WATER (CHEMISTRY) o Water is transparent, and thus aquatic plants can

o A chemical substance with the chemical formula live within the water because sunlight can reach
𝑯𝟐𝑶. them. Only strong UV light is slightly absorbed.
o Its molecule contains one oxygen and 2 hydrogen o Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as
atoms connected by covalent bonds. the universal solvent. Substances that dissolve in
o It is a liquid at ambient conditions, but is often co- water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some
exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide
gaseous state, water vapor or steam. (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-
o Water in three states: Liquid, Solid (ice), and loving) substances, while those that do not mix
(invinsible) water vapor in the air. well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as
o Water covers 70.9% of the Earth’s surface and is hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.
vital for all known forms of life. o All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA
o On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in water.
large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below
ground and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds DNA
(formed of solid and liquid water particles o Deoxyribonucleic acid, more commonly known as
suspended in air), and precipitation. DNA, is a complex molecule that contains all of
o Water appears in nature in all three common the information necessary to build and maintain an
states of matter and may take many different organism. All living things have DNA within their
forms on Earth: water vapor and clouds in the cells. In fact, nearly every cell in a multicellular
sky; seawater and icebergs in the polar oceans; organism possesses the full set of DNA required
glaciers and rivers in the mountains; and the for that organism.
liquid in aquifers in the ground.
o Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and WHY IS DNA SOLUBLE IN WATER?
polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water o Because of this charges, polar molecules, like
such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. DNA, can interact electrostatically with the water
o A very small amount of Earth’s water is contained molecules, allowing them to easily dissolve in
within biological bodies and manufactured water. Polar molecules can therefore be described
products. as hydrophilic. And non-polar molecules which
can’t easily interact with water molecules are
hydrophobic.
o In order for a molecule to be soluble in water, it
needs to be a polar molecule or have a charge.
H2O is a bent molecule with the oxygen located in
the middle. Oxygen is more electronegative than
hydrogen, so it attracts the electrons more
strongly, resulting in a partial charge difference
between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms. These
o Water on Earth moves continually through a cycle charge differences cause the hydrogen and
of evaporation or transpiration oxygen of different water molecules to be
(evapotranspiration), precipitation, and runoff, transiently attracted to one another in hydrogen
usually reaching the sea. bonds.
o Over land, evaporation and transpiration
contribute to the precipitation over land. POLYSACCARIDES
o a carbohydrate (e.g., starch, cellulose, or
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES glycogen) whose molecules consist of a number
o Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at standard of sugar molecules bonded together.
temperature and pressure. The color of water and
ice is, intrinsically, a very slight blue hue, although STARCH
water appears colorless in small quantities. Ice o An odorless tasteless white substance occurring
also appears colorless, and water vapor is widely in plant tissue and obtained chiefly from
essentially invisible as a gas. cereals and potatoes. It is a polysaccharide that
 functions as a carbohydrate store and is an layers according to increasing density from the
important constituent of the human diet. top. As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible
with air.
GLYCOGEN Water forms an azeotrope with many other
o Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of solvents.
glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in
humans, animals, fungi, and bacteria. The AZEOTROPE
polysaccharide structure represents the main o An azeotrope is a mixture that exhibits the same
storage form of glucose in the body. concentration in the vapor phase and the liquid
phase. If the mixture forms an azeotrope, the
CELLULOSE vapor and the liquid concentrations are the same,
o Cellulose, a complex carbohydrate, or which preventing separation via this approach.
polysaccharide, consisting of 3,000 or more o **Distillation- is used to purify a liquid by
glucose units. The basic structural component of separating the components of a liquid mixture.
plant cell walls, cellulose comprises about 33 o *Simple Distillation- a process of heating a liquid
percent of all vegetable matter (90 percent of mixture to form vapor and then cooling that vapor
cotton and 50 percent of wood are cellulose) and to get a liquid.
is the most abundant of all naturally occurring o *Fractional Distillation- separation of a liquid
organic compounds. Nondigestible by man, mixture into fractions differing in boiling point (and
cellulose is a food for herbivorous animals (e.g., hence chemical composition) by means of
cows, horses) because they retain it long enough distillation, typically using a fractionating column.
for digestion. o Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen
o Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on and oxygen.
Earth. The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, o As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when
that of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp is hydrogen or hydrogen-containing compounds burn
approximately 57%. or react with oxygen or oxygen-containing
