Chapter Title Gender Issues

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to have:

a. defined gender bias and gender issues

b. discussed the various types/manifestation of gender issues
c. explained the cause(s) of gender issues
d. identified ways to address manifestation of gender issues

Pre-assessment Activity

a. Watch video “Impossible Dream”

b. Individual/Group Discussion

Content

What is gender bias/issues?

Gender bias is the behavior that shows favoritism toward one gender over
another. Most often, gender bias is the act of favoring men and/or boys over
women and/or girls.

US National Judicial Education Program defines “Gender bias as stereotyped

thinking about the nature and roles of women and men; devaluing what is
perceived as 'woman's work'; lack of knowledge of the social and economic
realities of women's and men's lives”

Gender issues pertain to beliefs, ideas, attitudes, behavior, systems and other
factors that block peoples’ capacity to do and to be. Gender issues affect
everybody, men or women, rich or poor, young or old, etc., in all spheres of life---
they affect men. In addition, there are forms of gender biases against men such us
inherently aggressive and violent, men don’t feel pain or incapable of experiencing
human emotions, they are inherently compulsive in their sexuality and don’t need
closeness, reassurance, and attention.

Gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women’s and men’s
lives and situation in society, to the way they interrelate, their differences in access
to and use of resources, their activities, and how they react to changes,
interventions and policies.

Types of gender issues

1. Gender stereotype

- Gender stereotypes are generalizations about what men and women are
like, and there typically is a great deal of consensus about them. It is fixed,
unquestioned beliefs or images we carry in the back of our minds about
women and men, which are transmitted from one generation to generation

- According to social role theory, gender stereotypes are derived from the
discrepant distribution of men and women into social roles, both in the
home and at work (Eagly, 1987, 1997; Koenig and Eagly, 2014). There has
long been a gendered division of labor, and it has existed both in foraging
societies and in more socioeconomically complex societies (Wood and
Eagly, 2012). In the domestic sphere women have performed the majority
of routine domestic work and played the major caretaker role. In the
workplace, women have tended to be employed in people-oriented, service
 occupations rather than things-oriented, competitive occupations that have
traditionally been occupied by men (e.g., Lippa et al., 2014). This
contrasting distribution of men and women into social roles, and the
inferences it prompts about what women and men are like, give rise to
gender stereotypical conceptions.

- Accordingly, men are characterized as more agentic than women, taking

charge and being in control and women on the other hand are
characterized as more communal than men, being attuned to others and
building relationships (e.g., Broverman et al., 1972; Eagly and Steffen,
1984). In addition, men are perceived as strong, independent, powerful,
dominant, decisive and logical while women are perceived as weak,
dependent, subordinate, indecisive, emotional and submissive.

- Based on the labor force survey of the Philippine Statistics Authority or

PSA, particularly in Davao Region on October 2015-2017, there were more
economically-active men than women, 15 years old and over, from 2015-
2017. In 2017, 64.9 percent of men were in the labor force as compared to
only 35.1 percent of the women and from 2015-2017 unemployment rates
were higher among women than men.

- In terms of proportion of employed women and men by selected industry

group, the data revealed that female workers dominated in education, other
services activities, wholesale and retail trade and accommodation service.
There were 3 women in every man in the education sector and 2 women in
every man in accommodation and food service.

- On the other hand, male workers significantly dominated in the mining and
quarrying sector. Moreover there were more men than women in the
transportation and storage, construction, agriculture, hunting and forestry,
and manufacturing industries. There were 25 men in every woman in every
transportation and storage and 24 men in every women in the construction
sectors.

Source: The 2018 Statistical Handbook on Women and Men in Davao Region, 6 th
Edition,file:///D:/Gender%20and%2
0Society/Women%20and%20Men%20Handbook%202018.pdf

2. Marginalization
- The process which forces women out into the periphery of economic
and social life; on the periphery of decision making, as well as
diminishing the value of the activities in which they engage and
through which they contribute to the national development process.

- Under or non-valuation/recognition of women’s work.

- Women have less access to and control over resources and benefits.

- Women are last to be hired and first to be fired.

- Women receive lesser salary than men (for every peso earned by men,
women earned only Php 0.39)
 - Work is often understood as livelihood and for a good reason, it is seen
as a survival mechanism for many as work provides money necessary
to buy goods for a person to live. While both men and women have
problems concerning work, woman have specific labor issues related
to their gender. Moreover, women’s work is often invisibilized due to
their socialized gender roles.

- The following are work-related issues surrounding women around the

globe, as described in the 2015 UN World’s Women Report. The
range of issues include the conditions that surround women and men
who work, how much women get, and the kind of work they are
allowed to do.

o There are fewer women than men at work, and most women
only work in one sector. Only half of women are employed in the
labor force, versus three quarters of men globally.

o Not only are fewer women employed, they also experience the
pay gap—they are paid less than what men receive for doing
the same work, across all sectors and occupations. Specifically,
women earn 70%-90% of what men earn in most countries

Women and Work

The 2013 gender statistics of the Philippine Statistics Authority reported that:
 Women make up 37.5% (8.3 million) of salaried workers in the Philippines.
 Three of five women are underemployed. Of the underemployed women
workers, half are wage and salary workers. Of these underemployed women,
three of five are in the service sector.
 Four of five women wage earners work full time. Four of five of these women
wage earners work in the service sector.
Source: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The world’s Women 2015,
http://progress.unwomen.org/en/2015

3. Violence against Women (VAW)

- Acts of instilling fear and inflicting pain with the aim to injure, or abuse a
person usually women.

