- GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 -

MODULE 2: (1) Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation

(2) Chemical Kinetics
DURATION: 1 Week

LESSON 2: HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION

COMPETENCY:
• Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction
using Hess Law

Notes:

Thermochemical equations can be manipulated to give

important data about chemical reactions. One way of calculating the
total enthalpy of a reaction is through Hess’s Law of Constant Heat
Summation (or simply Hess’s Law). This law states that regardless of the
various stages or steps of a reaction, the total enthalpy change for the
reaction is the sum of all changes. Thus, the following rules must be
considered:

1) Since enthalpy is an extensive property, it depends on the number

of reactants and products present. It means the reactions have
the same number of enthalpy value but in a reversed sign.
Example of this is the following :
If the original equation A + B C has ∆H = +100 kJ/mol,
then the reverse equation would be C A + B with ∆H = -100
kJ/mol.
2) The change in enthalpy (∆H) for forward reaction is equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign to its reverse reaction.
Example:
forward reaction: A + B C ∆H = +100 kJ/mol
reversed reaction: C A+B ∆H = -100 kJ/mol

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3) For a reaction, the change in enthalpy (∆H) is the same whether
it occurs in one step or in a series of steps. It means the enthalpy
is conserved at the end of the process.

What is the importance of knowing Hess’s law to thermochemical

calculations?

Simply, Hess’s law helps us to calculate the changes in

enthalpy or heat that we cannot measure directly in the
laboratory. We can use them to predict exactly how much
energy will be absorbed or released by a reaction. This is very
important because we do not want to experience any
unexpected explosions or mistakes during experimentations.

Applications of Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation (Steps for the

calculations and manipulations of Hess’s Law of Constant Heat
summation)

Sample Problem: Calculate the change in enthalpy (∆H) of the desired

equation below.
DESIRED EQUATION:
2C + H2 C2H2 ∆H = ??

GIVEN EQUATIONS TO BE MANIPULATED:

(1) C2H2 + 2.5O2 2CO2 + H2O ∆H = -1299.5 kJ/mol
(2) C + O2 CO2 ∆H = -393.5 kJ/mol
(3) H2 + 0.5O2 H2O ∆H = -285.8 kJ/mol
STEPS EQUATIONS

Step 1: Manipulate the

given equations. (Follow
the rules stated on page
13 for the manipulations FLIP : C2H2 + 2.5O2 2CO2 + H2O
of the given equation.) ∆H = -1299.5 kJ/mol

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➢ For equation 1: (1) 2CO2 + H2O C2H2 + 2.5O2
Flip the equation ∆H = 1299.5 kJ/mol
so that C2H2 will
be placed on the
product side. Our
goal is to make
the C2H2 to be on
the product side,
the same with the
desired equation.

MULTIPLY BY 2:
2 (C + O2 CO2 ∆H = -393.5 kJ/mol)2
➢ For equation 2:
Since carbon (C) (2) 2C + 2O2 2CO2 ∆H = -787 kJ/mol
has 2 moles on
the desired
equation, we
need to multiply
equation by 2 so
that the number
of moles of
carbon in
equation 2 would
be equal to the
desired equation. COPY EQUATION 3:
(3) H2 + 0.5O2 H2O ∆H = -285.8 kJ/mol
➢ For equation 3:
Since H2 (being
the only
substance that
can be found in
the desired
equation) is
placed on the

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reactant side, we
don’t need to flip
it. Just simply
copy the entire
equation. No
need to multiply
or divide it
because it has
already 1 mole of
H2, similar with
the desired
equation.

Step 2: Write all the (1) 2CO2 + H2O C2H2 + 2.5O2 ∆H = 1299.5 kJ/mol
manipulated equations (2) 2C + 2O2 2CO2 ∆H = -787 kJ/mol
(3) H2 + 0.5O2 H2 O ∆H = -285.8 kJ/mol
and enthalpies (∆H).
Align the reactants,
products, and the
enthalpies.
Step 3: Highlight the (1) 2CO2 + H2O C2H2 + 2.5O2 ∆H = 1299.5 kJ/mol
compounds or (2) 2C + 2O2 2CO2 ∆H = -787 kJ/mol
(3) H2 + 0.5O2 H2 O ∆H = -285.8 kJ/mol
substances which are
not found on the desired
equation given above.