o The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is compounds. Water is not a fuel, it is an end-
dependent on the barometric pressure product of the combustion of hydrogen. The
(atmospheric pressure). For example, on the top energy required to split water into hydrogen and
of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 °C (154 °F), oxygen by electrolysis or any other means is
compared to 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level. greater than the energy released when the
Conversely, water deep in the ocean near hydrogen and oxygen recombine.
geothermal vents can reach temperatures of o Elements which are more electropositive than
hundreds of degrees and remain liquid. hydrogen such as lithium, sodium, calcium,
potassium and caesium displace hydrogen from
Atmospheric pressure at sea level Conversion. water, forming hydroxides. Being a flammable gas,
1 pascal= 10 dynes/ square cm. =0.01 mbar the hydrogen given off is dangerous and the
1 atm= 101325 Pa= 760 mmHg= 760 torr= 14.7 psi reaction of water with the more electropositive of
1kPa= 1000Pa these elements may be violently explosive.
101.325 kPa= 1atm= 760 torr
100 kPa= 1 bar= 750 torr
1 bar= 10^5 Pa
o The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C
(39.16 °F). It has the anomalous property of
becoming less dense, not more, when it is cooled
down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy
9% greater volume in this solid state, which
accounts for the fact of ice floating on liquid water.
o Water is miscible with many liquids, such as
ethanol, in all proportions, forming a single
homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water
and most oils are immiscible usually forming
 o Earth's approximate water volume (the total water
supply of the world) is 1,360,000,000 km3
(326,000,000 mi3).
o Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as
an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal, pond, or
puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea
water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in
solid, liquid, and vapor states. It also exists as
groundwater in aquifers.
o Water is important in many geological processes.
Groundwater is present in most rocks, and the
pressure of this groundwater affects patterns of
pH faulting. Water in the mantle is responsible for the
o pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, a melt that produces volcanoes at subduction zones.
measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. On the surface of the Earth, water is important in
The pH scale usually ranges from 0 to 14. both chemical and physical weathering processes.
Aqueous solutions at 25°C with a pH less than 7 Water and, to a lesser but still significant extent,
are acidic, while those with a pH greater than 7 ice, are also responsible for a large amount of
are basic or alkaline. A pH level of 7.0 at 25°C is sediment transport that occurs on the surface of
defined as "neutral" because the concentration of the earth.
H3O+ equals the concentration of OH− in pure
water. Very strong acids might have a negative THE WATER CYCLE
pH, while very strong bases might have a pH The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic
greater than 14. cycle) refers to the continuous exchange of water
o *Examples of pH Values of Common Chemicals within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil
o We work with many acids (low pH) and bases water, surface water, groundwater, and plants.
(high pH) every day. Examples of pH values of lab Water moves perpetually through each of these
chemicals and household products include: regions in the water cycle consisting of following
o 0: hydrochloric acid transfer processes:
o 2.0: lemon juice • evaporation from oceans and other water bodies
o 2.2: vinegar into the air and transpiration from land plants and
o 4.0: wine animals into air.
o 7.0: pure water (neutral) • precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the
o 7.4: human blood air and falling to earth or ocean.
o 13.0: lye • runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.
Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the
o 14.0: sodium hydroxide
oceans, but winds carry water vapor over land at the
same rate as runoff into the sea, about 36 Tt per year.
WATER ON EARTH
Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute
o Hydrology is the study of the movement,
another 71 Tt per year. Precipitation, at a rate of 107
distribution, and quality of water throughout the
Tt per year over land, has several forms: most
Earth. The study of the distribution of water is
commonly rain, snow, and hail, with some contribution
hydrography. The study of the distribution and
from fog and dew. Condensed water in the air may
movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, of
also refract sunlight to produce rainbows.
glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters is
limnology and distribution of oceans is
oceanography. Ecological processes with
hydrology are in focus of ecohydrology.
o The collective mass of water found on, under, and
over the surface of a planet is called the
hydrosphere.
Evaporation Infiltration
Condensation Evapotranspiration
Precipitation
FRESH WATER STORAGE
o Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time,
for example in lakes. At high altitude, during
winter, and in the far north and south, snow INTAKES
collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers. o The main function of the intakes works is to collect
Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into the water from various sources. The sources may
aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the be lakes, rivers, reservoirs and canals.
surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot o The intake work for each type of source is
springs and geysers. Groundwater is also designed separately according to its requirements
extracted artificially in wells. This water storage is and situations.
important, since clean, fresh water is essential to
human and other land-based life. In many parts of
the world, it is in short supply.