- Using intimidation; using emotional abuse; using isolation; minimizing,

denying, and blaming; using children; using male privilege; using
economic abuse, using coercion and threats.

- Philippine Statistics Authority defines VAW as “An act of gender-based

violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or
psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts,
coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or
in private life. It encompasses all forms of violation of women's rights,
including threats and reprisals, exploitation, harassment, and other
forms of control.

- Violence against women (VAW) exists on a global scale, and affects

millions of women on a daily basis. Statistics on VAW show the reach of
this gender-based epidemic. Globally, one of three women has
experienced some form of VAW in her life. Of these women, one in five
will have experienced attempted or actual rape in her lifetime.
Furthermore, half of these victims are made up of girls below the age of
sixteen worldwide. Up to 30% of women’s first sexual encounter was
forced or non-consensual.
 - Meanwhile, culture-specific violence such as bride burning, child
brides, or female mutilation is still practiced despite its violation of a
person’s basic human rights. Specifically, 130 million girls annually have
become victims of female genital mutilation, with 3 million girls at risk for
this practice in Africa. Lastly, women make up 80% of the victims of
human trafficking, showing that women are quite prone to becoming
victims of violence due to their sex.

Source: (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The world’s Women 2015. Facts and Figures:
Peace and Security, UN Women, accessed January 23, 2017) http:/www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-
do/peace-and-security/facts-and-figures

Women Safety Module

(Philippine Commission on Women)

A nationwide survey on violence against women, called Women Safety Module, was conducted
for the first time in the country by the National Statistics Office (NSO), now Philippine Statistics Authority
(PSA), through its 2008 National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS). The VAW module aims to
capture the extent and types of VAW experienced by women (15-49 years old). Information was collected
on spousal violence - covering all forms of VAW: 1) physical violence; 2) sexual violence; 3) emotional
violence; and 4) economic violence (the 3rd and 4th forms of VAW were grouped together in the survey
as “other forms of violence”). The module also included questions on marital control, which may fall either
under emotional/psychological violence or economic violence.

1. Physical Violence
 Both NDHS (2008 and 2013) revealed that one in five women aged 15-49 has experienced
physical violence since age 15. In the 12 months preceding each survey period, 6 percent
experienced in 2013 while 7 percent experienced in 2008.
 Among ever-married women, there is a decrease in the proportion who report CURRENT
husband/partner committing violence, from 54.7 percent in 2008 to 44.4 percent in 2013.
But there is an increase in the proportion (22.1%) who report FORMER husband/partner
committing violence from 12 percent in 2008.
 Among regions, Bicol (24.8%) and CARAGA (24.7%) posted the top two highest
proportions of women who have experienced physical violence. ARMM posted the lowest
at 15.1 percent.
 2. Sexual Violence
 In the 2013 NDHS, 6.3 percent (1 out of 16) of women age 15-49 have
experienced sexual violence which is lower than the 8.7 percent (1 out of 11)
reported in 2008 NDHS.
 Among regions, Bicol (11.4%) and SOCCSKSARGEN (11.4%) posted the highest
proportions of women who have experienced sexual violence. ARMM posted the
lowest at 2.7 percent.

3. Physical Violence During Pregnancy

 The 2013 NDHS findings on physical violence during pregnancy have little
difference from its predecessor. Both surveys have generated the same
proportion (4%) of women who have ever been pregnant that have experienced
physical violence during pregnancy.
 The 2013 NDHS findings on physical violence during pregnancy have little
difference from its predecessor. Both surveys have generated the same
proportion (4%) of women who have ever been pregnant that have experienced
physical violence during pregnancy.
 The incident increases slightly with number of living children; decreases slightly
with age; decreases with education level; and declines steadily with wealth
quintile.

