Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Echague, Isabela

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CE 111 – CALCULUS 1

1. Chapter 1: Functions and Limits

2. Overview/Introduction

- Functions
- Graph of a Function
- Classification of Functions
- One-Valued and Many-Valued Functions
- The Square Root
- The Absolute Value Symbol
- The Signum Function
- Definition of a Limit
- Theorems on Limits
- Right-Hand and Left-Hand Limits
- Continuity
- Missing Point Discontinuities
- Finite Jumps
- Infinite Discontinuities

3. Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:

1. Define what is a function;
2. Identify the different classifications of functions;
3. Determine and draw the graph of a particular function;
4. Define what is a limit;
5. Evaluate limits of functions; and;
6. Determine the domain of a function.

4. Learning Content/Topic

I. FUNCTIONS

When two quantities x and y are related so that for some range of values of x the value of
y is determined by that of x, we say that y is a function of x. For a square with side of length
c, the area is given by

𝑨 = 𝒄𝟐 ; 𝒄 > 𝟎

Therefore, A is a function of c, the range of values of c being determined by the physical

meaning of the quantities involved.

Other examples of functions are:

1 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 The six trigonometric functions: 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙, 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙, 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙, 𝒆𝒕𝒄.
The square root: 𝒚 = √𝒙
The linear polynomial: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃
The quadratic polynomial 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪

It is frequently desirable, particularly in the development of the theory, to work with a large
class of functions rather than with a specific one. Therefore, we use a symbol such as f(x),
which is read “f of x”, to denote a function of x. We write

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

to convey the fact that y is a function of x, without designating the particular manner in
which y is related to x. Letters other than f are used in the same way. We may write

𝒛 = 𝒘(𝒗) 𝒐𝒓 𝒖 = 𝒔(𝒗)

to indicate that 𝑧 and 𝑢 are both functions of 𝑣.

If two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related so that, for each 𝑥 in a domain 𝑅 of real numbers, we
obtain one or more real values for 𝑦, then 𝑦 is said to be a real function of the real
variable 𝒙 defined in the domain 𝑅.

Since the implication of the above definition is that 𝑦 depends on 𝑥, we call 𝑦 the
dependent variable or function and 𝑥 the independent variable.

Example 1: A right triangle has a fixed base of length 7. Express the length of the altitude
“𝑎” of the triangle as a function of the length of the hypothenuse “ℎ”.

Solution: By use of the Pythagorean Theorem, we get:

ℎ =7 +𝑎
We are required to express the altitude as a function of ℎ. So,
𝑎 = ℎ − 49 h
𝒂= 𝒉𝟐 − 𝟒𝟗 a
Where ℎ > 7.

Example 2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3. Find:

7
a. 𝑓(2) ans: 7
b. 𝑓(−4) ans: 19
c. 𝑓(0) ans: 3
d. 𝑓(𝑢 − 1) ans: 𝑢 − 2𝑢 + 4
e. 𝑓(−𝑥) ans: 𝑥 + 3

Example 3. Let 𝑔(𝑦) = cos 2𝑦 − 2 sin 𝑦. Find:

a. 𝑔(𝜋) ans: 1
b. 𝑔 𝜋 ans: - 3
c. 𝑔(0) ans: 1
d. [𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔(−𝑥)] ans: 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥

2 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 II. GRAPH OF A FUNCTION

The curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is called the graph of the function. Many properties of the function are
made more vivid by this graphic representation.

The function 𝐴 = 𝑐 ; 𝑐 > 0, which was mentioned in the discussion on functions is

represented graphically by a half parabola as shown in Figure 1.

In Example 1, we expressed the length of the altitude of a certain right triangle in terms of
the length of the hypothenuse by means of the function shown in Figure 2. (𝑎 =
√ℎ − 49 ; ℎ > 7)

The topic on graphs of functions will be discussed in detail in the later chapters.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

All functions are classed as either algebraic or transcendental. The algebraic functions are
rational integral functions, or polynomials; rational fractions, or quotients of polynomials;
and irrational functions, of which the simplest are those formed from rational functions by
the extraction of roots. The elementary transcendental functions are trigonometric and
inverse trigonometric functions; exponential functions, in which the variable occurs as an
exponent; and logarithms.