SEA WATER
o Sea water contains about 3.5% salt on average,
plus smaller amounts of other substances. The
physical properties of sea water differ from fresh
water in some important respects. It freezes at a
lower temperature (about –1.9 °C) and its density
increases with decreasing temperature to the
freezing point, instead of reaching maximum
density at a temperature above freezing. The
salinity of water in major seas varies from about
0.7% in the Baltic Sea to 4.0% in the Red Sea.

SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

Submerged Intake Structures

o It is the one which is constructed entirely under
water.
o It is commonly used to obtain supply from a lake.
Exposed Intake Structures
o It is in the form of a well or tower constructed near
the bank of a river, or in some cases even away
from the river banks.
o Exposed intakes are more common due to ease in
operation.
Wet Intake Structures
o It is a type of intake tower in which the water level
is practically the same as the level of the sources
of supply.
o It is sometimes known as Jack well and is most
commonly used.
Dry Intake Structures
o In case of dry intake there is no water in the water
tower.
o Water enters through entry port directly into the
conveying pipes.
o It is simply used for the operation of valves etc.
TYPES OF INTAKES
The intake work for each type of source is designed RIVER INTAKE
separately according to the requirements and Water from the rivers is always drawn from the
situations depending on the source of water in intake upstream side, because it is free from the
works are classified as follows: contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in it.
o Lake intake The water enters in the lower portion of the intake
o River intake known as sump-well from penstocks.
o Reservoir intake The penstocks are fitted with screens to check the
o Canal intake entry of floating solids.
LAKE INTAKE Number of penstock opening are provided in the
intake tower to admit water at different levels.
The opening and closing of penstock valves is done
with the help of wheels provided at the pump-house
floor.

For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible

intakes are used.
These intakes are constructed in the bed of the lake
below the slow water level so as to draw water in dry
season also.
It essentially consists of a pipe laid in the bed of the
river at one end, which is in the middle of the lake is RESERVOIR INTAKE
fitted with bell mouth opening covered with mesh and The reservoir intakes which mostly used to draw the
protected by concrete blocks. water from earthern dam reservoir. It essentially
The water enters in the pipe through the bell mouth consists of an intake tower constructed on the slope of
opening and flows under gravity to the bank where it is the dam at such place where intake can draw
collected in sump-well and then pumped to treatment sufficient quantity of water even in the driest period.
plant. These all inlet pipes are connected to one vertical pipe
If one pipe is not sufficient, two or more pipes may be inside the intake well.
laid to get the required quantity of water.
Screens are provided at the mouth of al intakes pipes
to prevent the entrance of floating and suspended
matter in them.
The water which enters the vertical pipe is taken to the
other side of the dam by means of outlet pipe.
At the top of the intake tower, sluice valves are
provided to control the flow of water.

