. PRESSURE RATIO
alloys woven in continuous filament glass
yarn. Other elements are made from nickel
chrome foil. The insulating material is The ratio of the inlet pressure to outlet
usually polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and pressure of the compressor is called
the electrical control may be continuous or pressure ratio. The higher the pressure of
intermittent. the air the more efficiently the thrust will be
produced with a corresponding
improvement to the fuel economy of the
engine.

OIL ANTI-ICE
The maximum pressure ratio normally
obtainable from a single stage centrifugal
Oil anti-ice supplements the other two compressor is approximately 5:1 and from a
systems (hot air/electrical) and will also two stage, approximately 8:1.Design of the
assist in cooling the oil system.

8
more modern centrifugal compressors sees The mass and final volume of the airflow
them approaching pressure ratios of 15:1. delivered by the compressor is dependent
on:
a. Pressure Ratio. Dependent on the
b. Operating RPM
number of stages employed. Axial
c. DIAMETER OF IMPELLER
flow compressors can achieve a
A large impeller will deliver a greater much higher value than centrifugal.
mass of air than a small impeller,
however a large diameter compressor
leads to an increase in the frontal area b. Diameter. For a similar mass flow
of the engine causing excess drag forces capability, the axial flow compressor
on the aircraft. can be made smaller in diameter
than the centrifugal type.

THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

The axial flow compressor is by far the most c. Operating RPM. As with the
popular type of compressor and, although it centrifugal type, the RPM and hence
is more difficult to manufacture, it is a more the mass flow, is controlled by
efficient compressor. Handling a larger mass varying the amount of fuel delivered
of air for any given diameter, it produces to the combustion system, but
more power; and because the compression because of the way that the
ratio is high – at least 9:1 and, it can be very pressure rise takes place, the
much higher maximum pressure ratio in an axial
flow compressor is achieved at a
lower RPM, than in a centrifugal
– It is a more economical engine. The compressor.
airflow through the engine is parallel
with the axis, hence the name ‘axial
flow compressor’.
COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE

OPERATION
‘Surge’ can occur in both centrifugal and
The compressor rotor spool is driven by the axial flow compressors and is the reversal of
turbine. The rotor blades accelerate the air the airflow in the compressor. It is a very
rearwards, inducing a continuous flow of air undesirable condition, which can rapidly
into the inlet of the combustion chamber. cause serious damage to the engine.
The airflow emerges from the rotor stage
with an increase in velocity, due to the
rotating action of the blades, and with a rise
In an axial flow compressor, ‘surge’ is nearly
in pressure and temperature caused by
always preceded by stalling of some of the
flowing through the divergent passage
compressor blades. An aerofoil is said to be
formed by the rotor.
in a stalled condition when the airflow over
its surface has broken down and no lift is
being produced. If a row of compressor
The stator vanes are secured into the blades stall, then they will not be able to
compressor casing or into stator vane pass the airflow rearwards to the next stage
retaining rings, which are themselves and the airflow to the combustion chamber
secured to the casing. will ultimately stop.
The stator vanes are positively locked in The lack of rearward airflow will allow the
such a manner that they will not rotate air in the combustion chamber to flow
around the casing. NOTE: Some stator forward into the compressor until it reaches
vanes are variable to give variable airflow the row of stalled blades. Then a violent
control, but these will be looked at when backwards and forwards oscillation of the
airflow control is studied. airflow is likely to occur, which can rapidly
cause extensive damage to the compressor

9
blades and also over-heating of the stage of the compressor to bleed off the excess
combustion and turbine assemblies. volume of air.