Integral
Rational
Algebraic Fractional
Irrational
Trigonometric & Inverse
FUNCTION Trigonometric
Elementary
Transcendental Exponential &
Higher Logarithmic

Figure 3. Classification of Functions

3 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 IV. ONE-VALUED AND MANY-VALUED FUNCTIONS

When the relation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is such that there is only one value of 𝑦 for each admissible 𝑥,
then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be a one-valued function of 𝑥. The equivalent term single-valued
function is also used. Graphically this means that if the function is defined for 𝑥 = 𝑎, the
fertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 intersects the curve in one and only one point.

Frequently, however, the law connecting 𝑥 and y determines two or more values of 𝑦, in
general distinct, for each value of 𝑥. Say that there are 𝑛 values of 𝑦 corresponding to
each value of 𝑥. It is then possible to group the values of y so as to form n distinct one-
valued function, called the branches of the original function. The graph consists of 𝑛
branches (not necessarily disconnected), each of which is met by the line 𝑥 = 𝑎 in exactly
one point.

For example, the equation

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙, 𝒙≥𝟎

defines a two-valued function whose branches are

𝒚 = √𝒙, 𝒚 = − √𝒙

The graphs of these functions are respectively the upper

and lower halves of the parabola shown in Figure 4.

V. THE SQUARE ROOT

Although every positive number of course has two square roots, one positive, one
negative, by universal agreement the radical sign (or its equivalent the exponent ½) is
taken to mean invariably the positive root.

For example
√3 = 1.732 … , 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ± 1.732 … √4 = 2 , 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ± 2

𝒂𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 𝒊𝒇 𝒂 ≥ 𝒃,
= 𝒃 − 𝒂 𝒊𝒇 𝒂 < 𝒃;

𝒙𝟐 = 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
𝒙𝟐 = − 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟎

The graph of the function 𝑦 = √𝑥 is not the 45° line but the two “half-lines” of Figure 5.

VI. THE ABSOLUTE-VALUE SYMBOL

The symbol |𝑥|, which may be read “absolute value of x”, is defined by

|𝒙| = 𝒙, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
|𝒙| = −𝒙, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 < 𝟎

Example (a). |5| = |−5| = 5

4 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 Example (b). If 𝑎 > 0, |𝑥| ≤ 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎.

The absolute value of a number means the magnitude of the number regardless of its
algebraic sign.

Example (c). |−3| = −(−3)

By comparing the definition in the above with the

Square Root discussion, we see that
𝒙𝟐 = |𝒙|

The graph of the curve 𝑦 = |𝑥| is that shown in Figure

5.

It is useful to recognize the geometric significance of

|𝑎 − 𝑏|. Let the points associated with the real numbers
a and b marked on an axis in the usual manner; then |𝑎 − 𝑏| is the positive distance
between those points. For instance, let 𝑎 = −2 and 𝑏 = 7, as in Figure 6.

Then
|(−𝟐) − 𝟕| = |−𝟗| = 𝟗

which checks with the distance between the points 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 7, as shown in
Figure 6.

A fundamental property of the absolute-value symbol is that the absolute value of the
sum of two numbers is never larger than the sum of their absolute values,

|𝒂 + 𝒃| ≤ |𝒂| + |𝒃|

Prove this by substituting values for a and b.

VII. THE SIGNUM FUNCTION

It is sometimes convenient to make use of what is called the signum (Latin for “sign)
function. In practice, signum is usually abbreviated to
𝑠𝑔𝑛. We define this function by

𝒔𝒈𝒏 𝒙 = −𝟏, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 < 𝟎,

𝒔𝒈𝒏 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟎,
𝒔𝒈𝒏 𝒙 = +𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 > 𝟎.