4. Spousal Violence
 Emotional and other forms of non-personal violence are the most common types
of spousal violence (23% in 2008 and 22% in 2013). For physical violence, 14.4
percent (1 in 7) ever-married women in 2008 experienced physical violence by
their husbands while 8.0 percent (1 in 12) experienced sexual violence by their
husbands. The figures in 2013 are 12.7 percent (1 in 8) and 5.3 percent (1 in 19)
respectively.
 Patterns in prevalence of spousal violence are similar to those of violence
experienced by woman 15-49. Most likely higher, in 2008, among separated,
widowed and divorced; currently married women who have married more than
once; and in CARAGA region, Central Visayas and SOCCSKSARGEN. In 2013,
it was higher in Northern Mindanao, Davao and Cagayan Valley.
Source:https://pcw.gov.ph/statistics/201405/statistics-violence-against-filipino-women
 One in four (26%) ever-married women aged 15-49 has ever experienced
physical, sexual or emotional violence by their husband or partner. One in
five (20%) women has ever experienced emotional violence, 14 percent has
ever experienced physical violence, and 5 percent has ever experienced sexual
violence by their current or most recent husband or partner (Based on the
preliminary findings of the 2017 National Demographic and Health Survey
(NDHS)
Source:https://psa.gov.ph/content/one-four-women-have-ever-experienced-spousal-violence-preliminary-results-
2017-national
4. Multiple Burden
- The situation of women who perform paid work outside the domestic
sphere as well as homemaking and child-care work inside the home.
- Women’s involvement in the three spheres of work
o Reproductive (unpaid household chores usually performed by
women)
o Productive (women are paid less than men)
o Community work (unpaid volunteer work often time done by
women)

5. Gender subordination

- The institutionalized domination by men of women

- One sex is inferior to the other
- Secondary position of women in the society
- Women have less access to and control over development resources
and benefits
- Less participation of women in planning and in decision-making bodies

Women in Power and Politics

The number of women in parliament worldwide has doubled in the years

since the implementation of the BPFA. However, women compose only 22% of
the parliament today. Globally, 143 of 195 countries have constitutional
provisions to ensure gender equality.

The Philippines ranks high in the said markers due to the number of women
participating in the election processes, as well as those in office. The 2016
election show that 28, 52,138 registered voters were females while only
26,311,706 were males. While no sex-disaggregated data are available for the
2016 election, the 2013 elections showed that 25% of those elected for the
Senate and 27% of those elected for the House of Representative were women.

Comparative statistics of candidates by sex from 2001 to 2013.

Election Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of
Year Male Female Male Female
Candidates Candidates Candidates Candidates
Elected Elected
2001 84.59 15.40 82.84 17.16
2004 85.14 14.86 83.37 16.63
2007 83.93 16.07 82.61 17.38
2010 83.04 16.60 81.44 18.56
2013 81.89 17.82 79.75 19.92

Despite the Philippines getting high marks for women’s political

involvement, women in power still make up less than half of those elected.
Similarly, analysis on the gap of political empowerment between men and
women is only available in the highest level of the government and does not
include data at the local level. From the data, it can be concluded that gender
equality in decision-making still has a long way to go.
Some issues that hamper women’s participation in the elections involve
sex-role stereotypes and gendered assumptions. Women in the political sphere
deal with the multiple burden of their own political career and taking care of
their families. Also, because women in politics are stereotyped by their roles,
Filipino voters often look for someone who is aggressive and assertive.
Moreover, women in positions of power may not even prioritize women’s
issues.

Source: “Data on Women in Elections: 1998-2013,” COMELEC, posted August 19, 2015,
http:/www.comelec.gov.ph/
6. Human trafficking and cybersex crime
- “Human trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring
or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other
forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of
power or of a position (scholarworks.gvsu.edu).

- Cybersex crime or live streaming sexual abuse is a cybercrime involving

sex trafficking and the live streaming of coerced sexual acts and or rape
on webcam.

- The law criminalizes trafficking of women and children for exploitation,

including trafficking for sex tourism, prostitution, pornography, forced
labor, and the recruitment of children into armed conflict. The 3 most
common types of human trafficking are sex trafficking, forced labor, and
debt bondage. Forced labor, also known as involuntary servitude, is the
biggest sector of trafficking in the world, according to the U.S.
Department of State.

Recruitment practices and modes of trafficking

Trafficking in human beings usually involve illicit practices such as recruitment

by mala fide recruitment agencies, abduction/kidnapping, and leaving the country
through the “Southern Backdoor” with no legitimate documentation. Trafficking
practices may, however, be initiated through licensed recruitment agencies serving
as fronts for sex trafficking. In such instances, all travel papers are processed
legally but clients are usually deceived regarding the kind of work in which they will
be involved once having arrived in the destination country.

Despite legitimate channels, many prospective foreign workers choose to

bypass these. It is believed that stringent government requirements and difficult
and time-consuming procedures have discouraged job seekers from seeking legal
channels and have led them to turn to illegal means which are largely viewed as
quicker and less cumbersome.

Government experts in the Philippines have identified several methods and

strategies which facilitate exit from the Philippines and entry into the destination
countries. Some are legal means of exit and entry into the destination country
(such as use of legitimate tourist visas) while other means are illicit (the use of
fraudulent documents). These include:

 Illegal recruitment, promise of non-existing jobs or jobs differing from

those promised
 Airport escorting scheme (where airport personnel ‘escort’ individuals
without proper documentation through Immigration check points)
 Pre-arranged passage (Immigration officials ignore fraudulent
documents or lack of proper documentation and allow persons to pass
through Immigration check points)
 Transit travel (nationality switch or conversion, whereby individuals
switch nationalities to one for which a visa is not required for the
destination country)
 Photo-substitution and look-alike (passport tampering)
 Matchmaking for marriage (a spouse visa provides an individual with the
possibility to remain legally for, often, an undisclosed period of time in
the destination country)
 Adoption
 Foreign training/internships
  Religious pilgrimages/movements
 Family tours (where individuals pose as family members to secure visas)
 Cultural exchange/promotion

Exploitation

Victims were subjected to varied degrees and forms of exploitation during all
phases from recruitment in the Philippines to employment in the destination country.
Exploitation is more severe once persons reach the destination country, but in some
cases does occur prior to departure and during the transport phase.

