Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 1

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

TOPICS
I. Integration by Parts
II. Integration by transformation using Trigonometric Identities
a. Integration of Powers of Sines and Cosines
b. Integration of Powers of Tangent, Cotangent, Secant, and Cosecant
c. Products of Sines and Cosines
III. Integration by Trigonometric Substitution
IV. Integration by Algebraic Substitution
V. Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
VI. Rationalizing Substitution
VII. Integrals containing Trigonometric Functions
VIII. Walli’s Formula
IX. Improper Integrals
X. Numerical Integration

In this unit, we will discuss techniques of integration where the standard integration formulas cannot
with integrals of more complicated functions.

I. INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Determine the integral of a function by parts.
2. Use tabular techniques of integrating product functions involving simple power function.

If f and g are differentiable functions, then

Dx[f(x)∙g(x)] = f(x)∙g'(x) + g(x)∙f '(x)
f(x)∙g'(x) = Dx[f(x)∙g(x)] – g(x)∙f '(x)

Integrating both sides

 f ( x )  g' ( x ) dx =  Dx  f ( x )  g( x ) −  g( x )  f ' ( x ) dx
Or

 f(x)  g' (x) dx = f(x)  g(x) −  g(x)  f' (x) dx (a)

For convenience, let

u = f(x) v = g(x)
du = f'(x)dx dv = g'(x) dx

Substituting to (a):

 u dv = uv −  v du (1)

Equation (1) is called the process of integration by parts

Guidelines for Choosing u and dv

Choose u and dv so that
1. du is simpler than u (if possible)
2. dv is easily integrated
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 2
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Examples:
Evaluate the following integrals.
2
1. x ln x dx 4.  (ln x ) dx

 x e dx e
2
3 x x
2. 5. sin 2 x dx
4
3.  tan x dx
−1
6. 1
t ln t dt

Solutions:
1.  x ln x dx
Using the guidelines for choosing u and dv
u = ln x dv = x dx
dx x2
du = v=
x 2

Therefore,
 x2  x 2 dx x 2 1
 x ln x dx = ln x    
 2 
−
2 x
=
2
ln x −  x dx
2
x2 1 1 x2 1
= ln x −  x 2 + C = ln x − x 2 + C
2 2 2 2 4

x e x dx =  x 2 e x x dx
2 2
3
2.

Using the guidelines for choosing u and dv

2
u = x2 dv = e x  x dx
2
ex
du = 2 x dx v=
2

Therefore,
 x2 
2 e ex
2

 2   2 (
 x 3 x2
e dx = x   − 2 x dx )
 
1 2 x2 x2
= x e −e + C
2

 tan
−1
3. x dx
Using the guidelines for choosing u and dv
u = tan −1 x dv = dx
dx
du = 2 v=x
x +1

Therefore,
xdx 1 2 xdx
 tan
−1
x dx = tan −1 x ( x ) −  = x tan −1 x −  2
x +1
2
2 x +1
1
(
= x tan −1 x − ln x 2 + 1 + C
2
)
2
4.  (ln x ) dx
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 3
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Using the guidelines for choosing u and dv

u = ( ln x )
2
dv = dx
dx
du = 2 ln x v=x
x

Thus,
2  dx 
 ( ln x ) dx = ( ln x )  x −  x  2 ln x
2

 x 
2
 ( ln x ) dx = x ln2 x − 2  ln x dx (a)

Apply again integration by parts

u = ln x dv = dx
dx
du = v=x
x

Hence,
2  dx 
 ( ln x ) dx = x ln 2 x − 2  ln x  x −  x   = x ln 2 x − 2 x ln x + 2  dx
 x 
= x ln x − 2 x ln x + x + C
2

e
x
5. sin 2 x dx

Using the guidelines for choosing u and dv

u = sin 2 x dv = e x dx
du = 2cos2 x dx v = ex

Thus,
 e sin 2 x dx = sin 2 x  e −  e ( 2cos2 x dx )
x x x

 e sin 2 x dx = e sin 2 x − 2  e cos2 x dx

x x x
(a)

Apply again integration by parts

u = cos2 x dv = e x dx
du = − 2sin2 x dx v = ex

Hence,
 e sin 2x dx = e sin 2x − 2 e cos2x −  e ( −2sin 2x dx )
x x x x

e sin 2 x dx = e x sin 2 x − 2e x cos2 x − 2  e x sin 2 x dx + C

x

Combining the integral terms

 e sin 2x dx + 2  e sin 2x dx = e sin 2x − 2e cos2x + C
x x x x

3  e x sin 2 x dx = e x sin 2 x − 2e x cos2 x + C

1 2
e sin 2 x dx = e x sin 2 x − e x cos2 x + C
x

3 3
4
6. 1 t ln t dt
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 4
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Using the guidelines for choosing u and dv

u = ln t dv = t 1/2 dt
dt 2
du = v = t 3/2
t 3

Therefore,
4 2 4 42 dt
1
t ln t dt = t 3/2 ln t −  t 3/2 
3 1 1 3 t
2 2 4
( ) ( )
=  43/2 ln 4 − 13/2 ln1  −  t 1/2 dt
3  3 1
2 2 2 4
= 43/2 ln 22 − 0  −  t 3/2
3 3 3 1

2 4
( )
= 22  2 ln 2 − 43/2 − 13/2 
3 3
16 4
= ln 2 − 23 − 1
3 3
( )
16 28 4
= ln 2 − = ( 4 ln 2 − 7 )
3 3 3

Tabular Integration
If ƒ can be differentiated repeatedly to become zero and g can be integrated repeatedly without
difficulty, calculations can be organized to saves a great deal of work. It is called tabular integration
and is illustrated in the following examples.