The graph 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑥 is shown in Figure 7. Except at

zero, the value of the signum function is determined by
the algebraic sign of its argument. When the argument

5 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 𝑥 is positive, 𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑥 has the value plus one; when 𝑥 is negative, 𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑥 has the value
minus one.

The signum function may be used to write in a single formula what would otherwise be
given by two or more formulas. Suppose we wish to use the function 𝑔(𝑥) for values
𝑥 < 𝑐 and the function ℎ(𝑥) for values 𝑥 > 𝑐. We write

𝟏 𝟏
𝑭(𝒙) = 𝟐[𝟏 − 𝒔𝒈𝒏(𝒙 − 𝒄)]𝒈(𝒙) + 𝟐[𝟏 + 𝒔𝒈𝒏(𝒙 − 𝒄)]𝒉(𝒙)

Since 𝑠𝑔𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑐) = −1 for 𝑥 < 𝑐, and 𝑠𝑔𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑐) = +1 for 𝑥 > 𝑐, we may conclude
that,

𝑭(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒙), 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 < 𝒄

𝟏
𝑭(𝒙) = 𝟐[𝒈(𝒄) + 𝒉(𝒄)], 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝒄
𝑭(𝒙) = 𝒉(𝒙), 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒙 > 𝒄

At 𝑥 = 𝑐, 𝐹(𝑥) takes on the average value, the arithmetic mean of the values of 𝑔(𝑥)
and ℎ(𝑥)

VIII. DEFINITION OF A LIMIT

Let f(x) be a function of x and let a be a constant. If there is a number L such that, in
order to make the value of f(x) as close to L as may be desired, it is sufficient to
choose x close enough to a, but different from a, then we say that the limit of f(x), as x
approaches a, is L. We write

Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→

Which is read “the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is L”. The same idea is to be
conveyed by writing:

𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿

read “as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 𝐿”.

There are two important aspects in regard to this statement that have to do with the
use of the word “approach”.

First, it is important to understand that the word is restricted to imply a certain degree
of “closeness”. What we actually mean is that the difference

|𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑨|

can be made as small as we desire simply by requiring x to be near enough to a.

Second, since it is possible that the function under consideration is undefined when
x=a, we restrict the symbolism “𝑥 → 𝑎" to mean “x nears but is never equal to a”.

6 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 In order that problems which involve limits may be analyzed with mathematical
precision, the preceding intuitive concept of a limit is incorporated into the following
definition.

A function f(x) is said to approach a value A as x approaches a, if

corresponding to every positive number 𝜖 there is some positive number 𝛿
such that
|𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑨| < 𝝐

is true for every x that satisfies the inequality

𝟎 < |𝒙 − 𝒂| < 𝜹

If efficient use is to be made of the definition of a limit, the phrases “as close to 𝐿 as
may be desired” and “close enough to 𝑎” must be expressed in mathematical
symbols. Therefore, we restate the definition as follows:

We say that
𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 ,
𝒙→𝒂

if for every positive number 𝜖 (arbitrarily small), there exists a number 𝛿 such that in
order to make

|𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝝐 ,

it is sufficient that 𝑥 satisfy

|𝒙 − 𝒂| < 𝜹 , 𝒙 ≠ 𝒂

The above concept of a limit is the mathematical refinement of an intuitive notion which
is still of importance in rough everyday use, that the limit 𝐿 is a number which
𝑓(𝑥) approaches as closely as may be desired, as 𝑥 creeps up on 𝑎. The idea of a
moving point, 𝑥 moving toward 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥) moving toward 𝐿, is a relic of the Newtonian
calculus.

IX. THEOREMS ON LIMITS

Although basic theorems must of necessity be proved in accordance with the preceding
definition, subsequent results are usually derived from the theorems so established.