Step 4: Write all the (1) 2CO2 + H2O C2H2 + 2.5O2 ∆H = 1299.5 kJ/mol
unhighlighted ones (2) 2C + 2O2 2CO2 ∆H = -787 kJ/mol
(3) H2 + 0.5O2 H2 O ∆H = -285.8 kJ/mol
below the line and add
2C + H2 C2H2 ∆H = 226.7 kJ/mol
the change in
enthalpies (∆H).
Cancellation (or
subtraction) happens
when two of the same
substances are found in
opposite sides, having
the same number of

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 - GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 -
moles or coefficient. For
example: 2CO2 in
equation 1 and 2CO2 in
equation 2. However, if
they are in one side, or
let’s say, in the reactant
side, add their
coefficient or number of
moles. For example: 2O2
in equation 2 and 0.5O2
in equation 3. If we will
add them, it results to
2.5O2, which is found in
the reactant side. Since
2.5O2 in equation 1 is in
the product side, we
need to subtract them,
the same happens with
2CO2 in equations 1 and
2, and H2O in equations
1 and 3.
Step 5: Write your
conclusion. Therefore, the enthalpy of the equation 2C +
H2 C2H2 is 226.7 kJ/mol.

NOTE: The number of given equations to be manipulated varies on the

type of desired reaction given. You don’t need to worry where will you
acquire these equations because they’re always given in the problem.
All you have to do is to analyze very carefully when to flip, multiply, or
divide them. Addition and subtraction happen after you manipulate
the given equations.
-This lesson needs a lot of patience and positive mindset to be able to
learn what are needed to learn. You can do it! :)

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Example 3

Consider the given equation below, calculate its change in

enthalpy (∆H).
Desired equation: 2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g) ∆H= ?
Given equations:
Equation 1: C(S) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H= -393.5 kJ
Equation 2: 2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) ∆H= -566.0 kJ
Solution:

Step 1: Manipulate the given equations to resemble the desired

equation most closely.
• For the equation 1 given:
C(S) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H= -393.5 kJ
If we will compare it to the desired equation, 2C(s) and O2 (g) are
located in the reactant side, the same situation found in equation 1, we
do not need to flip it. Instead, we must multiply it by 2 so that solid carbon
(C) will be equal to 2 moles of carbon in the desired equation. For
oxygen (O2) gas, we must still multiply it by 2 because it is part of the
equation, even though it has already the same number of moles with the
desired equation. In fact, we can still manipulate the other O2 gas found
in equation 2.
The equation would be:
2 x (C(S) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H= -393.5 kJ) x 2
Of course, if you multiply the equation, the change in enthalpy
(∆H) given will also be multiplied by 2. Thus, the equation 1 will become:
➢ 2C(s) + 2O2(g) 2CO2(g) ∆H = -787 kJ

• For equation 2, it must be reversed (or flipped) since 2CO located in

the reactant side of the equation is in the opposite side of the desired
chemical equation. As such, Rule 2 must be applied.
➢ 2CO2(g) 2CO2(g) + O2(g) ∆H= 566.0 kJ

Step 2: Write all the manipulated equations and enthalpies (∆H). Align
the reactants, products, and the enthalpies. Thus, in summary,
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(1) 2C(s) + 2O2(g) 2CO2(g) ∆H = -787 kJ
(2) 2CO2(g) 2CO(g) + O2(g) ∆H= 566.0 kJ

Step 3: Highlight the compounds or substances which are not found on

the desired equation given for this problem.
(1) 2C(s) + 2O2(g) 2CO2(g) ∆H = -787 kJ
(2) 2CO2(g) 2CO(g) + O2(g) ∆H= 566.0 kJ