Stalling of the compressor blades can occur This relieves the rear stages of the excess air
for various reasons and to appreciate how causing choking while inducing an increased
the condition comes about, a review of axial airflow through the early stages of the
aerofoil theory and its application to the compressor, thus establishing conditions which
compressor is required. are not conducive of stall and surge.
Unfortunately this bleed valve does not
completely cure the problem of stall as far as
6th topic the first rotor stages are concerned and stall is
still likely to occur. The blades stall when the
angle of attack increases to too large a value. To
AIRFLOW CONTROL SYSTEM PRINCIPLES
overcome this problem, inlet guide vanes are
AND APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW used to pre-swirl the air onto the rotor blades.
COMPRESSOR The effect of pre-swirling the air alters the angle
of attack from a large value to the correct angle
COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
of attack. See figure 4.14
For any given engine there is only one set of
conditions, mass flow, pressure ratio and rpm,
at which all the compressor components are COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
operating at their optimum effect. Compressors
When a compressor is designed it is essential to
are designed to be most efficient in the higher
establish the points at which it is likely to surge.
rpm range of operation. The point at which the
Tests are carried out to determine the
compressor reaches its maximum efficiency is
relationship between pressure ratio and mass
known as the DESIGN POINT.
flow at speeds covering the whole working
The Angle of Attack of the airflow to the range of the compressor.
compressor aerofoil blades will be at its
optimum. This is the design condition and the
compressor is operating at its optimum Air Flow Control System – Operation
performance. Now consider the same
compressor operating at 4,000 rpm, the volume The stages of the compressor are matched to
of air entering the compressor will be halved, give the highest efficiency in the speed range
eg. 50cm3 there will also be a reduction in maximum rev/min. To extend the range of
compression ratio to 4:1. Therefore the volume smooth operation over lower engine speeds,
of air passing through the compressor fixed variable-incidence intake guide vanes and/or an
outlet annulus will be 12.5cm3. The following air bleed valve are fitted. In the lower speed
conditions will occur: range the bleed valve opens to allow some of
the air to escape from the rear stages of the
a. Axial velocity will increase as it moves compressor, thus restricting the mass air flow
towards the rear stages relative to the through the later stages and preventing an
front Low pressure stages. unstable flow pattern.

When the bleed valve is open, the guide vanes

if fitted are partially closed; at higher engine
b. Since all stages are rotating at the same
speeds, when the bleed valve is closed, the
speed, there will be a NEGATIVE angle
guide vanes if fitted move progressively towards
of attack at the rear high pressure
the open position. The vanes are operated by a
stages and a POSITIVE angle of attack at
hydraulic ram which incorporates its own
the front low pressure stages.
control mechanism and which receives a signal
of engine speed in terms of hydraulic pressure
Due to the increased velocity at the rear of the from the engine speed governor in the fuel
compressor, the outlet of the compressor will pump.
choke as the airflow reaches sonic velocity. At
The blades of the axial flow compressor are
this point there will be a dramatic reduction in
aerofoils and as such behave in a similar way to
axial velocity resulting in the front compressor
aircraft mainplanes and propeller blades. The
blades stalling. The end result will be
airflow across their surfaces produces lift and
compressor surge. To overcome the problem, a
the amount of lift produced by an aerofoil
bleed valve is normally fitted in an intermediate
depends on:

10
-Its shape, area and smoothness of its surface. An axial flow compressor is designed to operate
at maximum speeds in the region of 8000-
-the speed of airflow over the aerofoil.
10,000 rpm, depending on size. At this rpm the
engine will be producing a large amount of
thrust and in order to vary the thrust it is
-the angle at which the aerofoil meets the air. necessary to vary the compressor rpm.

When the compressor is operating at speeds

Once manufactured, their area and shape will below its designed rpm range, the axial velocity
remain the same unless they are damaged in of the airflow through the compressor will
any way. Assuming the blades are in good decrease which will cause an increase in the
condition, the variables will be the speed of the angle of attack of the compressor blades. At low
airflow and the angle at which the blades meet rpm, such as idling, the reduced axial velocity of
the air (angle of attack). the airflow may cause the angle of attack of
some of the blades to increase beyond their
stalling angle.
SPEED OF AIRFLOW OVER BLADES A slight amount of LP blade stalling during ‘off
This will vary with the rpm of the compressor design’ conditions is to be expected and only
rotor. The faster the rotor turns, then the faster becomes a problem if a complete row of blades
the air flows over the blades. This will result in stall.
an increase in the axial velocity of the airflow
through the compressor.
COMMON CAUSES OF COMPRESSOR STALL

ANGLE OF ATTACK
Compressor stall normally occurs at low rpm
This will vary with the combination of the and can be induced by:
rotational velocity of the blades and the axial
velocity of the airflow. In the normal course of a. Disturbance of smooth airflow due to
events, the angle of attack (VA) becomes damaged or dirty blades.
progressively smaller as the compressor moves b. Disturbance of smooth airflow caused
from a low rpm to a high rpm.(VT) by damaged aircraft air intake.