Examples:
x e
2 x
1. Evaluate: dx
With ƒ(x) = x2 and g(x) = ex, we list:

f(x) and its derivative g(x) and its integral

x2 (+) ex
2x (−) ex
2 (+) ex
0 ex

Combine the products of the functions connected by the arrows according to the operation
signs above the arrows to obtain:
x e dx = x 2e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + C
2 x

x
3
2. Evaluate: sin x dx
With ƒ(x) = x3 and g(x) = sin x we list:

f(x) and its derivative g(x) and its integral

x3 (+) sin x
3x2 (−) - cos x
6x (+) - sin x
6 (−) cos x
0 sin x
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 5
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Combining:
x sin x dx = − x 3 cos x + 3 x 2 sin x + 6 x cos x − 6sin x + C
3

Classroom Activity 1
Evaluate the integrals.
 /2
e 
3 x +9
1. dx 3. x 3 cos2 x dx
0
e
 z ( ln z ) 
2
2. dz 4. x 3 ln x dx
1

Problem Set 1:
Evaluate the integrals.
1. (
 r + r + 1 e dr
2 r
) 6.  t e dt
2 4t 11.
 (x − 5x )e dx
2 x

 ln(x + x )dx    cos( )d

12.
 cos x ln (sin x )dx
2 
3 2
2. 7.
/2

13.
 cos x dx
 /2 2
3. 0
 2 sin 2 d 8.  2/ 3
t sec −1 t dt

( )  /3 14.
1/ 2 1
4. 0
2 x sin −1 x 2 dx 9.  0
x tan 2 x dx  x 1 − x dx
0
15.
 sin y dy
3 −1
1 r

1
5. 0
4+r2
dr 10.  0
x 5 x dx

II. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Determine integrals of powers of trigonometric functions using trigonometric identities.

Trigonometric integrals involve algebraic combinations of the six basic trigonometric functions.

The general idea is to use identities to transform the integrals we have to find into integrals that are
easier to work with.

n n
Case 1:  sin u du or  cos u du , where n is a positive odd integer.
a. Save one sine factor and use sin2u = 1 – cos2u to express the remaining factors in terms of
cosine:
( )
sinn udu = sinn− 1 u sin udu
n− 1
= ( sin u )2
( sin udu )
2

n− 1
= ( 1 − cos u ) 2
 ( sin udu ) 2

b. Save one cosine factor and use cos2u = 1 – sin2u to express the remaining factors in terms of
sine:
(
cosn udu = cosn− 1 u cos udu )
n− 1
= ( cos u )
2 2
( cos udu )
n− 1
= ( 1 − sin u )
2 2
 ( cos udu )
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 6
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
1.  cos 3 x dx

 cos x dx =  cos 2 x  cos x dx

3

( )
=  1 − sin 2 x  cos x dx

=  cos x dx −  sin 2 x  cos x dx

1
= sin x − sin 3 x + C
3

 sin
5
2. x dx

( ) ( )
2
 sin x dx =  sin 4 x sin x dx =  sin 2 x
5
sin x dx

=  ( 1 − cos x ) ( )
2
2
sin x dx =  1 − 2cos 2 x + cos 4 x  sin x dx

=  sin x dx − 2  cos 2 x  sin x dx +  cos 4 x  sin x dx

2 1
= − cos x − cos 3 x + cos 5 x + C
3 5

n
Case 2:  sin u cos m u du , where at least one of the exponents is a positive odd integer

The solution of this case is similar to the method used for Case 1.

a. If n is odd
( )
sinn u cosm udu = sinn− 1 u cosm u ( sin udu )
n− 1
= ( sin u )2
cos u ( sin udu )
2 m

n− 1
= ( 1 − cos u ) cos u  ( sin udu )
2 2 m

b. If m is odd
(
sinn u cosm udu = sin n u cosm− 1 u cos udu )
m− 1
(
= cos 2 u ) 2
sin n u ( cos udu )
m− 1
= ( 1 − sin u ) 2 2
sin n u  ( cos udu )

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
1.  sin 5 cos2 x dx

 sin
5
x cos2 x dx =  sin 4 x cos2 x ( sin x dx )

( )
2
=  sin 2 x cos 2 x ( sin x dx )

=  ( 1 − cos x ) cos x ( sin x dx )

2
2 2

=  ( 1 − 2cos x + cos x ) cos x ( sin x dx )

2 4 2
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 7
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

 sin
5
(
x cos 2 x dx = −  cos 2 x − 2cos 4 x + cos 6 x ( − sin x dx ) )
1 2 1 
= −  cos 3 x − cos 5 x + cos 7 x  + C
3 5 7 

 sin
4
2. x cos 3 x dx

 sin
4
x cos 3 x dx =  sin 4 x cos 2 x ( cos xdx )

(
=  sin 4 x 1 − sin 2 x ( cos xdx ) )
(
=  sin 4 x − sin 6 x ( cos xdx ) )
1 1
= sin 5 x − sin 7 x + C
5 7

n
Case 3: (a)  sin u du
(b)  cos n u du or

(c)  sin n u cos m u du

where both m and n are positive even integers. Use the half-angle identities
sin2 u = ½ (1 – cos 2u) cos2 u = ½ (1 + cos 2u)

It is sometimes helpful to use the identity

sin u cos u = ½ sin 2u

a. Factor

( )
n
sinn udu = sin 2 u 2
du
n
 1 − cos 2u  2
=  du
 2 

b. Factor
cos m u du = cos 2 u ( )
m
2
du
m
 1 + cos 2u  2
=  du
 2 

c. Factor
sin n u cos m u du = sin 2 u ( ) (cos u)
n
2 2
m
2
du
n m
 1 − cos 2u  2
 1 + cos 2u  2
=    du
 2   2 

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
1.  sin 2 x dx
1
 sin x dx =  1 / 2(1 − cos 2 x ) dx =
2
(1 − cos 2 x ) dx
2

