COMPUTER INTEGRATED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING (CIDM) NOTES

PREPARED BY DR. AK MADAN

CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of software and computer-controlled machinery
to automate a manufacturing process.

Based on that definition, you need three components for a CAM system to function:

• Software that tells a machine how to make a product by generating toolpaths.

• Machinery that can turn raw material into a finished product.

• Post Processing that converts toolpaths into a language machines can understand.

These three components are glued together with tons of human labor and skill. As an industry we’ve
spent years building and refining the best manufacturing machinery around. Today, there’s no design
too tough for any capable machinist shop to handle.

CAM software prepares a model for machining by working through several actions, including:

• Checking if the model has any geometry errors that will impact the manufacturing process.

• Creating a toolpath for the model, which is a set of coordinates the machine will follow during
the machining process.

• Setting any required machine parameters including cutting speed, voltage, cut/pierce height,
etc.

• Configuring nesting where the CAM system will decide the best orientation for a part to
maximize machining efficiency.

CAD: CAD (Computer Aided Design) is the use of computer software to design and document a product’s
design process. Engineering drawing entails the use of graphical symbols such as points, lines, curves,
planes and shapes.  Essentially, it gives detailed description about any component in a graphical form.

 CAD stands for Computer Aided Design. CAD is used to design, develop and optimize products.
While it is very versatile, CAD is extensively used in the design of tools and equipment required
in the manufacturing process as well as in the construction domain. CAD enables design
engineers to layout and to develop their work on a computer screen, print and save it for future
editing.

 CAD is used to accomplish preliminary design and layouts, design details and calculations,
creating 3-D models, creating and releasing drawings, as well as interfacing with analysis,
marketing, manufacturing, and end-user personnel. 
  CAD facilitates the manufacturing process by transferring detailed information about a product
in an automated form that can be universally interpreted by trained personnel. It can be used to
produce either two-dimensional or three-dimensional diagrams. The use of CAD software tools
allows the object to be viewed from any angle, even from the inside looking out. One of the
main advantages of a CAD drawing is that the editing is a fast process as compared to manual
method. Apart from detailed engineering of 2D or 3D models, CAD is widely used from
conceptual design and layout of products to definition of manufacturing of components. CAD
reduces design time by allowing precise simulation rather than build and test physical
prototypes. Integrating CAD with CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) streamlines the
product development even more.

INTEGRATION OF CAD AND CAM:

 Without CAM, there is no CAD. CAD focuses on the design of a product or part. How it
looks, how it functions. CAM focuses on how to make it. You can design the most
elegant part in your CAD tool, but if you can’t efficiently make it with a CAM system then
you’re better off kicking rocks.
 The start of every engineering process begins in the world of CAD. Engineers will make
either a 2D or 3D drawing, whether that’s a crankshaft for an automobile, the inner
skeleton of a kitchen faucet, or the hidden electronics in a circuit board. In the world of
CAD, any design is called a model and contains a set of physical properties that will be
used by a CAM system.
 When a design is complete in CAD, it can then be loaded into CAM. This is traditionally
done by exporting a CAD file and then importing it into CAM software. If you’re using a
tool like Fusion 360, both CAD and CAM exist in the same world, so there’s no
import/export required.
 Once your CAD model is imported into CAM, the software starts preparing the model
for machining. Machining is the controlled process of transforming raw material into a
defined shape through actions like cutting, drilling, or boring.

Numeric Control (NC): NC part programming is the procedure by which the sequence of processing
steps to be performed on the NC machine is planned and documented It involves the preparation of a
punched tape (or other input medium) used to transmit the processing instructions to the machine tool.
Coding of the punched tape is concerned with the basic symbols used to communicate a complex set of
instructions to the NC machine tool. IN NC, the punched tape must be generated whether the part
programming is done manually or with the assistance of some computer package. With either method
of part programming, the tape is the net result of the programming effort.
The Punched Tape: The part program is convened into a sequence of machine tool actions by means of
the input medium (punched tape), which contains the program, and the controller unit. which interprets
the input medium. That is, the input medium uses coded symbols which represent the part program,
and the controller unit must be capable of reading those symbols. The tape has been standardized so
that the tape punchers are manufactured to prepare the NC tapes, and tape readers (pan of the
controller unit) can be manufactured to read tapes. The punched tape used for NC is I in. It is
standardized by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA), which has been responsible for many of the
important standards in the NC industries.
There are two basic methods of preparing the punched tape. The first method is associated with manual
pan programming and involves the use of a typewriter like device. The operator types directly from the
part programmer's handwritten list of coded instructions. This produces a typed copy of the program as
well as the punched tape the second method is used with computer-assisted part programming. By this
approach, the tape is prepared directly by the computer using a device called a tape punch. By either
method of preparation, the punched tape is ready for use. During production on a conventional NC
machine, the tape is fed through the tape reader once for each workpiece It is advanced through the
tape reader one instruction at a time. While the machine tool is performing one instruction, the next
instruction is being read into the controller unit's data buffer, thereby, making the operation of the NC
system more efficient. After the last instruction has been read into the controller, the tape is rewound
back to the star of the program to be ready for the next work part.