At very large angles of attack the airflow breaks

down and the aerofoil stalls.

The greater the angle of attack (up to the c. High combustion chamber pressure
stalling angle), the greater the lift and, also, the caused by over-fuelling during engine
greater the drag. This means that a greater acceleration.
effort will be required to move the aerofoil
through the air. AIRFLOW CONTROL

The higher the pressure ratio required

Application to the Axial Flow Compressor from a compressor, the greater the
number of compressor stages needed.
In order for the compressor to deliver a high The more stages there are, the more
mass airflow for a minimum effort required to difficult becomes the problem of
drive it, it is important that all the compressor matching all the blades in both size and
blades are operating close to their optimum angle of attachment to make the
angle of attack at the designed optimum rpm of compressor operate satisfactorily over a
the engine. wide range of rpm.
This is achieved by setting the blades onto the
In order to maintain the airflow stability
rotor assembly at a large enough angle so as to
and reduce the tendency of high
make allowance for the automatic reduction in
pressure ratio compressors to stall
angle of attack that will occur with increase in
under certain conditions of aircraft
rpm.
flight and engine handling, methods of
airflow control have already been
discussed
COMPRESSOR RPM
.

11
 AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY) Merits
 Simplicity, cheaper, lighter, less
prone to damage by FOD.
The air bleed valve is operated  Not critical to surge and stall.
automatically in response to signals of  Will tolerate icing conditions.
compressor rpm. It is in the open
position below a certain critical rpm and
bleeds air away from the centre stages Associated Problems
of the compressor, ducting it overboard
to atmosphere. This has the effect of
increasing the axial velocity of the Max pressure ratios 4:1 or 5:1. (on early types)
airflow through the early stages of the Capacity limited by tip speed.
compressor, thereby reducing the angle
of attack of the blades in that area. This Larger diameter of engine which leads to more
prevents the early stages of the drag.
compressor from passing more air to
Severe directional changes of gas flow
the rear stages than can be
which leads to friction.
accommodated in the space available.
High specific fuel consumption.

Above the critical rpm range the bleed valve is

AXIAL FLOW
closed and all the air available from the
compressor passes to the combustion system. Merits

VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY)  High Pressure Ratio.

 LowLow specific fuel consumption.
 MoreMore capacity for development.
All intake guide vanes give a certain amount of  GreaterGreater axial thrust.
swirl to the incoming airflow. The swirl is in the
direction of rotation of the compressor and the
Associated Problems
amount of swirl determines the angle of attack
of the first stage rotor blades. The greater the Complex and expensive to produce.
degree of swirl imported by the IGV’s then the
Critical to stall/surge.
smaller the resultant angle of attack of the first
stage rotor blades.

COMBINED COMPRESSORS
Variable IGV’s present the air onto the first
stage rotor blades with a maximum swirl angle
during operation in the critical low rpm range By combining an axial flow with a centrifugal
and progressively reduce the degree of swirl in compressor the designer can reduce the length
response to signals of compressor rpm. When of the engine. This type of compressor is often
operating at high rpm the airflow enters the used with reverse flow combustion chambers,
compressor more or less axially. as the outlet from the centrifugal compressor
has moved the air outwards allowing the
combustion chamber to be wrapped around the
turbines thus further shortening the engine.
The total number of stages of compression is
divided between two spools, each spool being
driven at a different speed by separate turbines.
This eases the problems of compressor blade 7th topic
matching and results in a very powerful,
efficient and flexible engine.
DYNAMIC BALANCING PRINCIPLES,
COMBUSTION SECTION, and TURBINE SECTION

CAUSES OF UNBALANCE
COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL
AND AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
Unbalance may be caused by a variety of factors
occurring singly or in combination with others.
These factors include:
CENTRIFUGAL FLOW