1 1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2 x + C = x − sin 2 x + C
2 22 2 4
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 8
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

 cos
4
2. x dx

( )
2
 cos x dx =  cos 2 x dx
4

2
1 
=   ( 1 + cos 2 x )  dx
2 
1
=  ( 1 + cos 2 x ) dx
2

4
1
(
=  1 + 2cos 2 x + cos 2 2 x dx
4
)
1
4
1
(
=  ( 1 + 2cos 2 x ) dx +  cos 2 2 x dx
4
)
1 21 1 1
= x+ sin 2 x +  ( 1 + cos 4 x ) dx
4 42 4 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= x + sin 2 x + x+ sin 4 x + C
4 4 42 424
3 1 1
= x + sin 2 x + sin 4 x + C
8 4 31

 sin
2
3. x cos 4 x dx

 sin x cos4 x dx =  sin 2 x cos2 x cos2 xdx =  ( sin x cos x ) cos2 x dx

2 2

2
1  1
=   sin 2 x  ( 1 + cos 2 x ) dx
2  2
1 1 1 1
=  sin 2 2 x ( cos 2 x dx ) =  sin 2 2 x  cos 2 x  2 dx = sin 3 2 x + C
8 82 48

n
Case 4: (a)  tan u du
(b)  cot n u du

where n is a positive integer

a. Factor
tan n u du = tan n −2 u  tan 2 u du
(
= tan n −2 u  sec 2 u − 1 du)
b. Factor
cot n u du = cot n −2 u  cot 2 u du
(
= cot n −2 u  csc 2 u − 1 du)
Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
 tan x dx
3
1.

 tan
3
( ) (
x dx =  tan 2 x tan xdx =  sec2 x − 1 tan xdx )
=  ( tan x sec 2
x − tan x ) dx
1
= tan x − ln sec x + C
2
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 9
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

 cot
4
2. x dx

 cot
4
( )
x dx =  cot 2 x cot 2 x dx
=  ( csc x − 1 ) cot x dx
2 2

=  ( cot x csc x − cot x ) dx

2 2 2

=  cot x csc xdx −  ( cot x ) dx

2 2 2

= − cot x −  ( csc x − 1 ) dx
1 3 2
3
1
= − cot 3 x + cot x − x + C
3

n
Case 5: (a)  sec u du
(b)  csc n u du

where n is a positive even integer

a. Factor
sec n u du = sec n −2 u sec 2 u du ( )
( ) (sec u du)
= sec 2 u
n −2
2 2

= (tan u + 1 ) (sec u du) n −2

2 2 2

b. Factor
csc n u du = csc n −2 u csc 2 u du ( )
( ) (csc u du)
= csc 2 u
n −2
2 2

= (cot u + 1 ) (csc u du) n −2

2 2 2

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
1. 
csc 6 x dx

( )
2
 csc x dx =  csc 2 x csc 2 x dx
6

=  ( 1 + cot x ) csc x dx
2
2 2

=  ( 1 + 2cot x + cot x ) csc

2 4 2
x dx
=  csc x dx + 2  cot x ( csc
2 2 2
) (
x dx +  cot 4 x csc 2 x dx )
2 1
= − cot x − cot 3 x − cot 5 x + C
3 5

 sec
4
2. x dx

 sec
4
( ) (
x dx =  sec2 x sec2 xdx =  1 + tan 2 x sec2 xdx )( )
=  sec2 xdx +  tan x ( sec 2 2
xdx )
1
= tan x + tan 3 x + C
3
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 10
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

n m
Case 6: (a)  tan u sec u du
(b)  cot n u csc m u du

where m is a positive even integer.

a. Factor
tan n u sec m u du = tan n u sec m −2 u sec 2 u du ( )
(
= tan n u sec 2 u ) (sec u du) m −2
2 2

u(1 + tan u ) (sec u du) m −2

= tan 2 2 2 2

b. Factor
cot n u csc m u du = cot n u csc m −2 u csc 2 u du ( )
( ) (csc u du)
= cot n u csc 2 u
m −2
2 2

u(1 + cot u ) (csc u du) m −2

= cot 2 2 2 2

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
 tan x sec x dx
5 4
1.

 tan
5
( )(
x sec4 x dx =  tan 5 x sec2 x sec2 xdx )
=  tan x ( 1 + tan x )( sec xdx )
5 2 2

=  ( tan x + tan x )( sec xdx )

5 7 2

1 1
= tan 6 x + tan 8 x + C
6 8

 cot
5
2. x csc 4 x dx

 cot
5
( )(
x csc 4 x dx =  cot 5 x csc 2 x csc 2 xdx)
=  cot x ( 1 + cot x )( csc xdx )
5 2 2

= −  ( cot x + cot x )( − csc xdx )

5 7 2

1 1
= − cot6 x − cot 8 x + C
6 8

n m
Case 7: (a)  tan u sec u du
(b)  cot n u csc m u du

where n is positive odd integer

a. Factor
tan n u sec m u du = tan n −1 u sec m −1 u (sec u tan u du)

(
= tan 2 u) n −1
2
sec m −1 u (sec u tan u du)

= (sec u − 1 )
n −1
2 2
sec m −1 (sec u tan u du)
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 11
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

b. Factor
cot n u csc m u du = cot n −1 u csc m −1 u (cot u csc u du)

( ) csc u (cot u csc u du)

= cot 2 u
n −1
2 m −1

= (csc u − 1 )
n −1
2
csc (cot u csc u du) 2 m −1

 tan
5
Example: Evaluate x sec 7 x dx

 tan
5
x sec7 x dx =  tan 4 x sec6 x ( sec x tan x dx )

( )
=  tan 2 x sec6 x ( sec x tan x dx )
2

=  ( sec x − 1 ) sec x ( sec x tan x dx )

2 2 6

=  ( sec x − 2sec x + 1 ) sec x ( sec x tan x dx )

4 2 6

=  ( sec x − 2sec x + sec x ) ( sec x tan x dx )

10 8 6

1 2 1
= sec 11 x − sec9 x + sec7 x + C
11 9 7

Classroom Activity 2
Evaluate the integrals.
 sin x cos x dx
2 3 3.
 sin x cos
5 3
1. x dx

 tan x sec 2 x dx 4.
 cot x csc
4 4 4
2. x dx

n n
Case 8: (a)  sec u du or (b)  csc u du , where n is a positive odd integer.