 Tape coding and format

NC tape coding
As shown is figure, there are eight regular columns of holes running in the lengthwise
direction of the tape. There is also a ninth column of holes between the third and fourth
regular columns. However, these are smaller and are used as sprocket holes for feeding
the tape.
Fig shows a hole present in nearly every position of the tape. However, the coding of the
tape is provided by either the presence or absence of a hole in the various positions.
Because there are two possible conditions for each position - either the presence or
absence of a hole - this coding system is called the binary code. It uses the base 2
number system, which can represent any number in the more familiar base 10 or
decimal system. The NC tape coding system is used to code not only numbers, but also
alphabetical letters and other symbols. Eight columns provide more than enough binary
 digits to define any of the required symbols.
The instructions are formed by a binary digit is called a bit. It has a value of 0 or 1
depending on the absence or presence of a hole in a certain row and column position on
the tape (Columns of hole positions run lengthwise along the tape. Row positions run
across the tape.) Out of a row of bits, a character is made. A character is a combination
of bits, which represents a letter, number, or other symbol. A word is a collection of
characters used to form part of an instruction. Typical NC words are x position, y
position, cutting speed, and so on. Out of a collection of words, a block is formed. A
block of words is a complete NC instruction. Using an NC drilling operation as an
example, a block might contain information on the x and y coordinates of the hole
location, the speed and feed at which the cut should be run, and perhaps even a
specification of the cutting tool. To separate blocks, an end-of-block (E08) symbol is
used (in the EIA standard, this is a hole in column 8). The tape reader feeds the data
from the tape into the buffer in blocks. That is, it reads in a complete instruction at a
time.
 NC words: Following is a list of different types of words in the formation of a block. Not
every NC machine uses all the words. Also, the manner in which the words are
expressed will differ between machines. By convention, the words in a block are given in
the following order:

SEQUENCE NUMBER (n-words): This is used to identify the block.

PREPARATORY WORD (g-words): This word is used to prepared the controller for
instructions that are to follow. For example, the word g02 is used to prepare the NC
controller unit for circular interpolation along an arc in the cw direction. The
preparatory word is needed so that the controller can correctly interpret the data that
follow it in the block.
 COORDINATES (x-, y- and z-words): These give the coordinate positions of the tool. In a
two-axis system, only two of the words would be used in a four- or five-axis machine,
additional a-words and/or b-words would specify the angular positions.
 FEED RATE (f-word): This specifies the feed in a machining operation. Units are inches
per minute (ipm) by convention.
 CUTTING SPEED (s-word): This specifies the cutting speed of the process, the rate at
which the spindle rotates.
 TOOL SELECTION (t-word): This word would be needed only for machines with a tool
turret or automatic tool changer. The t-word specifies which tool is to be used in the
operation. For example, tO5 might be the designation of a 0.5 in drill bit in turret
position 5 on an NC turret drill
 MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTION (m-word): The m-word is used to specify certain
miscellaneous or auxiliary functions which may be available on the machine tool. Of
course, the machine must possess the function that is being called. An example would
be m03 to start the spindle rotation. The miscellaneous function is the last word in the
block. To identify the end of the instruction, an end-of-block (EOB) symbol is punched
on the tape.
Manual Part Programming: To prepare a pan program using the manual method, the programmer
writes the machining instructions on a special form called a part programming manuscript. The
instructions must be prepared in a very precise manner because the typist prepares the NC tape directly
from the manuscript. Manuscripts come in various forms, depending on the machine tool and tape
format to be used. For example, the manuscript form for a two-axis point-to-point drilling machine
would be different than one for a three-axis contouring machine. The manuscript is a listing of the
relative tool and workpiece locations. It also includes other data, such as preparatory commands,
miscellaneous instructions, and speed/feed specifications, all of which are needed to operate the
machine under tape control.
Manual programming jobs can be divided into two categories: point-to-point jobs and contouring jobs.
Except for complex work parts with many holes to be drilled, manual programming is ideally suited for
point-to-point applications. On the other hand, except for the simplest milling and turning jobs, manual
programming can become quite consuming for applications requiring continuous-path control of the
tool. Contouring is much more appropriate for computer-assisted part programming.