CANAL INTAKE
Canal intake is very simple structure constructed on
the bank.
It essentially consists of a pipe placed in a brick
masonry chamber constructed partly in the canal
bank. In coagulation, we add a chemical such as alum
Other side of chambers as opening is provided with which produces positive charges to neutralize the
coarse screen for the entrance of water. negative charges on the particles. Then the particles
The pipe in side chamber is provided with bell-mouth can stick together, forming larger particles which are
fitted with a hemispherical fine screen. more easily removed. The coagulation process
The outlet pipe carries the water to the other side ofinvolves the addition of the chemical (e.g. alum) and
the canal bank from where it is taken to the treatmentthen a rapid mixing to dissolve the chemical and
plants. distribute it evenly throughout the water.
ALUM, a chemical, aluminum sulfate, added to
One sluice valve which is operated by a wheel from drinking water to neutralize negative charges on
the top of the masonry chamber is provided to control particles so that they will clump together and settle
the flow of water in pipe. more rapidly.
Now that the particles have a neutral charge and can
stick together. The water flows into a tank with
paddles that provide slow mixing and bring the small
particles together to form larger particles called flocs.
Mixing is done quite slowly and gently in the
flocculation step. If the mixing is too fast, the flocs will
break apart into small particles that are difficult to
remove by sedimentation or filtration.
Flocculation. In water treatment, the slow mixing
process in which particles that have had their charge
neutralized (coagulation) are encouraged to clump
together with other particles, creating larger masses of Americans rely on groundwater, pumped to the
that will settle more rapidly. earth’s surface, for drinking water. For some folks in
Floc. A tuft-like mass of particles formed in water rural areas, it’s their only freshwater source.
treatment. Groundwater gets polluted when contaminants—from
Next, the water flows to a tank called a sedimentation pesticides and fertilizers to waste leached from
basin where gravity causes the flocs to settle to the landfills and septic systems—make their way into an
bottom. Large particles settle more rapidly than small aquifer, rendering it unsafe for human use. Ridding
particles. It would take a very long time for ALL of the groundwater of contaminants can be difficult to
particles to settle out and that would mean we would impossible, as well as costly. Once polluted, an
need a VERY large sedimentation basin. So the aquifer may be unusable for decades, or even
clarified water, with most of the particles removed, thousands of years. Groundwater can also spread
moves on to the filtration step where the finer particles contamination far from the original polluting source as
are removed. it seeps into streams, lakes, and oceans.
Sedimentation is a physical water treatment process SURFACE WATER
using gravity to remove suspended solids from water. Covering about 70 percent of the earth, surface water
Filtration. Water flows through a filter designed to is what fills our oceans, lakes, rivers, and all those
remove particles in the water. The filters are made of other blue bits on the world map. According to the
layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases, most recent surveys on national water quality from the
crushed anthracite. Filtration collects the suspended U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nearly half of
impurities in water and enhances the effectiveness of our rivers and streams and more than one-third of our
disinfection. The filters are routinely cleaned by lakes are polluted and unfit for swimming, fishing, and
backwashing. drinking. Nutrient pollution, which includes nitrates and
Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of phosphates, is the leading type of contamination in
fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth these freshwater sources. While plants and animals
decay. Fluoridated water contains fluoride at a level need these nutrients to grow, they have become a
that is effective for preventing cavities; this can occur major pollutant due to farm waste and fertilizer runoff.
naturally or by adding fluoride. Municipal and industrial waste discharges contribute
WATER POLLUTION their fair share of toxins as well. There’s also all the
“Thousands have lived without love, not one without random junk that industry and individuals dump
water.” -- W. H. Auden directly into waterways.
WHAT IS WATER POLLUTION? OCEAN WATER
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances— Eighty percent of ocean pollution (also called marine
often chemicals or microorganisms—contaminate a pollution) originates on land—whether along the coast
stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of or far inland. Contaminants such as chemicals,