Prior to departure, the women, in particular those seeking employment as

entertainers and waitresses, are often subjected to physical screening. Some
managers/promoters ask victims to undress. Those travelling as entertainers are
required to undergo rigorous training in singing and dancing. For pre-departure training
and practices, women recruits are usually housed in a common shelter and are
instructed not to maintain contact with anyone. Some are even asked to attend private
parties pre-arranged with the managers/promoters/agencies.
Source:https://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/human_trafficking/Exec_Summary_NAPOLCOM.pdf

As reported over the past five years, the Philippines is a source country and, to
a lesser extent, a destination and transit country for men, women, and children
subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor. An estimated 10 million Filipinos reside or
work abroad and the government processes approximately 2.3 million new or renewed
contracts for Filipinos to work overseas each year. A significant number of these
migrant workers are subjected to sex and labor trafficking – predominantly via debt
bondage – in the fishing, shipping, construction, education, home health care, and
agricultural industries, as well as in domestic work, janitorial service, and other
hospitality-related jobs, particularly in the Middle East and Asia, but also in all other
regions. Traffickers, typically in partnership with local networks and facilitators, engage
in illegal recruitment practices that leave migrant workers vulnerable to trafficking, such
as charging excessive fees, producing fraudulent travel and contract documents, and
confiscating identity documents. Illegal recruiters use student, intern, exchange
program, and tourist visas, as well as travel through other countries to circumvent the
Philippine government and destination countries' legal frameworks for foreign workers.
Traffickers also recruit Filipinos already working overseas through fraudulent offers of
employment in another country.

Forced labor and sex trafficking of men, women, and children within the country
remains a significant problem. Women and children from indigenous communities and
remote areas of the Philippines are the most vulnerable to sex trafficking, and some
are vulnerable to domestic servitude and other forms of forced labor. Men are subjected
to forced labor and debt bondage in the agricultural, fishing, and maritime industries.
Persons displaced due to the conflict in Mindanao, Filipinos returning from bordering
countries without documents, and internally displaced persons in typhoon-affected
communities are vulnerable to domestic servitude, forced begging, forced labor in small
factories, and sex trafficking in Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, central and northern Luzon,
and urban areas in Mindanao. Sex trafficking also occurs in tourist destinations, such
as Boracay, Angeles City, Olongapo, Puerto Galera, and Surigao, where there is a high
demand for commercial sex acts. Although the availability of child sex trafficking victims
in commercial establishments declined in some urban areas, child sex trafficking
remains a pervasive problem, typically abetted by taxi drivers who have knowledge of
clandestine locations.

In addition, young Filipino girls and boys are increasingly induced to perform
sex acts for live internet broadcast to paying foreigners in other countries; this typically
occurs in private residences or small internet cafes, and may be facilitated by victims'
family members and neighbors. NGOs report high numbers of child sex tourists in the
Philippines, many of whom are citizens of Australia, Japan, the United States, Canada,
and countries in Europe; Filipino men also purchase commercial sex acts from child
trafficking victims. Organized crime syndicates allegedly transport sex trafficking victims
from China through the Philippines en route to other countries. The UN reports armed
groups operating in the Philippines, including the New People's Army, Maute Group,
the Moro National Liberation Front, the Abu Sayyaf Group, and the Bangsamoro Islamic
Freedom Fighters recruit and use children, at times through force, for combat and
noncombat roles; the Islamic State is reported to subject women and girls to sexual
slavery.

Officials, including those in diplomatic missions, law enforcement agencies, and

other government entities, allegedly have been complicit in trafficking or allowed
traffickers to operate with impunity. Some corrupt officials, particularly those working in
immigration, allegedly accept bribes to facilitate illegal departures for overseas workers,
reduce trafficking charges, or overlook illegal labor recruiters. Reports in previous years
asserted police conduct indiscriminate or fake raids on commercial sex establishments
to extort money from managers, clients, and victims. Some personnel working at
Philippine embassies reportedly withhold back wages procured for their domestic
workers, subject them to domestic servitude, or coerce sexual acts in exchange for
government protection services. Source: United States Department of State, 2018 Trafficking in
Persons Report - Philippines,28June2018,availableat:https://www.refworld.org/docid/5b3e0aa4a.html

 Are cyberstalking, cyber harassment, and cyberbullying gender-based cybercrimes?

- Cyberstalking and cyber harassment are gender-based cybercrimes - women and girls
are more likely to experience this form of harassment than men and boys (WHOA,
2012; Moriarty and Freiberger, 2008; Hunt, 2016; Duggan, 2014; Reyns, Henson,
and Fisher, 2011).
- By contrast, cyberbullying does not seem to be a gender-based cybercrime. The
research on the role of gender in cyberbullying is mixed; some studies have found
that gender was a statistically significant predictor of being cyberbullied and being a
cyberbully, while others did not (Beran and Li, 2005; Patchin and Hinduja, 2006;
Kowalski and Limber, 2007; Navarro and Jasinski, 2012; Navarro and Jasinski, 2013;
Smith, 2012; Smith et al., 2008; Smith, Steffen and Sittichai, 2013; Rivers and Noret,
2010; Li, 2006; Fanti, Demetriou, and Hawa, 2012; Livingstone et al., 2011; Calvete
et al., 2010).
- Threats of sexual and physical violence, along with sexist, misogynistic,
discriminatory, and prejudicial comments have been communicated to women and
girls via ICT creating a hostile environment for them online.
- In Ghana, women face extensive online abuse, which includes not only the distribution
of sexually explicit images and videos, but also hateful, abusive, and offensive
comments directed at women (Abissath, 2018).
- In addition to gender-based harassment, women across the globe have also
experienced online sexual harassment, receiving unwanted "highly sexual comments
and visual pornography that dehumanize[s]" them (Brail, 1994; Soukup, 1999; Li,
2008; Powell and Henry, 2017, p. 212).
- A case in point is cyberflashing, where women are sent unsolicited sexual images
(e.g., a picture of the sender's penis) to harass, upset and/or alarm the receiver (Bell
2015; Powell and Henry, 2017, p. 211).
- Women's rights activists and organizations, as well as feminists and feminist
organizations around the world have also been subjected to cyberharassment and
cyberstalking.
- A feminist organization in Colombia, Mujeres Insumisas, has reported incidents of
sexual violence, harassment, and stalking against its members both online and offline
(Lyons et al., 2016).
- Research has shown that simply being a female public figure can result in experiences
of threats of physical and sexual violence, as well as misogynistic comments. For
example, UK Labor MP, Jess Phillips, received over 600 rape threats in one night,
alongside hundreds of other threats and derogatory comments, for calling for the
 identification of Internet (or online) trolls (Rawlison, 2018).
-
 Sexting
- a type of "self-generated sexually explicit material" (UNODC, 2015; Interagency
Working Group, 2016, p. 44), includes "consensual image taking and sharing, as well
as consensual taking and non-consensual sharing of images (and sometimes even
non-consensual taking and non-consensual sharing)" (Salter, Crofts and Lee, 2013,
p. 302).
- The most common type of self-generated sexually explicit material involving children
(Interagency Working Group, 2016, p. 44).

• Some "research has shown that girls feel pressured or coerced into it more often
than boys" (Cooper et al., 2016, cited in Interagency Working Group, 2016, p. 44).

• Other research suggests that image-sharing among adolescents plays out in a

'pressurized yet voluntary' context (Ringrose and Renold, 2012; Drouin and Tobin,
2014).

• Research conducted in UK high schools by Ringrose and Renold (2012) found that
young women and girls were under near-constant pressure from boys and young
men to send increasingly graphic and often degrading images, such as photos of
their breasts with the boys' names written on them. A later study by Walker, Sanci
and Temple (2013) similarly found that young men were under social pressure to
receive and share these images with their male peers, in order to assert and protect
their heterosexuality.

• The studies on sexting have yielded disparate findings on prevalence, depending on

the participant sample, sampling techniques, instruments, as well as the different
definitions of sexting used. The establishment of prevalence rates on consensual
sexting among young people is therefore made somewhat challenging (Klettke,
Hallford and Mellor, 2014; Lounsbury, Mitchell and Finkelhor, 2011; Powell, Henry
and Flynn, 2018).

• However, generally these studies tend to concur that sexting is relatively common
among young people (although see conflicting findings of a 2017 study by UK Safer
Internet Centre, Netsafe and the Office of the eSafety Commissioner (2017)).
Europol (2018) likewise reported a significant increase in children's self-generated
sexually explicit material (e.g., performing a sex act) and self-generated sexually
explicit material live streamed (pp. 9, 31 and 35). In some countries, sexting has
been prosecuted (Bookman and Williams, 2018; O'Connor et al., 2017).

7. Homophobia

- Homophobia is the fear, hatred, discomfort with, or mistrust of people

who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual. Biphobia is fear, hatred, discomfort,
or mistrust, specifically of people who are bisexual. Transphobia is
fear, hatred, discomfort with, or mistrust of people who are
transgender, gender queer, or don’t follow traditional gender norms.

- People who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual may experience

harassment or discrimination from people who are scared of or
uncomfortable with these identities.

- Homophobia can take many different forms, including negative attitudes

and beliefs about, aversion to, or prejudice against bisexual, lesbian,
and gay people. It’s often based in irrational fear and
misunderstanding. Some people’s homophobia may be rooted in
conservative religious beliefs. People may hold homophobic beliefs if
they were taught them by parents and families.
 - Homophobic people may use mean language and name-calling when
they talk about lesbian and gay people. Biphobic people may tell
bisexual people that it’s “just for attention,” or that they’re inherently
cheaters. In its most extreme forms, homophobia and biphobia can
cause people to bully, abuse, and inflict violence on lesbian, gay, and
bisexual people.

What is internalized homophobia?

Internalized homophobia refers to people who are homophobic while also

experiencing same-sex attraction themselves. Sometimes, people may have
negative attitudes and beliefs about those who experience same-sex attraction,
and then turn the negative beliefs in on themselves rather than come to terms with
their own desires. This may mean that they feel discomfort and disapproval with
their own same-sex attractions, never accept their same-sex attractions, or never
identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual.

People dealing with internalized homophobia may feel the need to “prove” that
they’re straight, exhibit very stereotypical behavior of straight men and women, or
even bully and discriminate against openly gay people.

Hate crimes towards LGBTQ in the Philippines

• Widespread and systematic human rights violations on the basis of sexual
orientation, gender identity, and homosexuality persist in the Philippines.
The arrests, harassment, and discrimination faced by lesbian, gay,
bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the Philippines demonstrate is
prevalent.
• Though an Anti-Discrimination bill was first introduced to Congress twelve
years, the Philippines does not have Anti-Discrimination legislation. The
State also fails to address the overwhelming amount of hate crimes and
murders of LGBT individuals in the Philippines and the number of hate
crimes against LGBT people in the Philippines is increasing.
• Police raids on LGBT venues occur regularly and without warrants.
• During these raids, police regularly illegally detain, verbally abuse
and extort money from clients. Police will also frequently charge
LGBT individuals with violating the “Public scandal” provision of the
Revised Penal Code which is a broadly worded public morality law
discriminatorily applied against the LGBT community. There are
glaring instances of discrimination, marginalization and exclusion of
sexual orientation and gender identity issues from various legislative
bills.
• The Philippines has no comprehensive antidiscrimination law. Only one city
has a local ordinance limited to workplace discrimination based on sexual
orientation and gender identity. There are specific anti-discrimination
provisions in the PNP Code and the Magna Carta of Social Workers . Draft
bills that protect sexual orientation and gender identity have been filed in
the Philippine Congress and are in different committees. A number of
government agencies have administrative rules or policies that protect
sexual orientation, and alternately, other agencies have expressed policies
that are discriminatory to their employees or clients. The judiciary has made
several favorable and unfavorable precedents in the legal treatment of
LGBTs and intersexed persons. The Supreme Court ruled against a
ministerial decision of the Commission on Elections that denied
accreditation from Ladlad, an LGBT party list, to run as a political party. The
Supreme Court also rendered a decision7 that denied the rights of
transgenders to self-determination and legal changes of identity. The
Philippine permanent representatives at the United Nations did not support
both the June 2011 Joint Statement at the UN Human Rights Council urging
 states to end violence, criminal sanctions and related human rights
violations based on sexual orientation and gender identity; and the Joint
Statement and the December 2010 United Nations General Assembly
resolution which included protection for lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transgender (LGBT) people from extrajudicial executions (EJE) and other
unlawful killings based on sexual orientation According to the Philippine
LGBT Hate Crime Watch research on violence against the LGBT population
in the Philippines, around 141 deaths of LGBTs with varying elements of
motives of hate or bias, extrajudicial killing, and/or discrimination-related
violence related to sexual orientation and gender identity have been
documented in media mass media reports and oral testimonies since 1996.

• Case on Hate crime

Advocates from the LGBT community denounced the killing of a transgender woman in Pangasinan
as a case of prejudice ahead of the results of an investigation Jessa Remiendo, who was identified as
a transwoman, was reportedly found dead on Patar Beach in Bolinao, Pangasinan on September 17.
Based on a report, Bolinao town police chief Major Dennis Cabigat described it as “unusual.”

The University of the Philippines-Babaylan expressed anger over the crime against Remiendo and
called for the police to conduct a fair investigation on it.“ We demand that the police immediately
respond to this case with a fair and extensive investigation and the prosecution of the perpetrators.
We also call on the local government units of Bolinao and Pangasinan to prioritize the resolution of
this case, and to enact protective measures for their LGBTQI community in the absence of a national
anti-discrimination law,” UP-Babaylan said.

This was also seen as a crime targeting the LGBT community by supporters of the proposed Sexual
Orientation and Gender Identity and Expression Equality measure.They put up hashtags
#JusticeforJessa and #Sogieequalitynow on Twitter Philippines.One user said that the incident is
proof of discrimination against transgender men and women are in the Philippines.

Cause(s) of gender issues

1. Patriarchal culture

- Patriarchy is a socially-constructed system where males have primary

power which affects many aspects of life, from political leadership,
business management, religious institutions, economic systems and
property ownership, right down to the family home where men are
considered to be the head of the household.

- According to Johnson, a patriarchal society reserves positions of

authority for men and creates power differences between men and
women, some of which can be visible while others are invisible
(www.californiafamilyinstitute.org). This isn't to say that all men are
powerful, or all women are powerless, but the default is always towards
male dominance which can lead men to discriminate the women.

- Patriarchal culture is deep seated and rooted from the traditional beliefs
that men plays an important role in society, although there are societies
that women’s role are more recognized. As a system, men holds primary
power and predominate in roles of moral authority, social privilege, and
control of property, while the women are subjugated which means that
property and title are inherited by the male lineage. In addition,
sociologist Sylvia Walby defines patriarchy as "a system of social
structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit
women". Social stratification along gender lines, in which power is
predominantly held by men, has been observed in most societies. For
 example, exploiting women in the form of massive pornography and
cosmetics industries that objectify women, as well as popular media and
other male-centric industries that promote dangerous gender roles and
stereotypes all comprise.

Causes of Gender Inequalities

1. Uneven access to education

o Around the world, women still have less access to education than
men. ¼ of young women between 15-24 will not finish primary
school. That group makes up 58% of the people not completing
that basic education. Of all the illiterate people in the world, ⅔ are
women. When girls are not educated on the same level as boys,
it has a huge effect on their future and the kinds of opportunities
they’ll get. 1 out of 6 adolescents is not in school, totaling 65
million in 2013. One third of these live in South and West
Asia, another third in sub-Saharan Africa, where there are
more adolescents out of school today than in 2000. Each
day, young women and children spend 140 million hours
collecting water, which significantly diminishes their access
to education and labor markets. In the majority of countries
worldwide, young men are more likely than young women to
enroll in vocational education.[UNESCO, UIS: Out of School
Children Data Release 2015

2. Lack of employment equality

o Only 6 countries in the world give women the same legal work
rights as men. In fact, most economies give women only ¾ the
rights of men. Studies show that if employment became a more
even playing field, it has a positive domino effect on other areas
prone to gender inequality.

3. Job segregation
o One of the causes for gender inequality within employment is the
division of jobs. In most societies, there’s an inherent belief that
men are simply better equipped to handle certain jobs. Most of
the time, those are the jobs that pay the best.
This discrimination results in lower income for women. Women
also take on the primary responsibility for unpaid labor, so even
as they participate in the paid workforce, they have extra work
that never gets recognized financially.

4. Lack of legal protections

o According to research from the World Bank, over one billion
women don’t have legal protection against domestic sexual
violence or domestic economic violence. Both have a significant
impact on women’s ability to thrive and live in freedom. In many
countries, there’s also a lack of legal protections against
harassment in the workplace, at school, and in public. These
places become unsafe and without protection, women frequently
have to make decisions that compromise and limit their goals.

5. Lack of bodily autonomy

o Many women around the world do not have authority over their
own bodies or when they become parents. Accessing birth
control is frequently very difficult. According to the World Health
Organization, over 200 million women who don’t want to get
pregnant are not using contraception. There are various reasons
for this such as a lack of options, limited access, and
cultural/religious opposition. On a global scale, about 40% of
 pregnancies are not planned and while 50% of them do end in
abortion, 38% result in births. These mothers often become
financially dependent on another person or the state, losing their
freedom.

6. Poor medical care

o In addition to limited access to contraception, women overall
receive lower-quality medical care than men. This is linked to
other gender inequality reasons such as a lack of education and
job opportunities, which results in more women being in poverty.
They are less likely to be able to afford good healthcare. There’s
also been less research into diseases that affect women more
than men, such as autoimmune disorders and chronic pain
conditions. Many women also experience discrimination and
dismissal from their doctors, broadening the gender gap in
healthcare quality.

7. Lack of religious freedom

o When religious freedom is attacked, women suffer the most.
According to the World Economic Forum, when extremist
ideologies (such as ISIS) come into a community and restrict
religious freedom, gender inequality gets worse. In a study
performed by Georgetown University and Brigham Young
University, researchers were also able to connect religious
intolerance with women’s ability to participate in the economy.
When there’s more religious freedom, an economy becomes
more stable thanks to women’s participation.

8. Lack of political representation

o Of all national parliaments at the beginning of 2019, only 24.3%
of seats were filled by women. As of June of 2019, 11 Heads of
State were women. Despite progress in this area over the years,
women are still grossly underrepresented in government and the
political process. This means that certain issues that female
politicians tend to bring up – such as parental leave and childcare,
pensions, gender equality laws and gender-based violence – are
often neglected.

9. Racism
o It would be impossible to talk about gender inequality without
talking about racism. It affects what jobs women of color are able
to get and how much they’re paid, as well as how they are viewed
by legal and healthcare systems. Gender inequality and
racism have been closely-linked for a long time. According to
Sally Kitch, a professor and author, European settlers in Virginia
decided what work could be taxed based on the race of the
woman performing the work. African women’s work was “labor,”
so it was taxable, while work performed by English women was
“domestic” and not taxable. The pay gaps between white women
and women of color continues that legacy of discrimination and
contributes to gender inequality.

10. Societal mindsets

o It’s less tangible than some of the other causes on this list, but
the overall mindset of a society has a significant impact on gender
inequality. How society determines the differences and value of
men vs. women plays a starring role in every arena, whether it’s
 employment or the legal system or healthcare. Beliefs about
gender run deep and even though progress can be made through
laws and structural changes, there’s often a pushback following
times of major change. It’s also common for everyone (men and
women) to ignore other areas of gender inequality when there’s
progress, such as better representation for women in leadership.
These types of mindsets prop up gender inequality and delay
significant change.

11. THE WAGE GAP

o One of the areas at the workplace where gender differences are
seen is the difference in the remuneration that men and women
workers receive for work of equal value. A study by the
International Labour Organization in 2013 shows that the global
wage gap is 23%. However, this number does not account for the
millions of women working in the informal economy with no
protection. Also, many countries lack reliable statistics to prepare
more accurate reports, therefore, this already high figure will be
even higher. Access to education continues to be key to bridging
the wage gap. However, it is not the only instrument, since
women with higher education are at the ends of the gap with their
male peer. For that reason, UNI has pledged to work to make ILO
Convention 100 requiring equal remuneration for men and
women workers for work of equal value effective in every work
site.

Effects of Gender Issues

- Perceived Result: Violence

o Violence, privilege, injustice and impunity are intimately linked.
Violent behavior is generally perceived to be an integral part of
male behavior and as a normal feature of being a man. Violence
is, in fact, culturally ‘masculinized.’ Gender-based violence is
related to systems and feelings of power – the oppression of
women and certain groups of men. Gender inequality
perpetuates a culture of violence. When women are viewed as
something less, as persons subjected to male authority, men feel
less hesitation in using and degrading women for their own
satisfaction as their satisfaction is deemed to be of greater
importance. Unfortunately, culturally dominant norms of
masculinity that encourage men to use violence limit not only
men’s but also women’s and girls’ choices, safety and behavior.
- On Children
o Gender stereotypes affect children's sense of self from a young
age. Boys receive 8 times more attention in the classroom than
girls. Girls receive 11% less pocket money than boys. Children
classify jobs and activities as specific to boys or girls.
- On Young people
o Gender stereotypes affect behavior, study choices, ambitions
and attitudes about relationships. Girls are less likely to take part
in organized sport. Girls are less likely to do advanced math's
subjects in their final years of school. 1 in 3 Australian women
over 15 has experienced physical violence.
- On Adults
o Women earn 87.6 cents to every dollar earned by men. Although
 more women than men complete tertiary education, their
graduate salaries are lower. 1 in every 2 mothers experiences
discrimination during pregnancy, on parental leave or when
returning to work. Women do nearly twice as much unpaid work
as men.
- On Older People
o Women retire with half the superannuation savings of men. This
affects women's financial security, health and wellbeing. Older
women are at risk of homelessness than men.
- On Culturally diverse communities
o Women from culturally diverse communities experience racism
and discrimination on top of gender inequality. Migrant and
refugee women are often in insecure, low-paid work or work they
are overqualified for. Women from non-English speaking
backgrounds can face barriers to accessing services and
understanding their rights.
- On Men
o Traditional stereotypes are difficult for many men to live up to.
They feel pressure to be a ‘real man’, to be physically and
emotionally strong, and be the main income earner. Many
workplaces don’t offer men extended parental leave or flexible
hours. Men are more likely to drink too much, take unhealthy risks
and engage in violence. They are less likely to seek professional
help or talk about their problems with friends or family. Men are
more likely to commit suicide.
- On Women
o Women living outside of metropolitan areas often do not have
access to public services. They are at greater risk of poor health
outcomes and family violence. Women with disabilities are more
likely to experience family violence and sexual assault. They are
more likely to be unemployed or underemployed. They are paid
less than men with disabilities and women without disabilities

Ways to address gender issues

In the Philippines, tremendous and significant progress has been made in

addressing and eliminating violence against women by both government and non-
governmental organizations. Some of the most significant laws passed are:

 RA 8353 - the Anti Rape Law

 RA 8505 - the Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act;
 RA 7877 - the Anti-Sexual Harassment Law and the Anti-trafficking of
Persons Law
 RA 8369 – the Family Courts Act of 1997 established family courts in major
cities all over the country to foster a more proactive approach in protecting
the rights of women and children against domestic violence and incest.

A major accomplishment in the advocacy to eliminate VAW was the passage

of Republic Act No. 9262 or the Anti-violence against Women and Their Children
Act of 2004. It penalizes all forms of abuse and violence within the family and
intimate relationships.

The Magna Carta of Women (RA 9710) is a comprehensive women’s human

rights law that seeks to eliminate discrimination against women by recognizing,
protecting, fulfilling and promoting the rights of Filipino women, especially those in
the marginalized sectors.
 Source: file:///D:/Gender%20and%20Society/casestudygbv_philippines.pdf

Post-assessment Activity

Critical Thinking Question

1. Describe the impact of gender issues according to the following:

A. Individual
B. Family
C. Community