Computer-assisted part programming: Most parts machined on NC systems are considerably more
complex. In the more complicated point-to-point jobs and in contouring applications, manual part
programming becomes an extremely tedious task and subject to errors. Therefore, it is much more
appropriate to employ the high-speed digital computer to assist in the part programming process. Many
part programming language systems have been developed to perform automatically most of the
calculations which the programmer would otherwise be forced to do. This saves time and results in a
more accurate and more efficient part program. NC part programming languages: An NC part
programming language consists of a software package (computer program) plus the special rules,
conventions, and vocabulary words for using that software. Its purpose is to make it convenient for a
part programmer to communicate the necessary part geometry and tool motion information to the
computer so that the desired part program can be prepared. The vocabulary words are typically
mnemonic and English-like, to make the NC language easy to use. There have been over 100 NC part
programming languages developed since the initial MIT research on the NC programming in the mid-
1950s. Most of the languages were developed to meet particular needs and have not survived the test
of time. The following are some:

APT (Automatically Programmed Tools): Produced as a MIT developmental work in 1956, it was first
used in production around 1959. Today it is most widely used language. Modern versions of APT can be
used for both point-to-point positioning and continuous-path programming in up to five axes. Versions
of APT for particular processes include APTLIRN (for lathe operations), APTMIL (for milling and drilling
operations), and APTPOINT (for point-to-point operations).
• ADAPT (adaptation of APT): ADAPT is based on the APT program and developed by IBM under Air
Force contract. It was intended to provide many of the features of APT but to utilize a smaller computer.
ADAPT is not as powerful as APT, but it can be used to program for both positioning and contouring jobs.
• EXAPT (extended subset of APT): This was developed in Germany in around 1964 and is based on APT
language. One of the important features of EXAPT is that it attempts to compute optimum feeds and
speeds automatically. There are three versions: EXAPT I (designed for positioning used in drilling and
straight-cut milling), EXACT II (designed for turning), EXAPT III (designed for limited contouring
operations).
Computer Numerical Control (CNC): A CNC machine at the most basic level is nothing more than a
computer-controlled machine. CNC is an acronym for Computer Numerical Control. You can read more
about Numerical Control here. Typically, when people talk about CNC machines, they are referring to
machines used in the industrial manufacturing world. These machines build the things we use every day.
Examples include, mills, drills, lathes, routers, plasma & water jet cutters and many more. Almost any
machine used to manufacture a part that is controlled by a computer qualifies as a CNC machine.
Naturally, all of these machines come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Many of the high-end CNC
machines cost hundreds of thousands of dollars & weights many tons. However, as technology improves
the component cost is reduced. In turn, the cost to build a CNC machine comes down.

Direct Numerical Control (DNC): Direct numerical control (DNC), also known as distributed numerical
control (also DNC), is a common manufacturing term for networking CNC machine tools. On some CNC
machine controllers, the available memory is too small to contain the machining program (for example
machining complex surfaces), so in this case the program is stored in a separate computer and sent
directly to the machine, one block at a time. If the computer is connected to a number of machines it
can distribute programs to different machines as required. Usually, the manufacturer of the control
provides suitable DNC software. However, if this provision is not possible, some software companies
provide DNC applications that fulfill the purpose. DNC networking or DNC communication is always
required when CAM programs are to run on some CNC machine control.

 Wireless DNC is also used in place of hard-wired versions. Controls of this type are very
widely used in industries with significant sheet metal fabrication, such as the
automotive, appliance, and aerospace industries.
  The PC explosion in the late 1980s and early 1990s signalled the end of the road for
proprietary DNC terminals. With some exceptions, CNC manufacturers began migrating
to PC-based controls running DOS, Windows or OS/2 which could be linked in to existing
networks using standard protocols. Customers began migrating away from expensive
minicomputer and workstation-based CAD/CAM toward more cost-effective PC-based
solutions. Users began to demand more from their DNC systems than secure
upload/download and editing. PC-based systems which could accomplish these tasks
based on standard networks began to be available at minimal or no cost. In some cases,
users no longer needed a DNC "expert" to implement shop floor networking, and could
do it themselves. However, the task can still be a challenge based on the CNC Control
wiring requirements, parameters and NC program format.