water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to nutrients, and heavy metals are carried from farms,
humans or the environment. factories, and cities by streams and rivers into our
bays and estuaries; from there they travel out to sea.
WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF WATER Meanwhile, marine debris—particularly plastic—is
POLLUTION? blown in by the wind or washed in via storm drains
Water is uniquely vulnerable to pollution. Known as a and sewers. Our seas are also sometimes spoiled by
“universal solvent,” water is able to dissolve more oil spills and leaks—big and small—and are
substances than any other liquid on earth. It’s also consistently soaking up carbon pollution from the air.
why water is so easily polluted. Toxic substances from The ocean absorbs as much as a quarter of man-
farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into and made carbon emissions.
mix with it, causing water pollution. POINT SOURCE
CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTION When contamination originates from a single specific
GROUNDWATER source, it’s called point source pollution. Examples
When rain falls and seeps deep into the earth, filling include wastewater (also called effluent) discharged
the cracks, crevices, and porous spaces of an aquifer legally or illegally by a manufacturer, oil refinery, or
(basically an underground storehouse of water), it wastewater treatment facility, as well as contamination
becomes groundwater—one of our least visible but from leaking septic systems, chemical and oil spills,
most important natural resources. Nearly 40 percent and illegal dumping. The EPA regulates point source
pollution by establishing limits on what can be also release more than 850 billion gallons of untreated
discharged by a facility directly into a body of water. wastewater each year.
While point source pollution originates from a specific OIL POLLUTION
place, it can affect miles of waterways and ocean. Big spills may dominate headlines, but consumers
account for the vast majority of oil pollution in our
NONPOINT SOURCE seas, including oil and gasoline that drips from millions
Nonpoint source pollution is contamination derived of cars and trucks every day. Moreover, nearly half of
from diffuse sources. These may include agricultural the estimated 1 million tons of oil that makes its way
or stormwater runoff or debris blown into waterways into marine environments each year comes not from
from land. tanker spills but from land-based sources such as
factories, farms, and cities. At sea, tanker spills
TRANSBOUNDARY account for about 10 percent of the oil in waters
It goes without saying that water pollution can’t be around the world, while regular operations of the
contained by a line on a map. Transboundary pollution shipping industry—through both legal and illegal
is the result of contaminated water from one country discharges—contribute about one-third. Oil is also
spilling into the waters of another. Contamination can naturally released from under the ocean floor through
result from a disaster—like an oil spill—or the slow, fractures known as seeps.
downriver creep of industrial, agricultural, or municipal RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
discharge. Radioactive waste is any pollution that emits radiation
beyond what is naturally released by the environment.
THE MOST COMMON TYPES OF WATER It’s generated by uranium mining, nuclear power
CONTAMINATION plants, and the production and testing of military
AGRICULTURAL weapons, as well as by universities and hospitals that
Not only is the agricultural sector the biggest use radioactive materials for research and medicine.
consumer of global freshwater resources, with farming Radioactive waste can persist in the environment for
and livestock production using about 70 percent of the thousands of years, making disposal a major
earth’s surface water supplies, but it’s also a serious challenge. Consider the decommissioned Hanford
water polluter. Around the world, agriculture is the nuclear weapons production site in Washington,
leading cause of water degradation. where the cleanup of 56 million gallons of radioactive
Every time it rains, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste is expected to cost more than $100 billion and
waste from farms and livestock operations wash last through 2060. Accidentally released or improperly
nutrients and pathogens—such bacteria and viruses— disposed of contaminants threaten groundwater,
into our waterways. Nutrient pollution, caused by surface water, and marine resources.
excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water or air, is the WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF WATER
number-one threat to water quality worldwide and can POLLUTION?
cause algal blooms, a toxic soup of blue-green algae On human health
that can be harmful to people and wildlife. On the environment