Apply integration by parts.

n−2
a. Let u = sec u and dv = sec 2 u du
n−2
b. Let u = csc u and dv = csc 2 u du

 sec
3
Example: Evaluate x dx

n
Case 9: (a)  tan u sec m u du or (b)  cot n u csc m u du , where n is a positive even integer

and m is a positive odd integer.

Express the integrand in terms of odd powers of secant or cosecant and then follow the instructions in
Case 8.

 tan
2
Example: Evaluate x sec 3 x dx

Case 10: (a)  sin mu cos nu du

(b)  sin mu sin nu du
(c)  cos mu cos nu du

Use the corresponding identity:

 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 12
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

1
a. sin A cos B = sin( A − B) + sin( A + B)
2
1
b. sin A sin B = cos( A − B) − cos( A + B)
2
1
c. cos A cos B = cos( A − B) + cos( A + B)
2

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
1.  sin 4 x cos 5 x dx
1
sin A cos B = sin( A − B) + sin( A + B)
2
1
 sin 4 x cos5 x dx = 2  sin ( 4 x − 5 x ) + sin ( 4 x + 5 x ) dx
1
sin ( − x ) + sin 9 x  dx
2
=

1 1 1
= −  sin x dx + sin 9 x ( 9 dx )
2 29
1 1
= cos x − cos9 x + C
2 18

2.  sin 5x sin 2x dx
1
sin A sin B = cos( A − B) − cos( A + B)
2
1
 sin 5 x sin 2 x dx = 2  cos ( 5 x − 2 x ) − cos ( 5 x + 2 x ) dx
1
cos 3 x − cos 7 x  dx
2
=

1 1 1 1
= sin 3 x − sin 7 x + C
23 27
1 1
= sin 3 x − sin 7 x + C
6 14

3.  cos 6x cos 2x dx
1
cos A cos B = cos( A − B) + cos( A + B)
2
1
 cos6 x cos 2 x dx = 2  cos ( 6 x − 2 x ) + cos ( 6 x + 2 x ) dx
1
cos 4 x + cos 8 x  dx
2
=

1 1 1 1
= sin 4 x + sin 8 x + C
24 28
1 1
= sin 4 x + sin 8 x + C
8 16
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 13
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Classroom Activity 3
Evaluate the integrals.
tan 3  3. cos x + sin x
1. 
cos4 
d  sin 2 x
dx

1 − tan 2 x 4. cos3 3 x
2.  sec2 x dx  3
sin 3 x
dx

Problem Set 2:
Evaluate the following integrals.
dx 11.  /8
1. 1 + cos x
6.  cos z sin 3 z dz 0
sin 3x cos 5 x dx

2. e
x
( )
tan 4 e x dx 7.  cot
2
3 x csc 4 3 x dx 12.

 /12

/16
tan 3 4 x dx
 /8  /3 tan 3 x 13.  /3 tan 3 x
3. 0
sin 3 x cos 5 x dx 8. 
0 sec x
dx 0 sec x
dx

 / 2 cos 4
t  /4 14. sin 2  x
4.  6
 / 4 sin t
dt 9. 
− /4
6
sec x dx  cos6  x dx
 /12  /4 15. tan 4 x
5.  /16
tan 3 4 x dx 10.  /6
cot 3 w dw  x dx

III. INTEGRATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS BY TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Solve integrals that involve quadratic radicals using appropriate trigonometric substitution to
transform the given integral into one that is radical free.

Case 1:
The integrand contains an expression of the form (a2 – u2), where a > 0.
▪ Introduce a new variable  by letting u = a sin .
▪ Use the identity 1 – sin2  = cos2 
▪ Right triangle associated with the substitution

a
u


9− x2
Example: Evaluate  x2
dx

a2 – u2 = 9 – x2  u=x a =3

Let x = a sin  = 3 sin 

dx = 3 cos  d

Substitute in the integral

 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 14
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

9 − ( 3sin  )
2
9 − x2
 x 2
dx = 
( 3sin  )
2
3cos  d

9 − 9sin 2  3 1 − sin 2   3cos  d

= 3cos  d = 
9sin 2  9sin 2 
cos2  d
= =  cot 2 d
sin 2 
(
=  csc 2  − 1 d )
= − cot  − + C

Express this result in terms of the original variable x, using the right triangle associated with
the substitution. Thus,
x = 3 sin  implies that  = sin-1 (x/3)
9 − x2
cot  =
x 3
x
Therefore, 
2 2
9− x 9− x x
 x 2
dx = −
x
− sin −1 + C
3

Case 2:
The integrand contains an expression of the form (a2 + u2), where a > 0.
▪ Introduce a new variable  by letting u = a tan .
▪ Use the identity 1 + tan2  = sec2 
▪ Right triangle associated with the substitution

u

a
x3
Example: Evaluate  x2 + 9
dx

a2 + u2= x2 + 9  u=x a =3

Let x = 3 tan 
dx = 3 sec2  d

Substitute in the integral

( 3 tan  ) 3sec 2 d = 27 tan 3   3sec 2  d
3
x3
 x2 + 9 d x =   3 1 + tan2 
( 3 tan  ) + 9
2

= 27  tan 3  sec  d = 27  ( tan 2  ) ( sec  tan  d )

( )
= 27  sec 2  − 1 ( sec  tan  d ) = 27   sec 2   sec  tan  d −  sec  tan  d 
 
= 9sec  − 27 sec  + C
3
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 15
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Express this result in terms of the original variable x, using the right triangle associated with
the substitution. Thus,
x2 + 9
sec  =
3
x
x3 
( )
3/2
 x2 + 9
dx = 9 x 2 + 9 −9 x2 + 9 + C
3