 To remain competitive, therefore, DNC companies moved their offerings upmarket into
DNC Networking, Shop Floor Control or SFC, Manufacturing Execution Systems or MES.
These terms encompass concepts such as real-time Machine Monitoring, Graphics, Tool
Management, Traveler Management and Scheduling. Instead of merely acting as a
repository for programs, DNC systems aim to give operators at the machine an
integrated view of all the information (both textual and graphical) they require in order
to carry out a manufacturing operation, and give management timely information as to
the progress of each step. DNC systems are frequently directly integrated with
corporate CAD/CAM, ERP and Computer-aided Process Planning CAPP systems

What is G-code?

G-code is a programming language for CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines. G-code stands for
“Geometric Code”. We use this language to tell a machine what to do or how to do something. The G-
code commands instruct the machine where to move, how fast to move and what path to follow.

in case of a machine tool such as lathe or mill, the cutting tool is driven by these commands to follow a
specific toolpath, cutting away material in order to get the desired shape.

Similarly, in case of additive manufacturing or 3D printers, the G-code commands instruct the machine
to deposit material, layer upon layer, forming a precise geometric shape.

Let’s take a look at a single line and explain how it works.

G01 X247.951560 Y11.817060 Z-1.000000 F400.000000

The line has the following structure:

G## X## Y## Z## F##

 First is the G-code command and in this case that’s the G01 which means “move in straight
line to a specific position”.

 We declare the position or the coordinates with the X, Y and Z values.

 Lastly, with the F value we set the feed rate, or the speed at which the move will be executed.
To wrap up, the line G01 X247.951560 Y11.817060 Z-1.000000 F400.000000 tells the CNC machine to
move in a straight line from its current position to the coordinates X247.951560, Y11.817060 and Z-
1.000000 with speed of 400 mm/min. The unit is mm/min because if we take a look back at the G-code
example image, we can see that we have used the command G21 which sets the units to millimeters. If
we want the units in inches, we use the G20 command instead.

1)G0 – Rapid Move This code tells a machine to move as fast as possible to a specified coordinate
position. G0 will move the machine axis by axis, meaning that it will first move along both axes and finish
the move on whichever axis is not in positions.

2) G1 – Linear Move This code tells a machine to move in a straight line to a coordinate position with a
defined feed rate. For example, G1 X1 Y1 F32 will move the machine to coordinates X1, Y1, at a feed rate
of 32.

3) G2 – Clockwise Arc

4) G3- Counter-clockwise Arc These codes tell the machine to move in an arc to a coordinate
destination. Two additional coordinates, I and J, define the arc’s center location

5) G17 - XY plane

6) G18 - YZ plane

7) G19 – ZX plane These codes define what plane an arc will be machined on. By default, your CNC
machine will use G17, which is the XY plane.

8) G40, G41, G42 – Cutter Diameter Compensation These codes define the cutter diameter
compensation, or CDC, which allows a CNC machine to position its tool to the left or right of a defined
path. A D-register stores the offset for each tool.

9) G43 – Tool Length Compensation This code defines the length of individual tools using a Z-axis height.
This allows the CNC machine to understand where the tip of a tool is in relation to the piece it is working
on. A register defines the tool length compensations, where H is the tool length offset and Z is the length
of the tool.

10) G54 – Work Offset This code is used to define a fixture offset which determines the distance from a
machine’s internal coordinates to the datum on a workpiece. In the table below only G54 has an offset
definition. However, you can program multiple offsets if a job requires machining multiple parts at once.

What is M Code?

M codes give the machine instruction on when to turn on or off operations not involved with cutting. For
specific processes, for example, the machine may need to flood the system with coolant and shut it off
after the temperature drops. These are two separate actions in M code. As with G codes, the dialect
used for M codes varies by machine. When setting up programs, M codes should have one per block of
information. These commands give on and off functions to the machine, so having multiple commands
in a single group or block could cause program problems. Using M commands allows the machinist to
tell the device to change tools, turn on the spindle, send coolant to the system or open the doors.
Dozens of M operations exist, and operators learn how to program to execute desired actions fast. As
with G codes, M codes depend on the machine. Some machines require a zero between the M and the
number while others omit this requirement. Again, knowing the specific requirements detailed in the
machine's coding instructions will help the operator understand which alphanumeric programs to use.