SEWAGE AND WASTEWATER WHAT CAN YOU DO TO PREVENT WATER

Used water is wastewater. It comes from our sinks, POLLUTION?
showers, and toilets (think sewage) and from With your actions
commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities (think It’s easy to tsk-tsk the oil company with a
metals, solvents, and toxic sludge). The term also leaking tanker, but we’re all accountable to some
includes stormwater runoff, which occurs when rainfall degree for today’s water pollution problem.
carries road salts, oil, grease, chemicals, and debris Fortunately, there are some simple ways you can
from impermeable surfaces into our waterways. prevent water contamination or at least limit your
More than 80 percent of the world’s wastewater flows contribution to it:
back into the environment without being treated or Reduce your plastic consumption and reuse or recycle
reused, according to the United Nations; in some plastic when you can.
least-developed countries, the figure tops 95 percent. Properly dispose of chemical cleaners, oils, and non-
But according to EPA estimates, our nation’s aging biodegradable items to keep them from ending up
and easily overwhelmed sewage treatment systems down the drain.
Maintain your car so it doesn’t leak oil, antifreeze, or and high heat capacity, both as a coolant and for
coolant. heating.
If you have a yard, consider landscaping that reduces Extinguishing fires
runoff and avoid applying pesticides and herbicides. Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively
If you have a pup, be sure to pick up its poop. inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid.
With your voice The evaporation of water carries heat away from the
One of the most effective ways to stand up for our fire. However, only distilled water can be used to fight
waters is to speak out in support of the Clean Water fires of electric equipment, because impure water is
Rule, which clarifies the Clean Water Act’s scope and electrically conductive.
protects the drinking water of one in three Americans. Recreation
Tell the government and your local elected officials Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as
that you support the Clean Water Rule. Also, learn well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these
how you and those around you can get involved in the include swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and
policymaking process. Our public waterways serve diving. In addition, some sports, like ice hockey and
every Filipinos. We should all have a say in how ice skating, are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches
they’re protected. and waterparks are popular places for people to go to
HUMAN USES OF WATER relax and enjoy recreation.
Agriculture Water Industry
The most important use of water in agriculture is for The water industry provides drinking water and
irrigation, which is a key component to produce wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to
enough food. households and industry. Water supply facilities
Water as scientific standard include water wells cisterns for rainwater harvesting,
On 7 April 1795, the gram was defined in France to be water supply network, water purification facilities,
equal to "the absolute weight of a volume of pure water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old
water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a meter, aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators are in
and to the temperature of the melting ice." The Kelvin development.
temperature scale of the SI system is based on the Industrial application
triple point of water, defined as exactly 273.16 K or Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is
0.01 °C. the boiling point (set to 100 °C) and melting electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric
point (set to 0 °C) of water. power comes from water driving a water turbine
For drinking connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-
The human body is anywhere from 55% to 78% water cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The
depending on body size.[35] To function properly, the energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun
body requires between one and seven liters of water evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher
per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount altitudes, from where it flows down.
depends on the level of activity, temperature, Food processing
humidity, and other factors. Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect
Washing the physical properties of water. Boiling, steaming,
The propensity of water to form solutions and and simmering are popular cooking methods that
emulsions is useful in various washing processes. often require immersing food in water or its gaseous
Chemical uses state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing.
Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a
solvent or reactant and less commonly as a solute or
catalyst. In inorganic reactions, water is a common
solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds. In organic
reactions, it is not usually used as a reaction solvent,
because it does not dissolve the reactants well and is
amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic.
As a heat transfer fluid
Water and steam are used as heat transfer fluids in 100 water = 373K
diverse heat exchange systems, due to its availability 56 acetone = 329K
Hemi spherical fine screen

1. Intake pipe
2. Protective bar screen
3. Travelling water screen
4. Low lift pump well
5. Coagulation
6. Pre-chlorination
7. Flocculation
8. Sedimentation basin
9. Sand filtration
10. Clear well
11. Post-chlorination
12. Fluoridation
13. High lift pump well
14. Storage
Elevated water storage tower
Ground level reservoir
15. Distribution system

KAYANIN MO YAN!!! PARA SA EXEMPTION!!!