Theorem 1. The limit of the sum of two (or more) functions is equal to the product of
their limits:

𝐋𝐢𝐦[(𝒖(𝒙) + 𝒗(𝒙)] = 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒖(𝒙) + 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒗(𝒙)

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝑰𝒇 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑩 ,

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝐋𝐢𝐦[𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝑨 + 𝑩
𝒙→𝒂

Theorem 2. The limit of the product of two (or more) functions is equal to the product
of their limits

7 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 𝐋𝐢𝐦[(𝒖(𝒙)𝒗(𝒙)] = 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒖(𝒙) 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒗(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝑰𝒇 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑩 ,

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑨 + 𝑩
𝒙→𝒂
Theorem 3. The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their
limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero:

𝒖(𝒙) 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒖(𝒙)

𝐋𝐢𝐦 = 𝒙→𝒂 , 𝒊𝒇 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒗(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎
𝒙→𝒂 𝒗(𝒙) 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒗(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂

𝑰𝒇 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑩 ,

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝒇(𝒙) 𝑨
𝐋𝐢𝐦 = , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑩 ≠ 𝟎
𝒙→𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝑩

In these theorems, it is assumed that the limits of the two functions exist. However,
even though neither function separately approaches a limit, the sum, product, or
quotient may do so.

Theorem 3 tells us nothing about what happens to the ratio 𝑢/𝑣 𝑖𝑓 𝑣 → 0. If 𝑢

approaches a non-zero limit and 𝑣 → 0 the ratio u/v can be made to assume values
numerically larger than any preassigned quantity. Let us prove that statement.

Let 𝑢 → 𝑘 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎. Then, by the definition of a limit, we may choose x close enough

to 𝑎 to make u lie between ½ 𝑘 and 3/2 𝑘. For such values of 𝑥, |𝑢| > |𝑘|. At the same
time, since 𝑣 → 0, we may choose x close enough to 𝑎 to make |𝑣| < 𝜖 with 𝜖 as small
as desired. Now let 𝑥 be chosen closer to 𝑎 than either of the above two choices. Then
| |
|𝑢| > |𝑘| and |𝑣| < 𝜖 are both true, and it follows that > , which can be made as
large as we wish by choosing 𝜖 sufficiently small.

Example (). Evaluate Lim (𝑥 + 4𝑥)

→

By Theorem 1,
𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟒𝒙 = 𝐋𝐢𝐦(𝒙𝟑 ) + 𝐋𝐢𝐦 (𝟒𝒙)
𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟑
By Theorem 2,

𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟒𝒙 = 𝐋𝐢𝐦(𝐱) ∙ 𝐋𝐢𝐦(𝐱) ∙ 𝐋𝐢𝐦(𝐱) + 𝐋𝐢𝐦 (𝟒) ∙ 𝐋𝐢𝐦(𝐱)

𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟑 𝒙→𝟑

= (𝟑 ∙ 𝟑 ∙ 𝟑) + (𝟒 ∙ 𝟑) = 𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟑𝟗

Example (). Evaluate Lim

→

Repeated application of Theorems 1 and 2 shows that:

8 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 𝐋𝐢𝐦 (𝒙𝟑 − 𝟗𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒 = 𝟎
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙→𝟐

Hence, Theorem 3 cannot be applied at this stage.

A simple exercise in synthetic division, suggested by the fact that 𝑥 = 2 is a zero of

(𝑥2 − 9𝑥 + 10), yields

𝒙𝟑 − 𝟗𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 = (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓)

Hence,

𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 10 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5 4 + 4 − 5 𝟑
Lim = Lim = =
→ 𝑥 − 4 → 𝑥+2 2+2 𝟒

X. RIGHT-HAND AND LEFT-HAND LIMITS

Once in a while, it is convenient to employ a restricted version of limit as described

below. We write

𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 ,
𝒙 → 𝒂

and mean by 𝑥 → 𝑎 that each x involved is greater than a. A limit such as that in the
equation above is called a right-hand limit; the independent variable 𝑥 approaches a
from the right.

A left-hand limit,

𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑴 ,
𝒙 → 𝒂

with 𝑥 remaining less than 𝑎, is also used.