Case 3:
The integrand contains an expression of the form (u2 – a2), where a > 0.
▪ Introduce a new variable  by letting u = a sec .
▪ Use the identity sec2  − 1 = tan2 
▪ Right triangle associated with the substitution


a

ln 3 w
Example: Evaluate w ln 2 w − 4
dw

u2 − a2 = ln2w– 4  u = ln w a=2

Let ln w = 2 sec 
dw/w = 2 sec  tan  d

Substitute in the integral

( 2sec  ) 2sec  tan  d
3
ln 3 w
w dw = 
ln 2 w − 4 ( 2sec  ) − 4
2

8sec 4  tan  d
=
2 tan 
(
= 4 sec 4 d = 4 1 + tan 2  sec 2 d )
= 4 sec 2 d + 4 tan 2  sec 2 d
4
= 4 tan  + tan 3  + C
3

Express this result in terms of the original variable x, using the right triangle associated with
the substitution. Thus,

ln w
ln 2 w − 4
tan  =
2

ln 3 w 2
( ln )
3
w dw = 2 ln 2 w − 4 + 2
2
w−4 +C
2
ln w − 4 3
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 16
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Classroom Activity 4
Evaluate the integrals.
dx
1.  x3 x2 −9
3.

1 16 − e 2 x
dx
0 ex
3 dx
2. 
1
x4 x2 + 3
4. e
x 4 − e 2 x dx

Problem Set 3:
dx
1.  x 2 + 5 dx 6. x 3
x2 −9
dx 16 − e 2 x
2.  (4x 2
−9 ) 3/2 7. 
1
dx
0 ex
t
ln 2 e
3.  (e
0 2t
+ 8e t + 7 )3/2
dt 8. e
x 4 − e 2 x dx

sec 2 x x2
 (4 − tan x )
3/4
4 2 3/2
dx 9. 
0
9 - 4x 2
dx

3/2 dx

3
5. 
− 3
4 − x 2 dx 10. 1 /2
x 1 − x2

Inverse Hyperbolic Substitutions

As an alternative to the inverse substitutions x = a sec  to simplify integrals involving x − a (where
2 2

x  a > 0) we can use the inverse hyperbolic cosine substitution x = a cosh u. Since cosh2u – 1 = sinh2u,
this substitution produces x 2 − a 2 = a sinh u . To express u in terms of x, we need

cosh −1 x = ln x + x 2 + 1  , x  1
 

Example:
dx
Evaluate  x 2 − a2
, where a > 0

Similarly, the inverse hyperbolic substitution x = a sinh u can be used instead of the inverse tangent
1
substitution x = a tan  to simplify integrals involving x 2 + a 2 or . In this case we have dx
x 2 + a2
= a cosh u du and x2 + a2 = a2 cosh2u, and we may the result

sinh −1 x = ln x + x 2 + 1  , x  1
 
Example:
4 dx
Evaluate  (x0 2
+9 ) 3/2

Integrals involving a 2 − x 2 , where x  a, can be attempted with the aid of the inverse hyperbolic
substitution x = a tanh u, making use of the identity 1 – tanh2u = sech2u. However, it is usually better
to use the inverse sine substitution x = a sin  for such integrals. In general, it is better to avoid the
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 17
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

inverse trigonometric substitution unless you are very familiar with the identities satisfied by the
hyperbolic functions.

Problem Set 4:
Evaluate the integrals.
x 2 − a2 1 2
1.
 4
dx 5.  9x + 6x − 8
2
dx 9. x
0
3
x 2 + 4 dx
x
5 dx
 (5 − 4x − x )
t 2/3
2.  t +2
2
dt 6. 2 5/2
10. 
0
x 3 4 − 9 x 2 dx

dx x3  /2 cos t
x 
2 3
3. 2 2
16x − 9
7. 0
16 − x 2
dx 11. 0
1 + sin 2 t
dt

dx 3 3 /2 x3
 (ax ) 
2 1
4. 2
− b2 
3/2 8. 2
t3 t2 −1
dt 12. 0
( 4x 2
+ 9)
3/ 2
dx

IV. INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Solve integral of rational function using partial fraction decomposition.

Case 1: The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors

R( x ) A1 A2 A3 Ak
= + + + +
Q( x ) a1 x + b1 a 2 x + b 2 a 3 x + b 3 a k x + bk

The Heaviside “Cover-up” Method for Linear Factors

1. Write the quotient with Q(x) factored:
R ( x) R ( x)
=
Q ( x ) ( x − r1 )( x − r2 ) ( x − rn )

2. Cover the factors (x – r1) of Q(x) one at a time, each time replacing all the uncovered x’s by the
number ri. This gives a number Ai, for each root ri:
R ( r1 )
A1 =
( r1 − r2 ) ( r1 − rn )
R ( r2 )
A2 =
( r2 − r1 ) ( r2 − r3 ) ( r2 − rn )

R ( rn )
An =
( rn − r1 )( rn − r2 ) ( rn − rn −1 )
3. Write the partial-fraction expansion of R(x)/Q(x) as

R ( x) A1 A2 An
= + + +
Q ( x ) ( x − r1 ) ( x − r2 ) ( x − rn )
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 18
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Example:
x 2 + 2x − 1
1. Integrate  2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x dx

Factor of denominator: x(2x – 1)(x + 2)

Write the integrand in terms of partial fraction

x 2 + 2x − 1 A B C 
 x ( x + 2)(2x − 1 ) dx =   x + x + 2 + 2x − 1  dx

Evaluate the constants A, B, and C by Case 1 method.

0+ 0 −1 1
A= =
( 0 + 2 )( 0 − 1 ) 2
( −2 ) + 2 ( −2 ) − 1 = − 1
2

B=
( −2 ) ( 2 ( −2 ) − 1 ) 10
(1 / 2 ) + 2 (1 / 2 ) − 1 = 1
2

C=
(1 / 2 )(1 / 2 + 2 ) 5
Therefore,
x 2 + 2x − 1  1 / 2 1 / 10 1 / 5 
 x ( x + 2 )( 2x − 1 ) dx =   x − x + 2 + 2x − 1  dx
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
=  −  + 
2 x 10 x + 2 5 2 x − 1
1 1 11
= ln x − ln ( x + 2 ) + ln ( 2 x − 1 ) + C
2 10 52
1 1
= ln x − ln ( x + 2 )( 2 x − 1 ) + C
2 10

Case 2: Q(x) is a product of linear factor, some of which are repeated.