12
-Eccentricity shaft vibration amplitude and phase
-Variation in Wall Thickness readings at each end of the rotor.
-Miscellaneous
Dynamic unbalance is the most common type
of unbalance and is defined simply as unbalance
Eccentricity exists when the geometric
where the central principal axis and the rotating
centreline of a part or assembly does not
centerline do no coincide or touch. This type of
coincide with its axis of rotation. This may be as
unbalance exists whenever static and couple
a result of locating features (eg. Spigot location,
unbalance are present, but where the static
bolt holes, splines, serration’s, couplings), being
unbalance is not in direct line with either couple
eccentric to the bearing location.
component. As a result, the central principal
Variation in wall thickness may be as a result of axis is both tilted and displaced from the
eccentricity between an inner and outer rotating centerline. Generally, a condition of
diameter of a cylindrical type feature, or it may dynamic unbalance will reveal comparative
be as a result of a difference in thickness phase readings which are neither the same nor
between a radial section of a disk type feature directly opposite one another. This type of
and the section diametrically opposite. unbalance can only be solved by making weight
corrections in a minimum of two planes.
Miscellaneous

Foreign bodies inside assemblies, oil COMBUSTION SECTION

accumulation, carbon deposits, usually found
when check balancing after running. Approximately 20 per cent of the air mass flow
is taken in by the snout or entry section.
Immediately downstream of the snout are swirl
DEFINITION OF UNBALANCE vanes and a perforated flare, through which air
passes into the primary combustion zone. The
Unbalance can be defined as that condition swirling air induces a flow upstream of the
which exists in a rotor when vibratory force or centre of the flame tube and promotes the
motion is imparted to its bearings as a result of desired recirculation. The air not picked up by
centrifugal forces. Unbalance will, in general, be the snout flows into the annular space between
distributed throughout the rotor but can be the flame tube and the air casing.
reduced to:
Through the wall of the flame tube body,
a. Static unbalance
adjacent to the combustion zone, are a selected
b. couple unbalance
number of holes through which a further 20 per
c. dynamic unbalance
cent of the main flow of air passes into the
primary zone. The air from the swirl vanes and
that from the primary air holes interacts and
Static unbalance is a condition of unbalance
creates a region of low velocity recirculation.
where the central principal axis is displaced
This takes the form of a toroidal vortex similar
parallel to the rotating centerline. It can be
to a smoke ring, and has the effect of stabilising
detected by placing the rotor at its point of
and anchoring the flame. The recirculating
rotation on each end. The heavy side of the
gases hasten the burning of freshly injected fuel
rotor will swing to the bottom. A part is
droplets by rapidly bringing them to ignition
considered statically balanced when it does
temperature.
not rotate regardless of the position in
The temperature of the combustion gases
which it is placed.
released by the combustion zone is about 1,800
to 2,000 deg.C., which is far too hot for entry to
Couple unbalance exists when two
the nozzle guide vanes of the turbine. The air
unbalances exist 180 degrees apart, but in
not used for combustion, which amounts to
different planes. This condition of
about 60 per cent of the total airflow, is
unbalance has a central principal mass axis
therefore introduced progressively into the
intersecting the rotating centerline. Unlike
flame tube. Approximately half of this is used to
static unbalance, couple unbalance cannot
lower the gas temperature before it enters the
be detected by allowing the rotor to spin
turbine and the other half is used for cooling
freely. When the weight is added
the walls of the flame tube. Combustion should
disproportionately, a coupled unbalance is
be completed before the dilution air enters the
created. Couple unbalance can only be
flame tube, otherwise the incoming air will cool
detected when the part is rotating and can
be identified by comparing the bearing or