In the case of oxygen gas, since both are found in opposite sides;
2O2 in equation 1 and O2 in equation 2, we must subtract them. We only
need one mole of O2 in the desired equation.
For their placement, it would favor which one has the greater number of
moles or coefficient. That is why, the O2 of equation 2 will be cancelled
and 2O2 of equation 1 will become O2, having one mole of the
substance. Thus, the equation would be:
(1) 2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) ∆H = -787 kJ
(2) 2CO2(g) 2CO(g) ∆H= 566.0 kJ

Step 4: Write all the unhighlighted ones below the line and add the
change in enthalpies (∆H).
(1) 2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) ∆H = -787 kJ
(2) 2CO2(g) 2CO(g) ∆H= 566.0 kJ
2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g) ∆H = -221 kJ
Therefore, the enthalpy of the equation 2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g) is -221 kJ.

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Skill-Building Activities
A1. Directions: Read and analyze each problem /
equation below. Calculate the change in enthalpy of
the following reactions. Show your complete solution.
You may use a separate paper for your answers. (Just
follow the steps given above.)
1. Desired Equation:
2S(g) + 2OF2(g) SO2(g) + SF4(g) ∆H=???
Given equations:
(1) OF2(g) + H2O(g) O2(g) + 2HF(g) ∆H= -227 kJ
(2) SF4 (g) + 2H2O(l) SO2(g) + 4HF(g) ∆H= -828 kJ
(3) S(g) + O2(g) SO2(g) ∆H= -297 kJ

2. Desired Equation:
S(s) + 1.5O2(g) SO3(g) ∆H=???
Given equations:
(1) S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) ∆H= -296.8 kJ
(2) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) ∆H= -197.0 kJ

3. Desired Equation:
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g) ∆H=???
Given equations:
(1) C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H= -393.5 kJ
(2) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) ∆H= -571.6 kJ
(3) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H= -890.4 kJ

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LESSON 3: CHEMICAL KINETICS

COMPETENCIES:
• Describe how various factors influence the rate of a reaction.
• Differentiate zero, first, and second order reactions.
• Differentiate the Theories of Chemical Kinetics, collision theory
and transition state theory
• Explain activation energy and how catalyst affects the reaction
rate.
• Cite and differentiate the types of catalysts.

Notes:
A. FOCUSING ON REACTION RATE
In a chemical reaction, reactants change into products.
Chemical kinetics, the study of how fast that change occurs, focuses on
the reaction rate, the change in the concentrations of reactants (or
products) as a function of time. Why is understanding reaction rate
important? Different reactions have different rates: in a faster reaction
(higher rate), the reactant concentration decreases quickly, whereas in
a slower reaction (lower rate), it decreases slowly (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1: A faster reaction (top) and slower reaction (bottom).