If the ordinary limit exists, the right-hand and left-hand limits each exist and all three
have the same value, the limit itself exists and has that value.

XI. CONTINUITY

When 𝑓(𝑎) exists, we find for most elementary functions that this is the limit that is
usually approached by 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 → 𝑎. This is important property of functions is called
continuity and is defined as follows.

A single –valued function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at a value 𝑎 of its domain

provided

(1) 𝑓(𝑎) is defined;

(2) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and
→
(3) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
→

9 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at each point of an interval, it is said to be continuous on the
interval.
A function that is not continuous at a point is said to be discontinuous at that point. Thus
the function
|𝑥|
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 0 since 0/0 is meaningless and
moreover, lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
→

Similarly, the function 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 4)/(𝑥 − 2) is discontinuous

at 𝑥 = 2 since 𝑔(2) is undefined. In this case, however,
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 4, and we observe that the graph (Figure 8) of 𝑦 =
→
(𝑥 − 4)/(𝑥 − 2) is the entire line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 with the single point
(2,4) omitted. Figure 8

Since lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) means that for every 𝜖 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that
→

𝑓(𝑎) − 𝜖 < 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝜖

for every x in the interval
𝑎−𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑎+ 𝛿
we see in Figure 9 that the continuity 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 means that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) for
the domain 𝑎 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝛿 is entirely within a rectangle whose center is (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
and whose height is 2𝜖.

Figure 9

Several important and useful theorems on continuity are as follows.

Theorem 1. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two functions that are continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then the
following functions are continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥),

10 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 2. 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥),
3. 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥), provided 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0
Proof: If all limits are taken as 𝑥 → 𝑎, we know from the continuity of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) that
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑎). Hence by use of Theorem 1, in Article IX, we find:
1. lim[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑔(𝑎);
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑔(𝑎);
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) /𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) / lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)/𝑔(𝑎) , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0
and the theorem is proved.
Since a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 +. . . +𝑎 is a combination of sums and
products of the variable 𝑥, we have the following conclusion:
Corollary 1. A polynomial in 𝑥 is a continuous function for all values of 𝑥.
Similarly, since a rational function is the quotient of two polynomials, we have
the following result
Corollary 2. A rational function in 𝑥 is a continuous function for all values of 𝑥
except those values for which the denominator is zero.
Theorem 2. When the function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), then
if 𝑘 is any number between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏), there exists some number 𝑐 between 𝑎 and
such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘.
Theorem 3. If the function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous in the closed interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, there
exists numbers 𝑥 and 𝑥 in this domain such that 𝑓(𝑥 ) is the minimum and 𝑓(𝑥 ) is
the maximum value of 𝑓(𝑥) in 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
We shall not attempt to prove the preceding theorems, since rigorous proofs would
require a more thorough study of the number system than we can possibly make at this
time. It should be noted in Theorem 3, however, that the requirement of a closed interval
is essential. The function 1/𝑥 which is continuous in the interval 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1 has, for
example, no maximum value in this domain.
Theorem 4. If the function 𝑓(𝑦) is continuous at y=A and if lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐴, then
→

lim 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝐴)

→ →

Proof: The fact that 𝑓(𝑦) is continuous at 𝑦 = 𝐴 means that for every 𝜖 > 0 there exists
a 𝛿 > 0 such that
|𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑓(𝐴)| < 𝜖, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑦 − 𝐴| < 𝛿′

XII. MISSING POINT DISCONTINUITIES

Consider a function 𝑓(𝑥) which is not defined when 𝑥 = 𝑎, but such that Lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists,
→

Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→

The function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 because Lim 𝑓(𝑎) does not exist. Graphically,
the curve appears to the eye, to be continuous, but the single point 𝑥 = 𝑎 is missing.