R( x ) A1 A2 A3 Ar
= + + +  +
Q( x ) a1 x + b1 (a1 x + b1 )2 (a1 x + b1 )3 (a1 x + b1 )r
where (a1x + b1) is repeated r times

Other Ways to Determine the Coefficients

Using Differentiation (for repeated linear factors)

Find A, B, and C in the equation

x −1 A B C
= + +
( x + 1)
3
( x + 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)3
2

Solution:
We first clear fractions

x - 1 = A(x + 1)2 + B(x + 1) + C

 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 19
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Substituting x = -1 shows C = -2. We then differentiate both sides with respect to x, obtaining
1 = 2A(x + 1) + B

Substituting x = -1 shows B = 1. We differentiate again to get 0 = 2A, which shows A = 0.

Hence,
x −1 1 2
= −
( x + 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)
3 2 3

Example:
x 4 − 2x 2 + 4x + 1
Evaluate  x3 − x2 − x + 1
dx

Case 3: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated.

If Q(x) has the factor ax2 + bx + c, where b2 – 4ac < 0, the expression R(x)/Q(x) will have a term of the
form
Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c

Example:
2x 2 − x + 4
Evaluate  x 3 + 4x
dx

Case 4: Q(x) contains repeated irreducible quadratic factors.

Q(x) has the factor (ax2 + bx + c)r, where b2 – 4ac < 0.

R( x ) A 1 x + B1 A 2 x + B2 A r x + Br
= + + +
2
Q( x ) ax + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c
2
(
ax 2 + bx + c
r
) ( )
Example:
1 − x + 2x 2 − x 3
Evaluate  x ( x 2 + 1) 2
dx

Classroom Activity 5
Evaluate the integrals.
4x − 2 dx
1.  x3 − x2 − 2 x dx 3.  16 x −1 4

dt x2 + x
2.  ( t + 2 )2 ( t + 1) 4.  x3 − x2 + x − 1 dx
Problem Set 5:
I. Evaluate the integrals
x2 +3 dx 2x − 1
1. 
x 2 − 3x + 2
dx 2. x 2
+ 2x + 2
3.  (x + 1) (x − 2) dx
2 2

3x 5 − 3x 2 + x e 5x 1
 dx  (e dx  (x − 1)(x )
dx
)
4. 5. 2 6. 2 2
x3 −1 2x
+1 +1
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 20
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

(
sec 2 t sec 2 t + 1 ) dt 2 x x 2 − 4x + 3

3
7.  tan 3 t + 1
8. 2
0 x + 5x + 6
dx 9. 1 x 3 + 2x 2 + x
dx

3 1 2 x3 cos 
10. 
1 3
x +x
dx 11.  (x
0 2
+2 )
2
dx 12.  sin 2
 − 2 sin  − 8
d

et 1 sec 2 
13. e 2t
+ 5e t + 6
dt 14.  t (ln t ) 2
−4  dt 15.  tan 3
 − tan 2 
d

II. Derive the following formulas using partial fraction decomposition method.
u 1
1.  du = 2 ( a + bu − a ln a + bu ) + C
a + bu b
du 1 u
2.  = ln +C
u ( a + bu ) a a + bu
du 1 b a + bu
3.  u ( a + bu ) = − au + a
2 2
ln
u
+C

du 1 1 a + bu
4.  u ( a + bu ) 2
= + 2 ln
a ( a + bu ) a u
+C

du 1 a+u
5. a 2
=
− u 2a
2
ln
a−u
+C

udu 1
6. a 2
−u 2
= − ln a2 − u2 + C
2
2
u du a a+u
7.  a2 − u2 = − u + 2 ln a − u + C

V. RATIONALIZING SUBSTITUTION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Solve integrals of irrational function using rational algebraic substitution.
2. Solve integrals involving rational functions of sines and cosines.
3. Solve integrals rational functions of hyperbolic of sines and cosines.

A. Radicand with Irrational Function

When an integrand contains an expression of the form n g( x ) , then the substitution

u = n g( x )

can be used to change the non-rational functions into a rational function.

For fractional powers of the variable x, the integrand can be simplified by the substitution x = zn,
where n is the least common denominator of the denominators of the exponents.

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
x +4
1. x
dx
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 21
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Let u = x + 4  u2 = x + 4
x = u2 – 4
dx = 2u du

Substitute in the integral

x+4 u ( 2u du ) 2u2 du
 x
dx =  2
u −4
= 2
u −4
 8 
= 2 + 2  du
 u −4
du
= 2  du + 8 2
u −4
1 1 u −2
= 2u + ln +C
2 2 u+2

Express this result by the variable x, we obtain

x +4 1 x +4 −2
 x
dx = 2 x + 4 + ln
4 x +4 +2
+C

Classroom Activity 6
Use the indicated variable to remove the radical terms in the integrand. Then evaluate the integral.
x
1.  x − 4 dx let u = x

1
2.  x− x
3
dx let u = 6 x

1
3.  3
x+ x
4
dx let u = 12 x

1
4.  x− x +2
dx let u = x + 2

B. Rational Functions of Sine and Cosine

If the integrand is a rational function of sin x and cos x, it can be reduced to a rational function of z
by the substitution

z = tan ½ x x  (-, )
1 1 1 1
cos 2 x = 1
= =
sec 2 x 2 1
1 + tan 2 x 1 + z2
1 1 1 z
sin 2 x = cos 2 x tan 2 x = z x  (0, )
1+ z2 ½x