13
the flame and incomplete combustion will
result. TUBO-ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(ALSO KNOWN AS CAN-ANNULAR OR
An electric spark from an igniter plug initiates CANNULAR)
combustion and the flame is then self-
sustaining. The design of a combustion chamber The tubo-annular combustion chamber is a
and the method of adding the fuel may vary combination of the multiple and annular types.
considerably, but the airflow distribution used A number of flame tubes are fitted inside a
to effect and maintain combustion is always common air casing. The airflow is similar to that
very similar to that described. already described and this arrangement
embodies the ease of overhaul and testing of
FUEL SUPPLY the multiple system with the compactness of
So far little has been said of the way in which the annular system.
the fuel is supplied to the air stream. In general,
however, two distinct principles are in use, one ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER
based on the injection of a finely atomised
spray (atomizer) into a recirculating air stream, This type of combustion chamber consists of a
and the other based on the pre-vaporization single flame tube, completely annular in form,
(vaporizer) of the fuel before it enters the which is contained in an inner and outer casing.
combustion zone. Although the injection of fuel The airflow through the flame tube is similar to
by atomiser jets is the most common method, that previously described, the chamber being
some engines use the fuel vaporising principle. open at the front to the compressor and at the
In this instance, the flame tube is of the same rear to the turbine nozzles.
general shape as for atomisation, but has no
swirl vanes or flare. The primary airflow passes The main advantage of the annular chamber is
through holes in a baffle plate that supports a that, for the same power output, the length of
fuel feed tube. the chamber is only 75 per cent of that of a
tubo-annular system for an engine of the same
TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER diameter, resulting in considerable saving of
There are three main types of combustion weight and production cost. Another advantage
chamber at present in use for gas turbine is that because interconnectors are not
engines. These are the: required, the propagation of combustion is
improved.
-multiple chamber
-tubo annular chamber In comparison with a tubo -annular combustion
-annular chamber system, the wall area of a comparable annular
chamber is much less; consequently, the
This type of combustion chamber is used on amount of cooling air required to prevent the
centrifugal compressor engines and the earlier burning of the flame tube wall is less, by
types of axial flow compressor engines. It is a approximately 15 per cent. This reduction in
direct development of the early type of Whittle cooling air raises the combustion efficiency, to
combustion chamber. The major difference is virtually eliminate unburnt fuel, and oxidises
that the Whittle chamber had a reverse flow as the carbon monoxide to non-toxic carbon
this created a considerable pressure loss, the dioxide, thus reducing air pollution.
straight through multiple chamber was
developed by Joseph Lucas Limited. The introduction of the air spray type burner to
this type of combustion chamber also greatly
The chambers are disposed around the engine improves the preparation of fuel for
and compressor delivery air is directed by ducts combustion by aerating the over-rich pockets of
to pass into the individual chambers. Each fuel vapour close to the burner; this results in a
chamber has an inner flame tube around which large reduction in initial carbon formation.
there is an air casing. The air passes through the
flame tube snout and also between the tube A high by-pass ratio engine will also reduce air
and the outer casing as already described. The pollution, since for a given thrust the engine
separate flame tubes are all interconnected. burns less fuel.
This allows each tube to operate at the same
pressure and also allows combustion to REVERSE FLOW COMBUSTION CHAMBER
propagate around the flame tubes during Reverse flow combustion chambers are used
engine starting. where the engine length is critical or where the

14
thrust of the engine is not being produced by The number of shafts, and therefore turbines,
the exhaust of the primary air. They are often varies with the type of engine., high
found on APU’s, turboprop and turbo-shaft compression ratio engines usually have two
engines or their derivatives such as the ALF 502 shafts, driving high and low pressure
and LF507 engines used in the BAE 146 and RJ compressors. On high by pass ratio fan engines
aircraft. that feature an intermediate pressure system,
another turbine may be interposed between
By wrapping the combustion chamber around the high and low pressure turbines, thus
other components such as turbines the length forming triple-spool system. On some engines,
of the engine can be significantly reduced. driving torque is derived from a free- power
Losses in thrust do occur due to the changes in turbine. This method allows the turbine to run
airflow and direction of pressure forces. This is at its optimum speed because it is mechanically
not important in the types of engine where they independent of other turbine and compressor
are used as the majority of the thrust is derived shafts.
by other sources.
The mean blade speed of a turbine has
They are often found on engines with considerable effect on the maximum efficiency
compound compressors, which have a possible for a given stage output. For a given
centrifugal stages as the last stage of output the gas velocities, deflections, and hence
compression. losses, are reduced in proportion to the square
of higher mean blade speeds. Stress in the
COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE turbine disc increases as the square of the
speed, therefore to maintain the same stress
A combustion chamber must be capable of level at higher speed the sectional thickness,
allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a wide hence the weight, must be increased
range of operating conditions without incurring disproportionately. For this reason, the final
a large pressure loss. In addition, if flame design is a compromise between efficiency and
extinction occurs, then it must be possible to weight. Engines operating at higher turbine
relight inlet temperatures are thermally more efficient
and have an improved power to weight ratio.
Turbine Section By-pass engines have a better propulsive
efficiency and thus can have a smaller turbine
INTRODUCTION for a given thrust.