11 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 It is always possible to repair such missing-point discontinuities by replacing the original
function 𝑓(𝑥) with another function 𝜑(𝑥), defined as follows:

𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥≠𝑎

𝜑(𝑥) = 𝐿, 𝑥=𝑎

The function 𝜑(𝑥) is the same as 𝑓(𝑥) whenever 𝑓(𝑥) was

defined, but 𝜑(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

Example (). The function

𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 10
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2

is undefined when 𝑥 = 2 because both numerator

and denominator vanish at 𝑥 = 2. But,

𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 10 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5)
Lim = Lim Figure 10
→ 𝑥−2 → 𝑥−2

Lim (𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5) = 𝟑
→

Since
𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 10
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5, 𝑥≠2
𝑥−2

The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) shown in Figure 10 is the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5, except

for an invisible break at 𝑥 = 2.
.
XIII. FINITE JUMPS

It may happen that, at x=a, the function has both a left-hand and a right-hand limit, but
the two are not equal:

Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 , Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 , 𝐿 ≠𝐿

→ →

At such point the function has a finite jump: the curve takes a vertical jump of width 𝐿 −
𝐿 .

XIV. INFINITE DISCONTINUITIES

A frequently occurring type of discontinuity is that in

which the function increases numerically without
bound as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎: we say that the function
has an infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑎. Graphically this
means that the curve approaches the line 𝑥 = 𝑎,
usually without ever reaching it, at the same time
receding from the x-axis. It may happen that 𝑓(𝑥)
becomes large both sides of the line 𝑥 = 𝑎 (Figure);
If so, we write Figure 11

12 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = ∞ 𝒐𝒓 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = −∞
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

as the case may be.

It should be clearly understood, however, that any

“equation” such as those above is not an equation at all,
in the true sense, for the reason that the symbol ∞ does
not represent a number. The symbols written tell us, not
that 𝑓(𝑥) approaches some vague, indefinite, very large
limiting value, but that it increases numerically beyond
any limit whatever.

Example (). As 𝑥 approaches 1, the function (Figure 11)

𝟏
𝒚=
(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐
Increases without limit; i.e.,
𝟏
𝐋𝐢𝐦 =∞
𝒙 → 𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐
Figure 12
Example (). As 𝑥 approaches 2, the function (Figure 12)
𝒙𝟐
𝒚=
𝒙−𝟐
becomes indefinitely large, positive if 𝑥 > 2, negative if 𝑥 < 2:
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝐋𝐢𝐦 =∞ , 𝐋𝐢𝐦 = −∞
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟐

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

I. Definition of Functions
II. Evaluating Functions
III. Graph of Functions
IV. Theorems on Limits
V. Evaluating Limits

Exercise I
a. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3. Find:

 𝑓(2) ans: 7
 𝑓(−4) ans: 19
 𝑓(0) ans: 3
 𝑓(𝑢 − 1) ans: 𝑢 − 2𝑢 + 4
 𝑓(−𝑥) ans: 𝑥 + 3

b. Let 𝑔(𝑦) = cos 2𝑦 − 2 sin 𝑦. Find:

 𝑔(𝜋) ans: 1
 𝑔 𝜋 ans: - 3
 𝑔(0) ans: 1
 [𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔(−𝑥)] ans: 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥

13 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 c. If g(x) = √25 − 𝑥 , find:

 𝑔(0) ans: 5
 𝑔(−3) ans: 4
 𝑔(7/5) ans:

d. If 𝜑(𝑥) = 4 , find: 𝜑(0), 𝜑(−2), 𝜑

e. If ℎ(𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, find ℎ(0), ℎ 𝜋 ,ℎ 𝜋 ans: 1, ½, 0

f. If 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥, find 𝑓(1), 𝑓(10), 𝑓(5)

6. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Module, Messenger Rooms/ Google Classroom

Exercises and Problem Sets.