1. M00: Stop whatever program is currently operating — axes, coolant flooding or spindle.

2. M01: This command indicates an optional stop for the program.

3. M02: End of the currently running program.

4. M03: Begin to move the spindle clockwise.

5. M04: Start moving the spindle counterclockwise or in reverse.

6. M05: Stop moving the spindle.

7. M06: Load on a different tool. Typically, this command comes with the T values.

8. M08: Start flooding the system with coolant.

9. M09: Stop the coolant flow.

10. M19: Spindle orient.

Flexible Manufacturing System

A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of
flexibility that allows the system to react in case of changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This
flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, which both contain numerous
subcategories.
The first category is called as Routing Flexibility which covers the system's ability to be changed to
produce new product types, and ability to change the order of operations executed on a part.
The second category is called Machine Flexibility which consists of the ability to use multiple machines
to perform the same operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes,
such as in volume, capacity, or capability.

Most FMS consist of three main systems:

1. The "Work Machines" which are often automated "CNC machines" are connected by,
2. By a "Material handling" system to optimize parts flow and
3. The "Central Control Computer" which controls material movements and machine flow.

 The main advantages of an FMS is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time
and effort in order to manufacture a new product.
 The best application of an FMS is found in the production of small sets of products like those from a
mass production.

Flexibility

Flexibility in manufacturing means the ability to deal with slightly or greatly mixed parts, to allow
variation in parts assembly and variations in process sequence, change the production volume and
change the design of certain product being manufactured.
Industrial FMS

An Industrial Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) consists of robots, Computer-controlled Machines,

Computer Numerical Controlled machines (CNC), instrumentation devices, computers, sensors, and
other standalone systems such as inspection machines. The use of robots in the production segment of
manufacturing industries promises a variety of benefits ranging from high utilization to high volume of
productivity. Each Robotic cell or node will be located along a material handling system such as a
conveyor or automatic guided vehicle. The production of each part or work-piece will require a different
combination of manufacturing nodes. The movement of parts from one node to another is done through
the material handling system. At the end of part processing, the finished parts will be routed to an
automatic inspection node, and subsequently unloaded from the Flexible Manufacturing System.

CNC machine

The FMS data traffic consists of large files and short messages, and mostly come from nodes, devices
and instruments. The message size ranges between a few bytes to several hundreds of bytes. Executive
software and other data, for example, are files with a large size, while messages for machining data,
instrument to instrument communications, status monitoring, and data reporting are transmitted in
small size.

There is also some variation on response time. Large program files from a main computer usually take
about 60 seconds to be down loaded into each instrument or node at the beginning of FMS operation.
Messages for instrument data need to be sent in a periodic time with deterministic time delay. Other
types of messages used for emergency reporting are quite short in size and must be transmitted and
received with an almost instantaneous response. The demands for reliable FMS protocol that support all
the FMS data characteristics are now urgent. The existing IEEE standard protocols do not fully satisfy the
real time communication requirements in this environment. The delay of CSMA/CD is unbounded as the
number of nodes increases due to the message collisions. Token Bus has a deterministic message delay,
but it does not support prioritized access scheme which is needed in FMS communications. Token Ring
provides prioritized access and has a low message delay, however, its data transmission is unreliable. A
single node failure which may occur quite often in FMS causes transmission errors of passing message in
that node. In addition, the topology of Token Ring results in high wiring installation and cost. A design of
FMS communication that supports a real time communication with bounded message delay and reacts
promptly to any emergency signal is needed. Because of machine failure and malfunction due to heat,
dust, and electromagnetic interference is common, a prioritized mechanism and immediate
transmission of emergency messages are needed so that a suitable recovery procedure can be applied.
A modification of standard Token Bus to implement a prioritized access scheme was proposed to allow
transmission of short and periodic messages with a low delay compared to the one for long messages.

Advantages of Flexible Manufacturing System:

 Reduced manufacturing cost

 Lower cost per unit produced,
 Greater labour productivity,
 Greater machine efficiency,
 Improved quality,
 Increased system reliability,
 Reduced parts inventories,
 Adaptability to CAD/CAM operations.
 Shorter lead times
 Improved efficiency
 Increase production rate

Disadvantages of Flexible Manufacturing System:

 Initial set-up cost is high,

 Substantial pre-planning
 Requirement of skilled labour
 Complicated system
 Maintenance is complicated

Flexible Manufacturing Systems(FMS) Components:

There are several basic components of an FMS: (1) workstations, (2) material handling and storage
system, and (3) computer control system. In addition, even though an FMS is highly automated, (4)
people are required to manage and operate the system. All of these FMS components are discussed in
this section.