The turbine has the task of providing the power The proportion of each principle incorporated in
to drive the compressor and accessories and, in the design of a turbine is largely dependent on
the case of engines which do not make use the type of engine in which the turbine is to
solely of a jet for propulsion, of providing shaft operate, but in general it is about 50 percent
power for a propeller or rotor. It does this by impulse and 50 percent reaction. Impulse-type
extracting energy from the hot gases released turbines are used for cartridge and air starters.
from the combustion system and expanding
them to a lower pressure and temperature.
High stresses are involved in this process, and
for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips ENERGY TRANSFER FROM GAS FLOW TO
may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per TURBINE
second. The continuous flow of gas to which the
turbine is exposed may have an entry It will be seen that the turbine depends for its
temperature between 850 and 1,700 deg.C. and operation on the transfer of energy between
may reach a velocity of over 2,500 feet per the combustion gases and the turbine. This
second in parts of the turbine. transfer is never 100 per cent because of
thermodynamic and mechanical losses.
To produce the driving torque, the turbine may When the gas is expanded by the combustion
consist of Several stages each employing one process, it forces its way into the discharge
row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one nozzles of the turbine where, because of their
row of moving blades. The number of stages convergent shape, it is accelerated to about the
depends upon the relationship between the speed of sound which, at the gas temperature,
power required from the gas flow, the is about 2,500 feet per second. At the same
rotational speed at which it must be produced time the gas flow is given a ‘spin’ or ‘whirl’ in
and the diameter of turbine permitted. the direction of rotation of the turbine blades

15
by the nozzle guide vanes. On impact with the maximum flow, then a back pressure would
blades and during the subsequent reaction build up causing the compressor to surge; too
through the blades, energy is absorbed, causing high a flow would cause the compressor to
the turbine to rotate at high speed and so choke. In either condition a loss of efficiency
provide the power for driving the turbine shaft would very rapidly occur.
and compressor.

CONSTRUCTION

The basic components of the turbine are the

MATERIALS
nozzle guide vanes, the turbine discs and the
turbine blades. The rotating assembly is carried Among the obstacles in the way of using higher
on bearings mounted in the turbine casing and turbine entry temperatures have always been
the turbine shaft may be common to the the effects of these temperatures on the nozzle
compressor shaft or connected to it by a self- guide vanes and turbine blades. The high speed
aligning coupling. of rotation which imparts tensile stress to the
turbine disc and blades is also a limiting factor.
NOZZLE GUIDE VANES

The nozzle guide vanes are of an aerofoil shape

with the passage between adjacent vanes
forming a convergent duct. The vanes are
located in the turbine casing in a manner that
allows for expansion.

The nozzle guide vanes are usually of hollow

form and may be cooled by passing compressor
delivery air through them to reduce the effects
of high thermal stresses and gas loads.

TURBINE DISCS

Turbine discs are usually manufactured from a

machined forging with an integral shaft or with
a flange onto which the shaft may be bolted.
The disc also has, around its perimeter,
provision for the attachment of the turbine
blades.

To limit the effect of heat conduction from the

turbine blades to the disc a flow of cooling air is
passed across both sides of each disc.

TURBINE BLADES

The turbine blades are of an aerofoil shape,

designed to provide passages between adjacent
blades that give a steady acceleration of the
flow up to the ‘throat’, where the area is
smallest and the velocity reaches that required
at exit to produce the required degree of
reaction.

COMPRESSOR-TURBINE MATCHING

The flow characteristics of the turbine must be

very carefully matched with those of the
compressor to obtain the maximum efficiency
and performance of the engine. If, for example,
the nozzle guide vanes allowed too low a

16