7. Assessment Task

Assessment Task will be a 30-point quiz covering the topics discussed in this module.
In addition, a long exam will be given at the end of the term

Exercises

Functions

In Exs. 1-10, certain functions are explicitly defined. Perform the indicated operations in
each exercise.
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3, find 𝑓(0), 𝑓(2), 𝑓(−4), 𝑓(−2𝑥). ans: 𝑓(−4) = 23
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 7 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 , find 𝑓(0), 𝑓(3), 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(−𝑦) ans: 𝑓(3) = 10
3. If 𝐹(𝑦) = 𝑦(𝑦 − 3) , find 𝐹(𝑐), 𝐹(0), 𝐹(3), 𝐹(−1), 𝐹(𝑥 + 3)
ans: 𝐹(𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥 (𝑥 + 3)
4. If 𝐹(𝑏) = , find 𝐹(0), 𝐹(1), 𝐹(1/2), 𝐹(𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)
5. If 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 2, find 𝑔(2), 𝑔(−2), 𝑔 , 𝑔(−𝑥)
6. If 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 16, find 𝑔(−1), 𝑔(−2), 𝑔(2), 𝑔(3).
7. If 𝜑(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, find 𝜑(0), 𝜑 𝜋 , 𝜑(𝜋), 𝜑(−𝑥), 𝜑(−𝑦).
8. If 𝐻(𝑦) = cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦, find 𝐻(0), 𝐻 𝜋 , 𝐻(𝜋).
Also, show that
1
𝐻𝜋 + 𝑥 = 𝐻(𝜋 − 𝑥) = −𝐻(−𝑥)
2
9. If 𝜓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥, find 𝜓 (𝜋/6), 𝜓 𝑥 − 𝜋 , 𝜓(−𝑥), and express 𝜓 (2𝑥) as a function
of 𝜓(𝑥)
10. If 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 2𝑥, find 𝑔 𝜋 , 𝑔 𝜋 , 𝑔(−𝑥), 𝑔(𝜋 − 𝑥), 𝑔(𝜋 + 𝑥), 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝜋 .
11. If 𝑔(𝑥) = √25 − 𝑥 , find 𝑔(0), 𝑔(−3), 𝑔

14 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 12. If 𝜑(𝑥) = 4 , find: 𝜑(0), 𝜑(−2), 𝜑
13. If ℎ(𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, find ℎ(0), ℎ 𝜋 ,ℎ 𝜋
14. If 𝐺(𝑥) = sin 2𝑥, find 𝐺(0), 𝐺 − 𝜋 , 𝐺 𝜋 .
15. If 𝜓(𝑡) = 𝑡 , find 𝜓(1), 𝜓(−2), 𝜓
16. If 𝑅(𝑎, 𝑏) = , find 𝑅(5, −3), 𝑅(𝑎 − 1,4)
17. If 𝐹(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝑚 − 𝑛 , find 𝐹 , , 𝐹(𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥 − 𝑦).
Find the domain of the variable 𝑥 for which the following equations determine 𝑦 as a real
function of 𝑥.
18. 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 = 5 21.
𝑦 =4−𝑥
19. 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥 22.
𝑦 = tan 𝑥
20. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 23.
𝑦 = log (1 − 2𝑥)
24.
𝑦 =1−𝑥
25. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 + 1), show that 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(2𝑥 + 1 + ℎ).
26. If 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦/(1 − 𝑦), show that [𝑔(𝑦) + 𝑔(−𝑦)] = 𝑔(𝑦 ).
27. If 𝜙(𝑟) = 2 , show that 𝜙(𝑟 + 1) = 2 𝜙(𝑟).
28. If 𝑃(𝑥) = √𝑥, show that 𝑃(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑃(𝑥) = ℎ/(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥).
29. If 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, show that 𝑓(2𝑥) = 2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓( 𝜋 − 𝑥).
30. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, show that 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 4𝑥(𝑥 + 1).
31. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 10 and 𝜙(𝑥) = log 𝑥, show that 𝑓[𝜙(𝑥)] = 𝜙[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑥.
32. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 , show that 𝑓(𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦) = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).
33. If 𝐹(𝑢, 𝑣) = , find 𝐹(1/𝑢 , 1/𝑣) + 𝐹(𝑢, 𝑣).
34. Prove that |𝑎 + 𝑏| − |𝑎 − 𝑏| ≤ 2 |𝑏|.
35. For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥, show that
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 tan 𝑦
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑥) =
1 − tan 𝑥 tan 𝑦
36. For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, show with the aid of elementary formula
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = (1 − cos 2𝐴) that
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 2 sin 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦
For Exercises 13-25, express the function by a formula and draw the graph, indicating that
portion of the graph which has a meaning in the problem.
37. The volume of a sphere as a function of the radius.
38. The radius of a sphere as a function of the volume.
39. The volume of a cube as a function of the length of an edge.
40. The surface area of a cube as a function of the length of an edge.
41. The length e of an edge of a cube as a function of the surface area of the cube.
42. The surface area of a cube as a function of the volume of the cube.
43. The altitude of a right triangle as a function of the base, if the hypothenuse is given.
44. The hypothenuse of a right triangle as a function of the base, if the altitude is given.
45. The height of a cylindrical can as a function of the diameter, if 18π sq. in. of sheet metal
is used. What kind of curve is this?
46. In exercise 21, the diameter as a function of the height. What kind of curve is this?
47. A man drives from Detroit to Chicago, say 300 mi., at an average speed of 60 mi. per
hr., stops 1 hr. in Chicago, and returns at a speed of 50 mi. per hour. Neglecting