1. Workstations
The processing or assembly equipment used in an FMS depends on the type of work accomplished by
the system. In a system designed for machining operations, the principle types of processing station are
CNC machine tools. However, the FMS concept is also applicable to various other processes as well.
Following are the types of workstations typically found in an FMS.

 Load/Unload Stations: The load/unload station is the physical interface between the FMS and the
rest of the factory. Raw work-parts enter the system at this point, and finished parts exit the system
from here. Loading and unloading can be accomplished either manually or by automated handling
systems. Manual loading and unloading is prevalent in most FMSs today. The load/unload station
should be ergonomically designed to permit convenient and safe movement of work parts. For parts
that are too heavy to lift by the operator, mechanized cranes and other handling devices are
installed to assist the operator. The load/unload station should include a data entry unit and
monitor for communication between the operator and the computer system. Instructions must be
given to the operator regarding which part to load onto the next pallet to adhere to the production
schedule. In cases when different pallets are required for different parts, the correct pallet must be
supplied to the station. In cases where modular fixturing is used, the correct fixture must be
specified. and the required components and tools must be available at the workstation to build it.
'When the part loading procedure has been completed. the handling system must proceed to launch
the pallet into the system; however, the handling system must be prevented from moving the pallet
while the operator is still working. All of these circumstances require communication between the
computer system and the operator at the load/unload station.

 Machining Stations: The most common applications of FMSs arc machining operations. The
workstations used in these systems are therefore predominantly CNC machine tools. Most common
is the CNC machining canter, in particular, the horizontal machining center. CNC machining centres
possess features that make them compatible with the FMS, including automatic tool changing and
tool storage, use of palletized work-parts, CNC, and capacity for distributed numerical control (DNC).
Machining centers can be ordered with automatic pallet changers that can be readily interfaced with
the FMS part handling system. Machining centers are generally used for non-rotational parts. For
rotational parts, turning centers are used; and for parts that are mostly rotational hut require multi-
tooth rotational cutters (milling and drilling), mill turn centers can be used.

 Other Processing Stations: The FMS concept has been applied to other processing operations in
addition to machining. One such application is sheet metal fabrication processes. The processing
workstations consist of press-working operations, such as punching, shearing, and certain bending
and forming processes. Also, flexible systems are being developed to automate the forging process.
Forging is traditionally a very labour-intensive operation. The workstations in the system consist
principally of a heating furnace, a forging press. and a trimming station.

 Assembly: Some FMSs are designed to perform assembly operations. Flexible automated assembly
systems are being developed to replace manual labour in the assembly of products typically made in
batches. Industrial robots are often used as the automated workstations in these flexible assembly
systems. They can be programmed to perform tasks with variations in sequence and motion pattern
to accommodate the different product styles assembled in the system. Other examples of flexible
 assembly workstations are the programmable component placement machines widely used in
electronics assembly.

2. Material Handling and Storage System:

The second major component of an FMS is its material handling and storage system. In this subsection,
we discuss the functions of the handling system, material handling equipment typically used in an FMS,
and types of FMS layout.

Functions of the Handling System. The material handling and storage system in an FMS performs the
fol1owing functions:

 Random, independent movement of work-parts between stations. This means that parts must be
capable of moving from anyone machine in the system to any other machine. to provide various
routing alternatives for the different parts and to make machine substitutions when certain stations
are busy.
 Handle a variety of work-part configurations. For prismatic parts, this is usually accomplished by
using modular pallet fixtures in the handling system. The fixture is located on the top face of the
pallet and is designed to accommodate different part configurations by means of common
components, quick change features, and other devices that permit a rapid build-up of the fixture for
a given part. The base of the pallet is designed for the material handling system. For rotational parts,
industrial robots are often used to load and unload the turning machines and to move parts
between stations.
 Temporary storage. The number of parts in the FMS will typically exceed the number of parts
actually being processed at any moment. Thus, each station has a small queue of parts waiting to be
processed. which helps to increase machine utilization.
 Convenient access for loading and unloading work-parts. The handling system must include
locations for load/unload stations.
 Compatible with computer control. The handling system must be capable of being controlled
directly by the computer system to direct it to the various workstations, load/unload stations, and
storage areas.

Material Handling Equipment:

The types of material handling systems used to transfer parts between stations in an FMS include a
variety of conventional material transport equipment, inline transfer mechanisms and industrial robots.
The material handling function in an FMS is often shared between two systems:
(1) a primary handling system and
(2) a secondary handling system.
The primary handling system establishes the basic layout of the FMS and is responsible for moving work-
parts between stations in the system. The types of material handling equipment typically utilized for
FMS layouts are summarized.
The secondary handling system consists of transfer devices, automatic pallet changers. and similar
mechanisms located at the workstations in the FMS. The function of the secondary handling system is to
transfer work from the primary system to the machine tool or other processing station and to position
the parts with sufficient accuracy and repeatability to perform the processing or assembly operation.
Other purposes served by the secondary handling system include:
(1) reorientation of the work-part if necessary, to present the surface that is to be processed and
(2) buffer storage of parts to minimize work change time and maximize station utilization.
In some FMS installations, the positioning and requirements at the individual workstations are satisfied
by the primary work handling system. In these cases, the secondary handling system is not included.

FMS Layout Configurations:

The material handling system establishes the FMS layout. Most layout configurations found in today's
FMSs can he divided into five categories: (1) inline layout, (2) loop layout, (3) ladder layout. (4) open
field layout, and (5) robot-centered cell.
3. Computer Control System:

The FMS includes a distributed computer system that is interfaced to the workstations, material
handling system, and other hardware components. A typical FMS computer system consists of a central
computer and microcomputers controlling the individual machines and other components. The central
computer coordinates the activities of the components to achieve smooth overall operation of the
system. Functions performed by the FMS computer control system can be grouped into the following
categories:

 Workstation control. In a fully automated FMS, the individual processing or assembly stations
generally operate under some form of computer control. For a machining system, CNC is used to
control the individual machine tools.
 Distribution of control instructions to workstations . Some form of central intelligence is also
required to coordinate the processing at individual stations. In a machining FMS, part programs
must be downloaded to machines, and DNC is used for this purpose, The DNC system stores the
programs, allows submission of new programs and editing of existing programs as needed, and
performs other DNC functions.

 Production control. The part mix and rate at which the various parts are launched into the system
must be managed. Input data required for production control includes desired daily production
rates per part. numbers of raw work-parts available, and number of applicable pallets.' The
production control function is accomplished by routing an applicable pallet 10 the load/unload area
and providing instructions to the operator for loading the desired work-part.
 Traffic control. This refers to the management of the primary material handling system that moves
work parts between stations. Traffic control is accomplished by actuating switches at branches and
merging points. stopping parts at machine tool transfer locations, and moving pallets to load/unload
stations.

 Shuttle control. This control function is concerned with the operation and control of the secondary
handling system at each workstation. Each shuttle must be coordinated with the primary handling
system and synchronized with the operation of the machine tool it serves.
 Work-piece monitoring. The computer must monitor the status of each cart and/or pallet in the
primary and secondary handling systems as well as the status of each of the various workpiece
types.
1.Tool control. In a machining system, cutting tools are required. Tool control is concerned with
managing two aspects of the cutting tools:
Tool location. This involves keeping track of the cutting tools at each workstation, If one or mere
tools required to process a particular workpiece is not present at the station that is specified in the
part's routing, the tool control subsystem takes one or both of the following actions: (a) determines
whether an alternative workstation that has the required tool is available and/or (b) notifies the
opera tor responsible for tooling in the system that the tool storage unit at the station must be
loaded with the required cutter(s).
2. Tool life monitoring. In this aspect of tool control, a tool life is specified to the computer for each
cutting tool in the FMS.

 Diagnostics This function is available to a greater or lesser degree on many manufacturing systems
to indicate the probable source of the problem when a malfunction occurs. It can also be used to
plan preventive maintenance in the system and to identify Impending failures. The purpose of the
diagnostics function is to reduce breakdowns and downtime and increase availability of the system.

4. Human Resources:

One additional component in the FMS is human labour. Humans are needed to manage the operations
of the FMS. Functions typically performed by humans include:
(1) loading raw work parts into the system,
(2) unloading finished parts (or assemblies) from the system.
(3) changing and setting tools.
(4) equipment maintenance and repair,
(5) NC part programming in a machining system,
(6) programming and operating the computer system, and
(7) overall management of the system
Today flexibility means to produce reasonably priced customized products of high quality that can be
quickly delivered to customers.

Different approaches to flexibility and their meanings are shown Table 1.

Approach Flexibility meaning

Manufacturing   The capability of producing different parts without major retooling 

 A measure of how fast the company converts its process (es) from
   making an old line of products to produce a new product 
 The ability to change a production schedule, to modify a part, or to
   handle multiple parts
 

Operational  The ability to efficiently produce highly customized and unique

 products

Customer  The ability to exploit various dimension of speed of delivery

Strategic  The ability of a company to offer a wide variety of products to its

customers

Capacity  The ability to rapidly increase or decrease production levels or to

shift capacity quickly from one product or service to another

Flexibility in Manufacturing:

While variations abound in what specifically constitutes flexibility, there is a general consensus about
the core elements. There are three levels of manufacturing flexibility.

(a) Basic flexibilities

 Machine flexibility - the ease with which a machine can process various operations.
 Material handling flexibility - a measure of the ease with which different part types can be
transported and properly positioned at the various machine tools in a system.
 Operation flexibility - a measure of the ease with which alternative operation sequences can be used
for processing a part type.

(b) System flexibilities

 Volume flexibility - a measure of a system’s capability to be operated profitably at different volumes

of the existing part types
 Expansion flexibility - the ability to build a system and expand it incrementally
 Routing flexibility - a measure of the alternative paths that a part can effectively follow through a
system for a given process plan
 Process flexibility - a measure of the volume of the set of part types that a system can produce
without incurring any setup
 Product flexibility - the volume of the set of part types that can be manufactured in a system with
minor setup

(c) Aggregate flexibilities:

 Program flexibility - the ability of a system to run for reasonably long periods without external
intervention.
 Production flexibility - the volume of the set of part types that a system can produce without major
investment in capital equipment.
 Market flexibility - the ability of a system to efficiently adapt to changing market conditions.

Benefits on flexibility:

Today’s manufacturing strategy is to seek benefits from flexibility. This is only feasible when a
production system is under complete control of FMS technology. Having in mind the Process- Product
Matrix you may realize that for an industry it is possible to reach for high flexibility by making innovative
technical and organizational efforts. See the Volvo’s process structure that makes cars on movable
pallets, rather than an assembly line. The process gains in flexibility. Also, the Volvo system has more
flexibility because it uses multi-skill operators who are not paced by a mechanical line.

We may search for benefits from flexibility on moving to the job shop structures. Actually, the need is
for flexible processes to permit rapid low cost switching from one product line to another. This is
possible with flexible workers whose multiple skills would develop the ability to switch easily from one
kind of task to another. As main resources, flexible processes and flexible workers would create flexible
plants as plants which can adapt to changes in real time, using movable equipment, knockdown walls
and easily accessible and re-routable utilities.

FMS- an example of technology and an alternative layout

The idea of an FMS was proposed in England (1960s) under the name "System 24", a flexible machining
system that could operate without human operators 24 hours a day under computer control. From the
beginning the emphasis was on automation rather than the "reorganization of workflow". Early FMSs
were large and very complex, consisting of dozens of Computer Numerical Controlled machines (CNC)
and sophisticate material handling systems. They were very automated, very expensive and controlled
by incredibly complex software. There were only a limited number of industries that could afford
investing in a traditional FMS as described above. Currently, the trend in FMS is toward small versions of
the traditional FMS, called flexible manufacturing cells (FMC).

Today two or more CNC machines are considered a flexible cell and two ore more cells are considered a
flexible manufacturing system.
Thus, a Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) consists of several machine tools along with part and tool
handling devices such as robots, arranged so that it can handle any family of parts for which it has been
designed and developed.

Different FMSs levels are:

 Flexible Manufacturing Module (FMM). Example : a NC machine, a pallet changer and a part buffer;
 Flexible Manufacturing (Assembly) Cell (F(M/A)C). Example : Four FMMs and an AGV(automated
guided vehicle);
 Flexible Manufacturing Group (FMG). Example : Two FMCs, a FMM and two AGVs which will
transport parts from a Part Loading area, through machines, to a Part Unloading Area;
 Flexible Production Systems (FPS). Example : A FMG and a FAC, two AGVs, an Automated Tool
Storage, and an Automated Part/assembly Storage;
 Flexible Manufacturing Line (FML). Example : multiple stations in a line layout and AGVs.