Introduction to Power

Systems Control

Pr. Mohamed BOUDOUR

Overview
 Power systems
–Network
 Components
–Generators
–Loads
–Network
-based controllable devices
–Protection
 System
-wide control
–Automatic generation control
–SCADA/EMS (operator) control
 Forms of dynamic behaviour
 Analysis techniques
 Future issues
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Power systems

 Transmission/distribution system connects energy

sources (generators) to energy consumers (loads).

 Dynamics associated with:

–Generators, and associated controllers: AVR/PSS, governor
–Loads
–Network devices: tap-changing transformers, FACTS devices
–Automatic generation control (AGC)
–High voltage DC (HVDC) schemes
–Protection schemes
–Operator response
–Markets

 Power systems are represented by differential-algebraic

models with switching => hybrid system.

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Network

 Balanced three phase systems can be analyzed as a

(simpler) single phase equivalent.
–Balanced systems are represented by single-line
equivalents.

 Kirchhoff’s laws govern voltages and power flows.

 Steady-state power balance established using a “power

flow” algorithm.
-Network equations are linear, YV = I where Y is the
admittance matrix.
–Power balance introduces nonlinearities.
–Power flow algorithms generally use a Newton-based
iterative solution process that takes account of sparsity.
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Generators

 Dynamic behaviour is associated with:

–Stator and rotor flux linkages

•Models utilize a synchronously rotating d-q reference frame.
•Generally represented by a fourth order linear differential-algebraic
model.
•Field voltage is an input.

-Electrical and mechanical torque balance on the shaft

 is the rotor angle relative to the rotating reference frame.

Tmech is the electrical torque –nonlinear function of stator fluxes and
currents.
Telec is the mechanical torque produced by the turbine, under the control of
the governor.
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Generator control
 AVR provides
voltage regulation
 Governor provides
speed regulation
 Typical AVR/PSS
structure:

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Loads
 Load composition is continually varying, so
significant uncertainty always exists in load
model parameters.
–Need for sensitivity analysis, but seldom undertaken.
 Induction motors comprise a significant
proportion of the total load.
–Described by a third order nonlinear differential-
algebraic model.
 Common alternatives to detailed load models:
–Simple static load model:

–Simple dynamic load model:

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 Network-based controllable devices
 On-load (or under-load)
tap-changing (OLTC or
ULTC) transformers.
–Transformer tap ratio is
varied (in discrete steps) to
regulate bus voltage.
–Voltage regulators involve
deadbands and timers.
–Petri net captures discrete
event dynamics
 Switched
capacitors/inductors
(shunts)
–Switching seeks to (coarsely)
regulate voltage
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 Flexible AC Transmission system
(FACTS) devices
 Static var compensator (SVC)
–Thyristor firing angle determines inductor current.
•Allows control of the effective shunt susceptance.
–Bus voltage is regulated by varying susceptance.

 Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)

–Power transfer is (approximately)

–Line reactance X is varied to regulate power flow.

 Other devices:
–Statcom: similar function as SVC, but requires power electronic
technology that utilizes forced commutation (switching).
–Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC): capabilities similar to
combining SVC and TCSC, but also requires forced commutation.
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Protection

 Conditions that may endanger life and/or equipment must

be quickly alleviated.
 Often that involves isolating (tripping) affected
components.
–For example, a fault on a transmission line is cleared by
opening circuit breakers at its ends.
 Protection is a simple form of hybrid (switching) control.
 Protection usually has little concern for overall system
integrity.
–Tripping one component may induce higher stress on its
neighbours, causing them to subsequently trip => cascading
event.
–Examples include North American blackout of August 2003 and
Italian blackout of September 2003.
 Some wide-area protection schemes are more systems
oriented.