As time elapses, reactant decreases and product increases.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE REACTION RATE
Have you ever asked why ripening of fruit takes days to months?
Why do foods must be placed in a refrigerator? Why are jewelries made
using silver, gold, or copper? Why do instructions on most medicines be
placed in a dark place?
These questions may be answered through understanding the
factors that affect the rate of reaction of a substance. Reaction rate can
be explained using the concepts of collision theory and activation
energy. For a reaction to occur, the reactants must collide with one
another. To have an effective collision, molecules must meet a required
total kinetic energy. This minimum amount of energy is called activation
energy. Reactants need to overcome the activation energy to form the
product. Hence, it is considered as a hindrance for low energetic
molecules to react. Overall, the rate of the reaction is proportional to the
number of collisions.
The following are the factors affecting the rate of reaction:
A. Nature of Reactants
There are substances which react differently from the other
substances. Some substances react faster and more violently
than others. For example, hydrogen reacts violently with fluorine,
but the reaction of hydrogen and iodine occurs extremely slow.
The rate of reaction depends on the reactants.
The nature of reactants affects the reaction rate because
molecules that are joined by simple bonds react faster than
molecules with more complex bonds. Simpler bonds can easily be
broken and rearranged to form the products because the
activation energy needed to overcome the barrier is lower.
B. Surface Area
If one of the reactants is a solid, the surface area of the
solid will affect how fast the reaction goes. You have learned from
the previous discussion that the greater the number of effective
collisions, the faster the reaction rate is. Therefore, this factor will
greatly affect the reaction involving solids. Take for example, the
reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid will be
faster if the surface area of magnesium (solid) is increased
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because an increased surface area increases the possibility of
greater number of collisions.
C. Temperature
Temperature greatly affects the rate of a chemical
reaction. Like for example, to prevent the spoilage of foods, we
need to place them in the refrigerator. Same thing with plant that
grows faster in warm weather than in the cold. This simply shows
that in higher temperature, the molecules move faster. The faster
the motion of the reacting molecules, the greater the chances of
molecular collision. Therefore, the reaction occurs faster than in
lower temperature.
D. Presence of a Catalyst
A catalyst offers an alternative pathway by which a
reaction occurs. It speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction by
providing an alternate route for the reaction to occur with lower
activation energy. It means that the presence of catalyst lowers
the activation energy (or energy barrier) needed to be overcome
for the reaction to occur.
Types of Catalyst
1. Inorganic (chemical) catalyst
- It is made from non-carbon-containing compounds
or elements. Examples of an inorganic catalyst are vanadium
oxide and titanium (III) chloride.
2. Biological catalyst
- It is made up of carbon-containing compounds.
Examples of this are enzymes. The advantage of enzymes over
inorganic catalysts is that they are highly efficient, have high
specificity, and are appropriate for biological conditions. Without
these, reactions would occur extremely slowly, and life may not
be possible.
3. Heterogeneous Catalyst
- The catalyst can be considered heterogeneous if it
is in a different phase from the reactants. Example of this is the

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activated carbon, which is a solid substance and a known
catalyst for certain aqueous reactions.
4. Homogeneous Catalyst
- It is the catalyst that has the same phase with the
reactants.

E. Concentration of Reactants
The concentration of reactant is directly proportional to
the reaction rate. If we increase the concentration of the reacting
molecules, the distances between particles will be decreased.
Because of the increased number of particles, there will be
greater chances of collision among the particles. This is very similar
to the BWS gym during a concert. If the crowd is very big, there is
a greater chance for the people to bump into each other
compared to an ordinary P.E. class of 20 students. Therefore, the
increase of number of particles or concentration of the reactants,
the increase of molecular collisions. And the increased molecular
collisions increase the rate of reaction.

B. THE RATE LAW AND ITS COMPONENTS

The focus of any kinetic study of a reaction is the rate law
(or rate equation), which expresses the rate as a function of
concentrations and temperature. The rate law is based on
experiment, so any hypothesis about how the reaction occurs on
the molecular level must conform to it.
In the discussion, we generally consider reactions for which
the products do not appear in the rate law, so the rate depends
only on reactant concentrations and temperature. For a general
reaction occurring at a fixed temperature,
aA + bB + … cC + dD + …
the rate law is
Rate = k[A]x[B]y

The term k is a proportional constant, called the rate

constant, that is specific for a given reaction at a given

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temperature and does not change as the reaction proceeds.
Rate constant does change in temperature. The exponents m
and n, called the reaction orders, define how the rate is affected
by reactant concentration; we will see how to determine them
shortly. Two key points to remember are:
• The balancing coefficients a and b in the reaction equation
are not necessarily related in any way to the reaction orders m
and n.
• The components of the rate law – rate, reaction orders, and
rate constant – must be found by experiment.
In the remainder of this topic, we will find the components of
the rate law by measuring concentrations to determine the
initial rate, using initial rates to determine the reaction orders,
and using these values to calculate the rate constant. With the
rate law for a reaction, we can predict the rate for any initial
concentrations.