15 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 variations of speed en route, write formulas expressing 𝑥 (distance from Detroit) as a
function of 𝑡, and draw the graph.
48. In exercise 23, graph the speed 𝑣 as a function of 𝑡.
49. In exercise 23, graph the speed 𝑣 as a function of 𝑥.
50. An open-top box is made by cutting equal squares of side 𝑥 out of the corners of a
piece of cardboard 8 in. square and turning up the sides (Figure below). Plot the
volume 𝑉 as a function of 𝑥.
51. In exercise 26, find 𝑥 if 𝑉 = 37.5 cu. In.

In the exercises below, draw the curve:

52. 𝑦 = 𝑥|𝑥|
53. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − |𝑥|
54. 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1

Find the equivalent functional definitions for each of the following and draw a graph of the
function
55. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − |𝑥| + |𝑥 − 1|
56. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + |𝑥|
57. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| ∙ |𝑥 − 1|

Limits
Evaluate the limits below:
58. Lim (𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5) 73. Lim
→ →
59. Lim (2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4)
→ 74. Lim
60. Lim (𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 7) →
→
61. Lim (𝑦 + 5𝑦 − 1) 75. Lim
→ →

62. Lim 76. Lim

→ →
( )
63. Lim ( ) 77. Lim
→
→
64. Lim 78. Lim
→ →
65. Lim 79. Lim
→ →
66. Lim 80. Lim
→ →

67. Lim 81. Lim

→ →

68. Lim 82. Lim

→
→
69. Lim 83. Lim
→ →

70. Lim 84. Lim

→ →

71. Lim 85. Lim

→ →

72. Lim
→

CONTINUITY

16 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity

 Find the points of discontinuity of the following functions:
86. 96. csc 𝜃
97. sec 𝜃
87.
98. (1 + 𝑥)
88.
99. (1 − 𝑥)
89.
100. (1 − 𝑥)
90. 101. √𝑥 − 𝑎
( )
91. 102. 1 + √𝑥
92. 103. √
93. 104. √𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎
√
94. cos 𝜃 105.
95. sin 𝜃 106. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − |𝑥|
107. If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous, is its square continuous? Is its reciprocal continuous?
108. Show that as x approaches zero, the function sin oscillates between -1 and 1 without
approaching any limit.

8. References (Copyrighted within the last 10 years)

This contains the list of references/readings which students can explore.

Love, C.E. Ph.D, Rainville E.D. Ph.D. 1981. Differential and Integral Calculus.
MACMILLAN PUBLISHING CO., INC.

Peterson, T.S. Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Ken Incorporated, Quezon City

17 |Calculus 1 – Module 1: Functions, Limits & Continuity