Since z = tan ½ x with ½ x  (- ½ , ½ ) 1

x = tan −1 z
1
2

2
dx = dz
1 + z2

It follows that
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 22
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

2z 1 − z2 2 dz
sin x = cos x = dx =
1+z 2
1+z 2
1 + z2

The resulting anti-derivative is valid only for x( − ,  ) . To fix the anti-derivative, we make use of the
formula
x−y
tan −1 x − tan −1 y = tan −1 for all x.
1 + xy

Classroom Activity 7
Evaluate the integrals.
dx cos x dx
1. 
1 − sin x + cos x
2.  3 cos x − 5 dx 3.  3 + cos 2 x
sin x 1  /2 1
4.  1 + sin 2
x
dx 5.
sin x + tan x
dx 6. 
0 1 + sin x
dx

C. Rational Functions of Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine

If the integrand is a rational function of sinh x and cosh x, it can be reduced to a rational function
of z by the substitution
1
z = tanh 2 x
2z 1 + z2 2
sinh x = coshx = dx = dz
1 − z2 1 − z2 1 − z2

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
1
1.  sec hx dx 3.  1 + cosh x dx
1 1−ex
2.  sinh x + cosh x
dx 4.  1+e x
dx

VI. IMPROPER INTEGRALS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Evaluate the integral of a function with infinite intervals.
2. Evaluate the integral of a function which are discontinuous over the given interval.

Type 1: Infinite Intervals

Consider the infinite region S that lies under the curve y = 1/x 2, above the x-axis and to the right of
the line x = 1 (See Figure).
y

y=½x

S
x
x=1 t
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 23
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

The area of the part of S that lies to the left of the line x = t is
t
t 1 1
A(t ) =  dx = − 1 = 1 − < 1 no matter how large t is chosen
1 x2 x1 t

We also observe that

 1
lim A(t ) = lim 1 −  = 1
t → t →  t

Hence, the area of the region S approaches 1 as t → . That is,

 1 t 1

1 x 2
dx = lim
t → 1 x 2
dx = 1 
Definition of an Improper Integral of Type 1
t
a. If  a
f ( x ) dx exists for every number t  a, then
 t
a f ( x ) dx = lim  f (x) dx
t → a

provided this limit exists (as a finite number)

b
b. If  f ( x ) dx exists for every number t  b, then
t
b b
−  f (x) dx = t →lim− t f ( x ) dx

provided this limit exists (as a finite number)

 b
The improper integral a
f ( x ) dx and −
f ( x )dx are called convergent if the corresponding limit
exists and divergent if the limit does not exists.

 a
c. If both  a
f ( x ) dx and  −
f ( x )dx are convergent, then
 a 
−  f ( x) dx = −  f ( x) dx + a f ( x ) dx

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
 1
1. 
1 x
dx

Solution:
 t
This is improper integral of the form a f ( x ) dx = lim
t → a
 f (x) dx . Thus,
 1 t 1 t
1 x
dx = lim  dx = lim ln x 1
t → 1 x t →

= lim  ln t − ln1
t →

= ( divergent )
0
2.  −
xe x dx
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 24
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

b b
This is improper integral of the form −  f ( x ) dx = lim
t → − t
 f ( x ) dx . Thus,

dx = lim  xe x dx = lim  xe x − e x 
0 0 0 0
− xe
x
t →− t 
t →−  t t 

( ) (
= lim  0 − tet − 1 − et 
t →−   )
=−1
 1
3. − 1 + x2
dx
 a 
This is improper integral of the form −  f ( x) dx = −  f ( x) dx + a f ( x ) dx . Thus,
 1 0 1  1
− 1 + x 2 dx = − 1 + x 2 dx + 0 1 + x 2 dx
0 1 t 1
= lim  2
dx + lim  dx
t →− t 1+ x t → 0 1 + x2
0 t
= lim tan −1 x + lim tan −1 x
t →− t t → 0

= lim  tan −1 0 − tan −1 t  + lim  tan −1 t − tan −1 0 

t →− t →

  
=0 −  − + − 0
 2 2
=

Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands

Suppose that f is a positive continuous function defined on a finite interval [a, b) but has a vertical
asymptote at b.

Let S be the unbounded region under the graph of f and above the x-axis between a and b.
y

x
x=a t x=b

t
Area of S between a and t: A(t ) =  a
f ( x ) dx

If it happens that A(t) approaches a definite number as t →b − , then we say that the area of the region
S is A and we write
b t
 a
f ( x ) dx = lim−
t →b a
f ( x ) dx

Definition of an Improper Integral of Type 2

a. If f is continuous on [a, b) and is discontinuous at b, then
b t
a f ( x ) dx = lim−  f ( x ) dx
t →b a
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 25
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

if this limit exists (as a finite number).

b. If f is continuous on (a, b] and is discontinuous at a, then

b b
a f ( x ) dx = lim+  f ( x ) dx
t →a t

if this limit exits (as a finite number).

c b
c. If f has a discontinuity at c, where a < c < b, and both  a
f ( x ) dx and  f ( x ) dx are convergent,
c
then
b c b
a f ( x )dx = a f ( x ) dx + c f ( x ) dx
t b
= lim−  f ( x )dx + lim+  f ( x ) dx
t →c a t →c t

Examples:
Evaluate the integrals.
5 1
1. 
2 x −2
dx (2, 5]

 /2
2. 0
sec x dx [0, /2)
3 dx
3. 0 x −1
[0, 1) and (1, 3]
1
4.  ln x dx
0
(0, 1]

Classroom Activity 7
Evaluate the integrals.
 x
 (x + 1)
e
dx
1. − 2 3/2 3.  ln x dx
0

 ln x 
2.  x dx
1 3/2
4.  sec
0
2
x dx

Problem Set 6:
Determine whether the improper integral converges or diverges, and if it converges, find its value.
 1 
 
−x
1. dx 9. e dx
− x 4 / 3 −
1 1 1 1
2. 
0 x 2 / 3
dx 10.
−2 x 2
dx 
1 1 2 1
3. 
−8 3 x
dx 11.
0 2x − 3
dx 
4 1 1
 (4 − x )
2
4. 1 2/3
dx 12. 
0 2
x − 2x
dx

4 1  1
5.  0 x −1
dx 13. 
0 e −1 x
dx

 dx

1
6.  x ln x dx
0
14. 1
x x2 −1
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 26
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

 /2 cos x tan −1 x


dx
7. /6 1 − sin x
15.