A reaction has an individual order “with respect to” or “in” each

reactant, and an overall order, the sum of the individual orders.
Consider first the simplest case, a reaction with only one reactant, A:
A products
• First order. The reaction is first order overall if the rate is directly
proportional to [A]. That is, if the rate doubles when [A] doubles,
the rate depends on [A] raised to the first power, [A] 1 (the 1 is
omitted). Thus, the reaction is first order in (or with respect to) A:

Rate = k[A]1 = k[A]

• Second order. The reaction is second order overall if the rate is
directly proportional to the square of [A]. That is, if the rate
quadruples when [A] doubles, the rate depends on [A] squared,
[A]2.
Rate = k[A]2
• Zero order. The reaction is zero order overall if the rate is not
dependent on [A] at all. If the rate does not change when [A]
changes, we express this fact mathematically by saying that the
rate depends on [A] raised to the zero power, [A]0:
Rate = k[A]0 = k(1) = k
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C. THEORIES OF CHEMICAL KINETICS

As was pointed out at the beginning of the lesson, concentration
and temperature have major effects on reaction rate. Chemists
employ two models – collision theory and transition state theory –
to explain these effects.

➢ Collision Theory: Basis of the Rate Law

The basic principle of collision theory is that particles –
atoms, molecules, or ions – must collide to react. This theory also
relies on the concepts of collision energy and molecular structure
to explain the effects of concentration and temperature on rate.
➢ Transition State Theory: What the Activation Energy Is Used For
It explains the importance of effective collisions, and
transition state theory focuses on the high-energy species that
exists at the moment of an effective collision when reactants are
becoming products. It focuses on the change of kinetic energy to
potential energy as reactant particles collide and form an
unstable transition state.
Given a sufficiently energetic collision and an effective
molecular orientation, the reactant species form the transition
state, which either continues toward product(s) or reverts to
reactant(s).
A reaction energy diagram depicts the changing potential
energy throughout a reaction’s progress from reactants through
transition states to products.

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Skill-Building Activities

A2. Directions: Identify the following statements below. Write your

answers on the blank provided before the number.

_____________________1. It expresses the rate as a function of

concentrations and temperature.
_____________________2. It is a catalyst which made from non-carbon-
containing compounds or elements.
_____________________3. It is the catalyst that has the same phase with
the reactants.
_____________________4. It is the catalyst that made up of carbon-
containing compounds.
_____________________5. It is the change in the concentrations of
reactants (or products) as a function of time.
_____________________6. It is specific for a given reaction at a given
temperature and does not change as the
reaction proceeds.
_____________________7. It offers an alternative pathway by which a
reaction occurs.
_____________________8. It is also known as the proportional constant,
which is specific for a given reaction at a given
temperature and does not change as the
reaction proceeds.
A3. Directions: Using your own understanding, explain the factors which
affect the reaction rate of a substance. Utilize the space provided after
each number.

1. Nature of Reactants
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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2. Surface Area
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.

3. Temperature
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________.
4. Presence of Catalyst
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________.
5. Concentration of Reactants
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________.
A4. Directions: Using a Venn Diagram, compare the two Theories of
Chemical Kinetics. You may use a separate paper for your answer.

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REFERENCES:

TEXTBOOKS:
Ayson, Marissa, et al. (2016). General Chemistry 2. Quezon City, VIBAL
Group Inc.

Bayquen, Aristea, et al. (2016). Exploring Life Through Science;

General Chemistry 2. Quezon City, PHOENIX PUBLISHING HOUSE, INC.

Rodil, Mary Sheenalyn, Ph.D. et al. (2018). Conceptual Science and

Beyond; General Chemistry 2. Quezon City, Brilliant Creations
Publishing, Inc.

Silberberg, Martin S, et al. (2013). General Chemistry. New York,

McGraw-Hill Education.

DATE ACCOMPLISHED: _________________________________________

PARENT’S PRINTED NAME AND SIGNATURE: _______________________________

“Success consists of going from failure to failure

without loss of enthusiasm.”
-Winston Churchill

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