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 Wide-area control
 Automatic generation control (AGC)
–Load is continually varying, causing frequency deviations.
–AGC regulates generator MW setpoints, to drive system frequency to its
desired value.
 The burden of load tracking is distributed across participating
generators.
 Under-frequency load shedding
–A large generation deficit will cause frequency to rapidly decline.
 Examples: loss of a whole generating station, or system
islanding.
–Tripping load restores the generation-load balance, arresting the frequency
decline.
 Special protection schemes
–Monitor for certain triggering conditions, for example tripping of a crucial
feeder under high power flow conditions.
–If triggering conditions are satisfied, then undertake (relatively local) remedial
action, such as redispatch generation and/or switch capacitors/inductors.
 Action may or may not depend on other system conditions.
–Every significant event unfolds in a different way. The prescribed nature of
response may be inappropriate for unanticipated event scenarios.
–Implementation may be complicated, with consequences for predictability and
reliability of action.

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SCADA-EMS

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 Large disturbance (angle)
instability
 A large disturbance (fault for example) forces the system out
of the region of attraction of the stable equilibrium point
(SEP).
 Behaviour is dominated by generator angle (swing equation)
dynamics.
 Region of attraction reduces as loading (power flow across
the transmission system) increases.

–Vanishes in a saddle-node bifurcation.

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 Small disturbance (angle)
instability
 As the gain of a generator AVR increases, eigenvalues
of the linearized system approach the imaginary axis.
 A (generically subcritical) Hopf bifurcation occurs as a
complex conjugate pair crosses the axis.
–Unstable (growing) oscillations result.

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 Large disturbance (voltage)
instability
 Also known as voltage
collapse.
 Generally associated with
exceeding the maximum
transfer capability of the
network.
–Maximum transfer corresponds to a
saddle-node bifurcation.
 Consider an example:

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Analysis techniques

 Small disturbance (linear) analysis

–Standard approach to tuning AVR/PSSs on
generators and FACTS devices.
–Participation factors allow comparison of state
activity within modes.
–Eigenvalue sensitivity describes the influence of
parameters on modes.
–Pole-zero locations provide insights into achievable
damping improvements.
•Useful for locating FACTS devices to give
maximum damping improvement.
–On-line assessment of damping (Prony analysis)

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Analysis techniques (continued)

 Large disturbance (nonlinear) analysis

–Time-domain simulation.
–Fault response investigations: instability, protection operation,
unacceptable frequency and/or voltage excursions.
–Setting limit values.
–Post-mortem analysis (after a significant system disturbance.)

 Lyapunov’s direct method

–Modelling assumptions are required for true Lyapunov functions.
–Compare the energy acquired during a fault with a critical
valuegiven by the ‘controlling unstable equilibrium point’.
–Some move towards on-line assessment applications, where a
fast (though approximate) indication of the stability margin is
desired.

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 Future trends

 Distributed generation (DG)

–Individual generators have negligible effect on the overall system, but
high penetration may alter traditional forms of behaviour.
–Uncertainty (robustness) analysis.
–Plug-and-play control concept: is there a controller that ensures DGs
always exhibit benign behaviour?

 Distributed FACTS
–Many small (cheap, re-deployable) devices that require coordinated
control.
–Offer a greater level of network controllability.

 Load control
–Non-disruptive load control.
–Temporarily adjust load to steer system through major disturbances.

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Future trends (continued)
 Markets
–A dynamical systems view of markets may provide
insights into their operation, and motivate design
improvements.

 Analysis
–The hybrid nature of power system dynamics will
become unavoidable.
–Large disturbance robustness analysis.
–Inverse problems: determine parameters that satisfy
specifications.

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 References

• P.W. Sauer and M.A.Pai, Power System Dynamics and

Stability, Prentice Hall, 1998.
• P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, EPRI
Power System Engineering Series, McGraw Hill, 1994.
• T. VanCutsem and C.Vournas, Voltage Stability of
Electric Power Systems,KluwerAcademic Publishers,
1998.
• A.R. Bergen and V. Vittal, Power Systems Analysis,
2ndEdition, Prentice-Hall, 2000.
• I.A. Hiskens, “Power system modeling for inverse
problems,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems
I: Regular Papers, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 539–551, March
2004.

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