0 1+ x2
dx
1 ln x  /2
8.  0 x
dx 16. 
0
tan 2 x dx

VII. WALLI’S FORMULA

Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Evaluate the definite integral of a function using the Walli’s formula.

Definition of Walli’s Formula

The integral

 /2
0
sin m u cos n u du (1)

is called the Walli’s integral, where m and n are integers  0

If m and n are integers > 1

/2
sin m u cos n u du =
(m − 1 )(m − 3)(2 or 1 )(n − 1 )(n − 3 )(2 or 1 )  
0 (m + n )(m + n − 2 )(2 or 1 )
(2)

where:
 = /2, if m and n are both even
 = 1 otherwise

In words, the value of the integral (1) is

A B

C

where:
A = the product, starting with one less than the exponent m, going down 2 at a time,
until 2 or 1 is reached
B = a similar product, starting with one less than the other exponent
C = a similar product, starting with the sum of the exponent

If either m or n is unity, the integral (1) can be evaluated at once by the power formula. If either m or
n is zero, the result is not so simple, but one added device permits us to include that result in the
formula (2).

Rule:
If the first factor in any of the products to be formed in applying Walli’s formula, for m and n 
0 is less than one, replace that product by unity.

Examples:
Use Walli’s formula to evaluate the following integrals.
 /2
1. 0
sin  5 cos 4  d
 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 27
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

This is a Walli’s integral with m = 5 and n = 4. Therefore,

 /2 4  23  1  1 = 8
0 sin  5 cos 4  d =
9 7  5  3 1 315

 /2
2. 0
sin 4 x cos 7 x dx

This is a Walli’s integral with m = 4 and n = 7. Therefore,

 /2 ( 3  1 )( 6  4  2 )  1 = 48
0 sin 4 x cos7 x dx =
11  9  7  5  3  1 3465

 /4
3. 0 sin2 4y cos2 4y dy

Let x = 2y. Then, dx = 2 dy or dy = ½ dx. Also, changing the variables will also change the
limits; thus,
y → 0, x → 0 and y → /4, x → /2

Therefore,
 /4  /2
0 sin2 4y cos2 4y dy =  sin 2 2 x cos2 2 x ( 1 / 2dx )
0

1  /2 2
2 0
= sin 2 x cos2 2 x dx

We now use the Walli’s formula for the new integral.

 /4 1  /2 2
0 sin 4y cos 4y dy = 2 0 sin 2 x cos 2 x dx
2 2 2

1 1 1 
= 
2 42 2

=
32

 /6
4. 0
cos 6 3 d

Let  = 3. Then, d = 3 d or d = 1/3 d. Also, changing the variables will also change the
limits; thus,
 → 0, → 0 and  → /6,  → /2

Therefore,
 /6  /2
0 cos6 3 d =  cos6  (1 / 3d  )
0

1  /2
=
3 0
cos6  d 

We now use the Walli’s formula for the new integral.

 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 28
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

 /6 1  /2
0 cos6 3 d =
3 0
cos6  d 

1 5  3 1 
= 
3 642 2
5
=
96


 sin
5 1 1
5. 2
x cos 7 2
x dx
0

Let y= ½ x. Then, dy= ½ dx or dx = 2dy. Also, changing the variables will also change the
limits; thus,
x → 0, y → 0 and x → , y → /2

Therefore,
  /2
0 sin
5 1
2
x cos7 21 x dx =  sin 5 y cos 7 y ( 2dy )
0
 /2
= 2 sin 5 y cos7 y dy
0

We now use the Walli’s formula for the new integral.

  /2
0 sin x cos7 21 x dx = 2 
5 1
2
sin 5 y cos7 y dy
0

= 2
( 4  2 )( 6  4  2 ) 1
12  10  8  6  4  2
1
=
60

Problem Set 7
Use the Walli’s formula to evaluate the following integrals.

 (a )
 /2 a

5/2
1. sin  cos 7  d 6. 2
− x2 dx
0 0
 /2 1
 sin 6 y dy  x 1 − x dx
4 2
2. 7.
0 0

 x (a − x )
 /2 a
2 3/2
 sin 5  cos 3  d 2 2
3. 8. dx
0 0

 (1 − x ) dx
 /2 1
2 3/2
4. 0
cos 5 x dx 9.
0
 /2 1
5. 0
sin 7 x dx 10.  1 − u du
0

References
[1] Anton, H., Bivens, I., & Davis, S. (2012). Calculus Early Transcendentals (Tenth ed.). New York:
John WIley.

[2] Ayres Jr., F., & Mendelson, E. (1990). Schaum's Outline Of Theory And Problems Of Differential
Calculus (Third ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

[3] Larson, R., & Edwards, B. H. (2010). Calculus (Ninth ed.). California: Brooks/Cole.

[4] Love, C. E., & Rainville, E. (1962). Differential and Integral Calculus. New York: MacMillan.

[5] Stewart, J. (2010). Calculus (Seventh ed.). California: Brooks/Cole.

 Lecture Notes 2 - Techniques of Integration 29
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

[6] Stewart, J. (2016). Single Variable Calculus: Early Transcendentals (Eight ed., Vol. Two).
Massachusetts: Cengage Learning.

[7] Tan, S. T. (2011). Calculus Early Transcendentals. California: Brooks/Cole.

[8] Zill, D. G., & Wright, W. S. (2011). Single Variable Calculus: Early Transcendentals (Fourth ed.).
Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett.