What I Need to Know

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human
use. (S11ES-Ig-16); [6 hours]
2. Identify human activities, such as farming, construction of structures, and waste
disposal, that affect the quality and quantity of soil. (S11ES-Ih-17); and [2 hours]
3. Give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future generations. (S11ES-Ih-i-
18) [2 hours]
i

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.

Icons of this Module

What I Need to This part contains the learning objectives that are set for you to
Know learn as you go along the module.

This is an assessment as to your level of knowledge in the

What I know subject matter at hand, meant specifically to gauge prior
related knowledge.

What’s In This part connects the previous lesson with the current one.
 An introduction of the new lesson through various activities,
What’s New
before it will be presented to you.

These are discussions of the activities as a way to deepen

What is It
your discovery and understanding of the concept.

These are follow up activities that are intended for you to

What’s More
practice on in order for you to master the competencies.

What I Have Activities designed to process what you have learned from the
Learned lesson.

These are tasks designed to showcase your gained skills and

What I can do
knowledge, and applied to real-life concerns and situations.

This is an end-of-module assessment as to your level of

Assessment mastery in achieving the learning objectives for the subject
matter at hand.

Additional These are additional activities that are intended to strengthen

Activities your gained skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values.

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 What I Know

Pre-test
Write the letter of your choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Which is considered a direct water use?

A. Buying notepads made from recycled paper.
B. Eating greens and grains more than processed meat.
C. Turning off fans and lights when no one is using the room.
D. Turning off the tap when washing the face or brushing the teeth.

2. Which makes use of virtual water?

A. Buying food from farms.
B. Fixing your leaky faucets.
C. Installing a low-flow showerhead.
D. Watering your lawn in the early morning.

3. Based on global average, which among the following has the largest water footprint in L/kg?
A. Rice
B. Pork
C. Fruits
D. Vegetables

4. Which food product pollutes the greatest volume of water per kilogram of production?
A. Egg
B. Potato
C. Banana
D. Chocolate

5. Which term is referred to as a green water resource?

A. Rainwater
B. Groundwater
C. Surface water
D. Polluted water

6. Why will the use of pesticides cause water pollution? It leads to the pollution of
A. air when chemicals break down and produce gases that go into surface waters.
B. household drinking water when chemicals enter underground pipes that corrodes.
C. nearby irrigated water when farm animals lay on mud to cool off during heavy rains.
D. surface waters when heavy rain carry chemicals from the soil to rivers downstream.

7. An artificial body of water reservoir will store drinking water for a water-stressed place.
Which of the following could contaminate the stored water and lead to health-related
problems and loss of native species?
A. Enclosing the reservoir with a fence.
B. Applying fertilizer for higher farm yield.
C. Developing a water management plan.
D. Monitoring the water treatment facility.

iii
8. Nenita is a science club member. Which event could be part of her conservation poster?
A. Learn how to make a school water audit.
B. Learn how to nurse stray animals in the campus.
C. Learn how to build a campfire without using a match.
D. Learn how to balance a Science and Technology Fair budget.

9. Which activity will help freshwater stay clean the most and why?
A. Mixing food and garden waste for composting will save fresh water.
B. Introducing new fish species for an aquaculture project add water purifiers.
C. Leaving crop residues to cover newly harvested cornfields prevents soil erosion.
D. Disinfecting wastewater at the discharge points treats water before infiltration to soil.

10. Why will activities that lead to sedimentation affect the quality of freshwater in lakes?
A. Additional sediment loads on the lake decrease water depth.
B. Deposited soil sediments carry food to aquatic plants and animals.
C. Fertilizer run-offs will add organic matter and heavy metals to the lake.
D. Rain over denuded lands will deposit silt to the lake as sediment pollutants.

11. Soils act like _________, soaking up water and limiting run-off.
A. Filters
B. Faucets
C. Sponges
D. Supermarket

12. Soils act like __________, providing air, water, and nutrients to soil organisms.
A. Buffers
B. Faucets
C. Strainers
D. Supermarkets

13. Soils act like __________, providing refuge to macro and micro-organisms in soil.
A. Hotels
B. Faucets
C. Sponges
D. Supermarkets

14. Soils act like __________, regulating the quality of air and water flowing into soil pores.
A. Filters
B. Buffers
C. Faucets
D. Supermarkets

15. Why is soil erosion by rushing waters considered a great soil threat?
A. The soil volume is reduced in eroded areas and increased in deposited areas.
B. Water changes the physical composition of the soil affecting soil management.
C. The soil’s chemical composition is enhanced changing soil texture and structure.
D. Water carries topsoil and nutrients, then deposits it to receiving areas as pollutants.

16. Which soil management practices build up healthy soils?

A. Application of fertilizers and pesticides against crop pests.
B. Constant clearing of vegetation from weeds for cleaner rows
C. Regular cultivation and tilling of fields for greater agricultural yield.
D. Use of diverse cover crops, planned crop rotation, and mulch tillage.
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17. What is the threat to soil when farmlands are converted into built-up areas with
concrete foundations for houses, roads, offices and malls?
A. Soil sealing
B. Soil pollution
C. Soil acidification
D. Soil compaction

18. Which component of the soil is crucial for soil health?

A. Air
B. Water
C. Organic matter
D. Mineral particles

19. What soil threats can possibly occur during a construction of a school building?
A. soil compaction, soil contamination, soil erosion, and soil sealing
B. soil contamination, soil nutrient imbalance, soil salinization, and waterlogging
C. soil nutrient imbalance, soil acidification, soil pollution, and soil biodiversity loss
D. soil acidification, soil compaction, soil biodiversity loss, and soil organic carbon loss

20. How do organic matter help maintain soil health?

A. It regulates the humus part of the soil making it dark and fertile.
B. It greatly helps micro-organisms to provide air and food for the plants.
C. It gives more space for pore spaces to exchange air, water and nutrients.
D. It biologically binds minerals and creates interconnected pores in structured soils.

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 Lesson
Of Ripples and Reflections:
1 Human Impacts on Freshwater
What I Need to Know

Consider the parting lines written by the green poet, Martin Kiszko in his “Water
Walk” poem:
. . . At four miles, I ask myself whether you ever gave a thought, about the trek I must make
through scorching heat – to the spring, the river bank, a muddy hole, where I collect the dirty
water I must drink. I start the four mile journey home . . . a full container on my back. I day
dream about other children far away from Africa and wonder what the distance is of their daily
water walk.
How many steps did you take to fetch your basic water supply this morning? Did you
use a pump to draw water from the ground? Did you turn an indoor faucet or simply grab a
water bottle? What did you use water for? And where did the wastewater drain into?

The goal of this lesson is to help you understand key water issues. You will take a
look at key water facts and analyze actions that affect different freshwater resource
ecosystems and its life-sustaining functions. Through this unit, you will explore water use in
agriculture, industry, and household sectors. The lesson introduces also water audit and
water footprints as tools for you and your family to identify current practices and future
approaches of water use and management.

After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

1. identify goods and services supplied by water resource ecosystems,
2. record and analyze your direct and indirect water use,
3. explain how human actions from the different sectors affect access to freshwater, and
4. plan a water consumption and management practice that increases water quality and
availability.

What’s In

Water Facts
In the previous module, you have learned about the various water resources on
Earth. Recall that we live on a blue planet where water circulates through the water cycle in
its different states, as water vapour, liquid water and ice. The freshwater in our world is
found in three main places:
 Atmospheric water in the air either as a solid (hail, snow), liquid (fog, mist, rain) or
gas (invisible water vapour)
 Surface water as runoff and base-flow into and from the catchment areas like lakes
 Groundwater in the cracks and spaces of soil, sand, and rocks underground,
generally adequate and of high quality that does not require treatment for human
use.
1
 But despite the seeming abundance of water on Earth, freshwater availability is less
than 2.5 percent of the world’s water supply. Of this percentage, less than one third is easily
accessible from surface water bodies like lakes and rivers and from the underground stored
in aquifers. This leaves us with less than 1% available for water, sanitation and hygiene
needs.

Figure 1. World’s small fraction of freshwater for human needs.

Source: UN Environmental Programme, Vital Water Graphics: An overview of the state of the world’s
fresh and marine waters, 2nd ed., UNEP, Nairobi, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme,
Global Environment Outlook 3: Past, present, and future perspectives, UNEP, Nairobi, 2002.; UN
Population Division, 2015 Revision of World Population Prospects, UN DESA, New York, Jul 2015.
Reprinted with permission of UNICEF.

What’s New

Activity 1: Mouth-watering Options

Table 1. Ways Water is Used Daily
A. You and I use water in many ways. How much My Daily Water Uses
water you use daily is a measure of your water Direct Use Indirect Use
footprint and can be traced back to the actions and
choices you make. On your science notes, make a
table similar to Table 1. Using the first column, list as
many ways in which you use water. Do this for a
minute or two.
When you’re done, encircle the answers where
you directly see or handle water. Activities like these
are ways you directly use water for the intended
purpose.
Now fill the second column with things you have
to use daily. Using these products – like food, clothes
or electric power, are ways of indirectly using water that
we refer to as virtual (embedded) water?

Q1. Which do you estimate is larger – your direct water use or your indirect water use?
2
B. Your diet and lifestyle make up the largest part of your individual water footprint. If
you are to have your breakfast, which option in Figure 2 would you choose and why?

Figure 2. Filipino Breakfast Set Menu I

A. dried fish and champorado B. egg, rice and banana C. adobo, rice and banana

Your reasons may be personal – food budget, energy needs, nutrient value, or simply
an appetite for a craving. Yet your choice is very much related to local and global freshwater
resource consumption. Consider Figure 3 and choose which breakfast you will have based
on how large or how small you want your water usage will be.

Q2. Which menu do you estimate, requires the least amount of water for growing and
processing the raw food and beverage materials from the fields to your fork? Why?

Q3. For reasons of a fair comparison and decision, how will you keep your investigation fair?

Figure 3. Filipino Breakfast Set Menu II

D. egg, fish, rice, banana E. egg, adobo, rice, banana F. egg, embutido, rice,
and milk and milk banana and milk

What Is It

Of Direct and Indirect Water Uses

As you have listed on Table 1, there are two categories of water use: direct and
indirect. You directly use water in different activities like hand washing, drinking, cooking,
bathing, cleaning and many more. You also used water indirectly through the food you eat,
the things you buy, and even the energy you use. The water used to produce or process a
commodity, commercial goods or service is referred to us virtual water. The measurement
of virtual water along the full production - consumption chain is referred to as a water
footprint.

3
 Let’s say you drank one liter of tap water last night. Due to this action, you directly
consumed one liter of actual tap water. If today, you will buy a 1-L bottled water and drink all
of it, you would have directly consumed one liter of bottled water. But you also indirectly
used the many liters of virtual water needed (and some amount possibly got wasted) to
produce and supply the water bottle itself. Depending on where and how the bottle was
produced, you just added five liters or more of freshwater to your water footprint because of
that action.

Your personal water footprint is the total volume of water required in the production of
the services and goods you patronize and use. So in which type of water use did you
consume more water? Drinking tap water or drinking bottled water? What can you do
minimize your total water consumption even if you still prefer bottled water to tap?

How did you estimate which water use is larger? Within this week you will make a
simple water audit of your direct water use for 24 hours. To help you prepare for it, analyze
Table 2 for direct and indirect water uses and the total volume per use.

Table 2. Direct and Indirect Water Use

Direct Water Use for Liters of Water Indirect Water Use Liters of
Activity1 Used (Goods) 2 Virtual Water
1-min shower, regular flow 10 1 pair of jeans (1000 g) 10,850
1-min shower, low flow 7 1 bed sheet (900 g) 9750
1-min standard faucet flow 8 1 T-shirt (250 g) 2720
1-min with aerator faucet flow 6 1 diaper (75 g) 810
1 standard toilet flush 6 1 cotton bud (0.333 g) 3.6
1 old inefficient toilet flush 22

Indirect Water Use (Food)3 Liters of Virtual Sources:

Water Content 1. www.epa.gov/watersense/using-water-efficiently
60 g large-sized egg 196 2. A.K. Chapagain A.Y. Hoekstra H.H.G.
250 ml of milk (1 glass) 255 Savenije R. Gautam (2005). The water
100 g chocolate 1720 footprint of cotton consumption, Value of
100 g mango 180 Water Research Report Series No. 18,
100 g banana (small) 79 UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands.
1 kg cabbage 237
1 kg potato 287 3. M.M. Mekonnen and A.Y. Hoekstra
1 kg corn 1222 (2010), "The Green, Blue and Grey Water
1 kg rice 2497 Footprint of Crops and Derived Crop
1 kg beef 15415 Products," and "...of Farm Animals and
1 kg chicken 4325 Animal Products," Value of Water
1 kg fish (freshwater)4 3160 Research Report Series No. 47 and 48,
1 kg fish (marine)4 1490 UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands.
1 kg pork 5988 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.134

What you are reading now is printed on an A4 sheet of paper. The global average
water footprint for this paper alone is estimated to be between 2-13 liters. The exact amount
depends on the type and origin of the paper materials used. If recycled paper is used
instead of raw paper materials, then an estimated 40% of virtual water is saved.

Generally, water is required in the different paper production stages – from growing
wood to processing pulp into paper products. But most of the water is required in growing
the tree, where water consumption refers to the forest evapotranspiration. Then, there’s the
additional water used during the manufacturing processes in the industrial stage, mostly due
to the evaporation and contamination of groundwater and surface water.

4
 How much water was used to grow your rice and chicken, to manufacture your shirt
and skirt, your books and music gadgets? Surprisingly, you may not see your indirect water
use, yet it accounts for most of your water footprint. With your daily actions and choices, you
directly and indirectly use, reuse, and waste water.

Later this week, you will do a household water audit. This is a quantitative analysis
of water use from entry into the home up to its discharge as waste or excess water. Doing a
water audit involves calculating your direct water use and identifying simple ways for
reducing water consumption. Practice how to do a simple water audit for virtual water
uses.

What’s More

Activity 2: Water Audit - Virtual Water Use Table 3. Breakfast Virtual Water Audit
Ingredient Virtual
1. List the main raw food and beverage ingredients
Water Used
for meals D, E, and F on Figure 3. For a fair test,
(L)
use 60 grams of vegetable or meat per serving.
Menu C
2. Use Table 2 for reference and conversion of 60 g large-sized egg 196
virtual water used in proportion to one serving. 40 g rice (1 cup) 99.88
Write the corresponding amount of required water to 100 g banana (small) 79
grow and produce each raw product. Total Virtual Water 374.88
3. Compute and compare the total amount of virtual Menu D
water content for each meal. A sample virtual water 60 g large-sized egg
audit was done for you as a guide. (Computations 60 g freshwater fish
did not include water used during cooking). 40 g rice (1 cup)
100 g banana (small)
Q4. Why do food and beverage products have 250 ml of milk
different virtual water contents? Total Virtual Water
Menu E
Q5. What did you learn about crops and animals
virtual water footprints?
Q6. What surprised you most about indirect water Menu F
use?

What Is It

Of Water Footprints

When you compare how much water is used to make a variety of products, you can
be guided on how to reduce your virtual water consumption or your ‘water footprint’. Virtual
water applies to products only, while water footprint as introduced by Hoekstra in 2002
applies not only to products but also to a process, a producer, a consumer or a nation. It has
three components:
 The green water footprint refers to consumption of green water resources like
rainwater that is stored as soil moisture in the root zone. Green water also
evaporates from plants by evapotranspiration and is important for agriculture, forestry
and horticulture.
5
  The blue water footprint refers to consumption of blue water resources like surface
water and groundwater. This can evaporate, naturally flow or become part of the
product. Domestic, industry and irrigated agriculture uses blue water.
 The grey water footprint refers to polluted water or water used to dilute pollutants to
satisfy water quality standards. This is what goes into bathroom floor drains, sinks
and sewage facilities.

The Philippines has abundant water resources with an annual average rainfall of
about 2,400 millimeters. The surface water potential is 125,790 million cubic meter (MCM)
while the groundwater potential is 20,200 MCM.

By 2025, the estimated water demand in the country is 85,401 MCM per year but the
estimated available water by then is only 60,586 MCM/yr. Supply cannot meet demand.
More often, water tends to be available in the wrong place, at the wrong time with the wrong
quality (National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought,
2010-2020).

On the average, 70%, 20% and 10% of global water consumption was used in the
agricultural, industrial and municipal sectors respectively (Shiklomanov, 1999). During 1996
to 2005, 89.7%, 5.8% and 4.5% of the Philippine water footprint was used in the
agricultural, industrial and municipal sectors. Of the blue water resources, 63% was used
for rice production, while grey water (contaminated water) volume came mostly from
industrial use at 44% and from domestic use at 33%. So water pollution was mostly
generated by industrial and domestic activities. Indeed, water footprint assessments
reveal patterns of indirect water use of individuals, businesses and nations just as water
audits do for direct water use.

What’s New

Activity 3: Water Run along Freshwaters Table 4. Human Activities on a

Freshwater Resource Ecosystem
A. What is the nearest body of freshwater resource Land Use Water Use
ecosystem that you visit often? Is it a spring, a stream, camping water rafting
a river, a pond, a lake or a bay? Remember walking
along this freshwater ecosystem. Are the bordering
lands rural or urban, agricultural or industrial, residential
or uninhabited, forested or barren?

A lot can happen from the water source to the

mouth that affects the quality and quantity of
freshwater resources. Try to identify and list on your
science notes some land and water uses that you have
observed before. You may include local pastime
activities popular in this place? The first ones are done
for you in Table 4.

Q7. How will land use activities on lakesides affect people, plants, or animals downstream?

Q8. Why would activities on rivers or lakes affect people, plants, or animals downstream?
 6

B. In Figure 4, anthropogenic (man-made) impacts on a lake and its surroundings are

listed as drivers of change with ecological impacts. An ecosystem change happens when
people interact with their surroundings to satisfy their basic needs and improve their well-
being. We describe these interactions as “drivers” of ecosystem change. 

Figure 4. Water Runs along Freshwaters

Adapted from the diagram created by Jane Hawkey, Ian Image Library
(ian.umces.edu/imagelibrary/). Copyright © 2017 and is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0
International in the article “First Human Impacts and Responses of Aquatic Systems: A
Review of Palaeolimnological Records from around the World.” The Anthropocene Review
5, no. 1 (April 2018): 28-68. Source DOI: 10.1177/2053019617740365.

1. On your science notes, make a sketch similar to Figure 4.

2. Match the man-made drivers of ecosystem change with their associated ecological
impacts and lake responses.

(HINT: Drivers 1 and 2 are land use or land conversion activities on the natural drainage
area. While, drivers 3 and 4 are water use or water diversion activities on the water
resource ecosystem.)

Q9. What are the four main drivers of ecosystem change?

Q10. How would you classify your answers on Table 4 according to these drivers of
change?

3. Draw or label the human activities in the assigned locations.

 7

C. There are numerous ways people affect freshwater resource ecosystems. A sample
list is shown on Figure 5. You may add ideas from it to your work on Parts A and B.
Figure 5. Water and Land Uses in a Freshwater Resource Ecosystem

5. Using your sketch and Fig. 4, analyze the specific lake responses and write the symbol ↓
for a decrease, ↕ for fluctuating increase and decrease, or ↑ for an increase associated to
each driver of change. The first one for sedimentation under Driver 1 was encircled for you
as an example. That first circle indicates an increase in sediment loads.

Q11. How will cutting of trees affect water quality?

Q12. How will pipe discharges from industries and homes affect water availability?

Q13. Which activities do you think has the greatest impact on water quality and availability?

What Is It

Of Water Marks from Muddled Ripples

The first ‘detectable’ human impact within a lake catchment may not immediately
cause a response or change in the aquatic system because of its negligible degree of impact
caused by say a small population size or the use of less invading technologies. Bodies of
water adapt to slow changes, but over time with the rise of technological advance, population
surge, intensified activities and resource use, then ecological shifts start to occur
significantly.
8

Human activities (settlements, industry, and agricultural developments) can disturb

the components of the natural water cycle through land use diversions, water use/reuse and
discharge of wastes into the natural groundwater and surface water pathways. A
consolidated look of your answers for Activity 3 may be illustrated similar to Figure 6.

Figure 6. Water Marks from Muddled Ripples

Human activities in natural drainage areas can cause soil erosion and pollution.
These are direct drivers of ecosystem change. Erosion affects freshwater ecosystems
due to the transportation and deposition of sediments, nutrients and contaminants to surface
water systems. This results to sedimentation, flooding, turbidity, and eutrophication
which can fill downstream water reservoirs faster than planned.

On the other hand, high levels of lead, copper or mercury in sediment loads are
indications of heavy metal contamination. Effluents, discharges and even nutrients come
from domestic, industrial and agricultural (fertilizer and fungicide) runoffs. These lead to
water acidification and the worst cases of eutrophication. Due to high nitrogen and
phosphorus loads in water, eutrophication, is globally considered as the most prevalent
water quality problem. In addition, contaminated surface waters and groundwater are costly
and difficult to clean.
 9

Moreover, habitat modification changed the physical flow of water into the ecosystem
through the manipulation of surface water level and groundwater reservoirs. The creation of
dams, bridges, harbors, or electric power plants can cause flow diversion or intensive water
withdrawal and/or water recharge. These results in fluctuations of water level, salinization,
nutrient loads, turbidity and the light environment.

Biological invasions, like the introduction of non-native species of fish on a lake that
has no fish before, can induce important shifts in breeding, feeding and nursing patterns, and
even promote algal blooms and the dominance of invasive species.

On the other hand, people have been disposing untreated wastes into the air, land
and water resources. Pollution degrades ecosystems and affects rainfall, surface and
ground waters. Pollution sources that impact our water resources can develop at different
space and time scales. The 2006 United Nations World Water Development Report 2
categorized the freshwater pollution sources in the following nine categories:

 Organic matter from industrial wastewater and domestic sewage can deplete
oxygen from water as it decomposes and suffocates aquatic life.
 Pathogens and microbial contaminants from domestic sewage, livestock and
natural sources can spread infectious diseases through contaminated drinking water
supplies.
 Nutrients from agricultural run-offs, and industrial discharges can over stimulate the
growth of algae that leads to eutrophication. Furthermore, high levels in nitrate in
drinking water leads to illness in people.
 Salinization from saltwater intrusions cause salt residue build-up in soils due to over
irrigation or over-pumping of coastal aquifers. As irrigated waters evaporate from
soils, salt residues are left on the soil to accumulate.
 Acidification from electric power generation, industrial stacks, and vehicle emissions
including acid mine tailings can lower the pH of soils and water.
 Heavy Metals from industries and mining sites can accumulate in the tissues of
shellfish and fish. These are toxic to aquatic life and humans.
 Toxic organic compounds and micro-organic pollutants from industrial sites,
automobiles, agricultural fields, and municipal wastewaters can be toxic to aquatic
fauna and humans.
 Thermal Pollution from stored water in dams and reservoirs that warms up due to
discharges from cooling towers can change the aquatic oxygen levels and rates of
decomposition in the receiving waters.
 Silt and suspended particles from natural soil erosion due to road building,
agricultural activities, construction, deforestation, and other land use changes can
reduce water quality for drinking and recreation. These can also degrade aquatic
habitats by choking aquatic organisms with silt and disturbing breeding and feeding.

The quality of water is affected by chemical, microbiological and thermal pollution

(Carr and Neary, 2008; Mayers et al., 2009; UNEP, 2010a):
 Chemical contamination can be caused by excess in nutrients, heavy metals, and
persistent organic pollutants, resulting to acidification, changes in salinity and
increase in sediment loads.
 Microbiological contamination due to bacteria, viruses and protozoa in water is a
leading global human health hazards.
  Fluctuating natural water temperature cycles can affect metabolic rates and
biological functions resulting to long-term population declines.

10

What’s More

Human Impacts on Freshwater: Water Clear Reflections

Just as there are direct and indirect water usages, there are also direct and indirect
drivers that change water resource ecosystems. A direct driver clearly impacts ecosystem
processes while an indirect driver works by influencing one or more direct drivers:
 direct drivers are physical and biological factors that include climate change, land
conversion, plant nutrient use, and the onset of diseases and invasive species
 indirect drivers are demographic; economic; socio-political; cultural and religious;
and scientific and technological factors

Table 5 is an adapted summary of land use changes and the major threats on water
resource ecosystems around the world (UNEP, 2004b). Only five out of eighteen freshwater
ecosystems were selected and shown for you to analyze and synthesize.

Table 5. Some major threats to selected coastal and freshwater ecosystems and services
Ecosystem Goods and Services Threats
Rivers many environmental, economic reclamation, drainage, flow regulation,
(e.g. fish, water supplies, transport, dam construction, hydroelectric power,
disposal, biological cleaning, pollution, deforestation, soil erosion and
climate regulation, etc.), religious degradation, climate change and alien
and spiritual values invasive species
Inland deltas water supplies, sediment and drainage, irrigation, regulation of water
nutrient retention, recreation flow, pollution, deforestation, soil
erosion, agricultural intensification,
overexploitation of fish and other food
species, climate change

Lakes water supplies, fiber, fish, pollution, agricultural intensification,

waterfowl, recreation, groundwater eutrophication, deforestation, soil
recharge, religious and spiritual degradation, overexploitation of fish
values and food species, climate change,
waterborne disease control

Groundwater Water reservoirs, water storage, Irrigation, pollution, agricultural

aquifers nutrients storage intensification, eutrophication,
deforestation, soil erosion,
overexploitation of food species,
waterborne disease control
Freshwater water and food supplies, stop-over irrigation, pollution, agricultural
springs sites for migratory species, intensification, overexploitation of fish
recreation, religious and spiritual and other food species, alien invasive
values species

Source: UNEP and UNEP-WCMC, 2004

11
 What I Have Learned

Activity 4: Are We In Hot Waters?

Landscape modification as a direct driver of ecosystem change is considered to have

a very significant impact on water resource ecosystems. Complete the sentence for each
indirect driver as each further influences land conversion threats to water resources.
On Table 6 write a hashtag, and a brief explanation for your generalizations on land
conversion threats.

Table 6. My Generalizations on Land Conversion Threats to Water

Indirect Drivers Ecosystems and Services as Influenced by Indirect Factors

1. Demographic As population grows, the demand for ___________________________

_________________________________________________________
# _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

2. Economic Ensuring clean and safe water for our homes has environmental and
financial costs because ______________________________________
# _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

3. Socio-political Poor land management contaminates waterways giving the public and
the local water authorities a reason to __________________________
# _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

4. Cultural and Our everyday choices and actions impact the availability and quality of
Religious water, therefore we all have __________________________________
_________________________________________________________
# _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

5. Science and As future technologist, engineer or scientist, I can _________________

Technology _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
# _________________________________________________________
12
 What I Can Do

Activity 5: I WASH (Individual Water Audit for Safer Hands)

The Philippine Water Code defined domestic purpose of water as not exceeding
250 liters per capita per day of water by a single household. How does your water usage in
your household compare to this water regulation guideline?
Conduct a personal water audit of your direct water use at home over the next 24-
hour period. How will you go about gathering and recording data for each type of water use?
What technological and behavioral solutions can you apply for a more efficient water use at
home?
In the Philippines, 7 million or 15 percent of urban Filipinos lack basic hand washing
facilities at home (WHO/UNICEF, 2019). Hand washing is critical wherever people meet and
touch surfaces at home and also in public places like schools, health care facilities,
workplaces, commercial areas and transportation utility hubs. So special emphasis on safe
hand washing is integrated in the water audit as it is an important hygiene practice against
respiratory and water-borne diseases.
Table 7. MY 24-HOUR WATER USE
# of # of minutes # of liters
# of water # of liters
predicted water runs per minute
Activity uses per used per
water uses per use per use
day day (L)
per day (min) (L/min)
Drinking
Cooking / Food Preparation
Kitchen Dish washing
Urinal/toilet flushing
Sanitation
Toilet cleaning
Services
House cleaning
Showering/bathing
Brushing of teeth
Face washing
Hand washing
Before and after eating
Before and after caring
Personal for the sick
Hygiene After blowing nose,
coughing or sneezing
After handling money,
garbage, animals, dirt
After using the toilet
After visiting a public
space
Laundry
Plant care
Other
Animal care
Activities
Automobile/bicycle
care
Signature: Date: My total water consumption for today (Liters)

13
 Additional Activities

Additional Activity Options:

Option 1: Facilitate the conduct of the I-WASH (Individual Water Audit for Safer Hands) for
the rest of the members in the household and make comparisons. Which activities do each
of you consider necessary to meet your basic needs? Which activities do you consider
beyond your basic needs?
Option 2: Write a persuasive letter to your parent or guardian regarding ways you can help
in using water more efficiently at home.
Option 3: Do the Family WaSH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) Survey and design a
research study based from it alone or combined with the I-WASH data of the entire family.

Family WaSH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) Survey

Place a check in the box corresponding to your household water, sanitation and hygiene information.
Table 8. Household Source of Water Drinking Cookin Water for
Water g Water Handwashing
Piped Water (waterworks system) into dwelling/public tap
Tube well or borehole (pump)
Dug Well (protected/unprotected)
Spring (protected/unprotected)
Rainwater
Tanker Truck/Cart with small tank
Surface water (river, dam, etc.)
Bottled/Mineral Water
Method Drinking Water Treatment
Boil
Add bleach/chlorine
Use water filter (ceramic, sand, charcoal)
Use improvised filter (cloth/sponge)
Solar disinfection
Let it stand or settle
Not applicable (if bottled water)
Type Handwashing Station
Tippy Tap
Raised Bucket with tap/outlet
Suspended bottle or bag with outlet/hole/pop-up plug
Sink with tap
Foot pump sink
Type Toilet Facilty
Water Sealed (flush with septic tank)
Water Sealed (pour with septic tank)
Not Water Sealed (pour/flush without septic tank/latrine)
No toilet facility (bush/field/river, etc.)
Methods Waste Disposal
By collector system
Burning
Composting
Dumping/Throwing
14
 Lesson
Of Dirt and Digs:
2 Human Impacts on Soil

What I Need to Know

Can you name all the vegetables in the song “Bahay Kubo” without singing it?

The catchy tunes of this well-known Filipino folk song brings to mind a simple nipa
hut surrounded by bounteous blessings of the land. Young or old, farmer or not, one would
do well in life by remembering the song’s message of hope in the harvest of the land.

Remember those childhood days of playing barefoot outside, shooting marbles on

holed grounds of bare soil, baking mud cakes with petals on top, or getting dirty while
digging. Did we ever ask then, is soil dirt? And now as an adult, we need to ask, is dirt soil?

Soil scientists dig deeper and study soils getting their hands dirty to learn the role of
soils in food, fiber, fuel, freshwater and even flood control. Soil is Mother Earth’s thin
dynamic skin which serves as foundation for our natural living world. Dirt, on the other hand
is that dead, disintegrated mineral part of wind-eroded soil and by itself can never sustain
life. Soil is much more than dirt! But when we treat soil as dirt, digging it for our immediate
needs and economic gains without regard for its continuous health, conservation and
protection, then tons of natural soil will end up as useless dirt. It is time to look at our actions
and strengthen our personal connection to the very soil that supports the very ground we
stand on.

The statement from then US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, “The nation that
destroys its soil destroys itself.” kick-started the soil conservation programs against the
devastating problems of great dust storms and floods. This powerful warning assert that
human actions globally impact soil resources. It is no wonder that scientists and
environment authorities under the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization
declared 2015-2024 as the International Decade of Soils and published on 2015 the report
“Status of the World’s Soil Resources” that shed light into the soil threats challenging soil
functions and resources.

The goal of this lesson is to help you understand soil degradation issues. You will
take a look at soil science, soil matters and the growing trend in human activities that affect
soil resources and its life-sustaining functions. Through this unit, you will explore global and
local uses of soil in agriculture and urban developments through a simple soil aggregate
model. Finally, the lesson introduces the concept of soil sealing and some soil health
principles as groundwork for you and your family to identify current practices and apply
sustainable approaches to soil use at home or in the community.

After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

5. identify soil functions and soil threats,
6. compare healthy soil from a degraded soil,
7. identify human actions that can have significant impacts on soil health, and
8. plan a soil conservation and protection project that improves soil quality and quantity.

15
 What’s In

Soil Matters

In the previous modules, you have learned about earth consisting of four
subsystems across whose boundaries matter and energy flow. At the overlapping
boundaries of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere is the critical
zone of soil. It is here where air, water, minerals and life intersect and interact. You
also studied the importance of common rock-forming minerals, and how these rocks
undergo earth processes to offer mankind with natural resources and energy supply.

Prior to the 20th century, soil was regarded as a mixture of weathered rock layer
which serves as a medium for plant growth and agricultural production. Engineers may
define soil in relation to supporting structures as a mixture of mineral material of sand,
gravel, and fine particles used as a base for construction. Over the past 150 years of
man’s interaction with soil, soil concept and principles has increased with studies on soil
horizons, soil-forming factors, soil processes, soil fertility, soil conservation, soil system, soil
cover, soil quality, soil health, soil degradation, sustainable soil management and much
more.

At present, soil as a dynamic and finite resource is defined as the unconsolidated

mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the earth formed from a
parent rock material through processes that show the effects of climate, macro and
micro-organisms, the topography of its location on land, and of formation time (SSSA,
2015).

Figure 7. What are the components of an idealized soil? Based from Pidwirmy (2006)

1.) 40-50% inorganic mineral particles 3.) 0–10% biological organisms or parts of
a. rock particles too big to be soil biological organisms (living or dead) from
(gravel, stones, boulders), macroscopic plants and animals to the
b. sand as large soil particles, microscopic bacteria, archaea, and fungi.
c. silt as medium soil particles, and Included here are the animal and microbial
d. clay as small soil particles waste products in different stages of
decomposition breaking down into humus.
2.) ~ 50% empty pore spaces in soil filled
The soil organic matter is the most important
with either (a) air that allows exchange of
component because of its influence on the
CO2 and O2 gas for the respiration of
physical, chemical and biological properties of a
organisms or (b) water for uptake by
healthy soil as it carry out its different soil
plant roots and living soil organisms
functions.
16
 What’s New

Activity 1: The End of Soil?

flood r______; provision of f______, fiber, and fuel; h______ for organisms;
water p______; n______ cycling; foundation for h______ infrastructure;
c______ regulation; provision of c______ materials; c______ sequestration;
c______ heritage; ______ of pharmaceutical and genetic resources

nutrient imbalance; soil acidification; soil organic carbon (SOC) loss;

soil erosion; soil salinization; soil waterlogging; soil sealing;
soil biodiversity loss; soil compaction; soil contamination
17
 What Is It

Of Global Soil Functions and Soil Threats

Table 9. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment – Summarized Ecosystem Services

and Functions of Soil (FAO, 2015)

Food, Fiber and Fuel (water, nutrients, and physical support for plant
growth, bioenergy and fiber needed by man and animals)
Water (retains, stores and purifies water)
Soil
Raw Earth Material (topsoil, aggregates for construction, peat, etc.)
Provides
Surface Stability (support for human habitations and related infrastructure)
Refugia (habitat for soil organisms, birds, etc.)
Pharmaceutical and Genetic Resources (source of biological materials)

Water Quality (filters, buffers substances, transforms contaminants in

water)
Water Supply (water infiltration into soil, water flow within soil, and drainage
Soil
of excess water out of soil and into groundwater and surface water)
Regulates
Climate (regulates CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions; stores soil organic carbon
and sequesters carbon from the atmosphere and land vegetation*
Erosion (retains soil on the land surface)

Nutrient Cycling (soil organisms transform organic materials; releases or

retains nutrients on charged surfaces)
Soil
Soil Formation (weathers primary minerals; releases nutrients; transforms
Supports
and increases organic matter; creates structures in soil aggregates and soil
horizons for gas, water flow, and root growth; and creates charged surfaces
for ion retention or exchange)

Soil’s Aesthetic and spiritual (preserves natural and cultural landscape diversity,
Cultural source of pigments and dyes)
Services Heritage (preserves archaeological records)

Soil services are basically determined by the soil properties texture, mineralogy,
and soil organic matter (Palm et al. 2007). Soil texture and mineralogy are dependent on
the parent rock materials which change very slowly over time. While the soil organic
matter (SOM) changes easily due to human-induced impacts. So the management of
SOM is critical to sustainable soil management because of its quick response to changes
and our ability to use and manipulate it.

The World Soil Charter echoes the plea for all who use or manage soil to act as
stewards of the soil and ensure that this essential natural resource is managed sustainably
and protect it for the future generations (FAO, 2015).

18
In the 2015 “Status of From the previous modules, you also learned about fossil fuels
the World’s Soil and other energy resources. The infographics below show
Resources” report, FAO that human-induced water and land uses lead to
identified the top 10 soil environmental degradation affecting the water cycle which
threats to global soil then affects the soil.
functions as:
 nutrient
imbalance
 soil acidification
 soil biodiversity
loss
 soil compaction
 soil
contamination
 soil erosion
 soil organic
carbon (SOC loss
 soil salinization
Figure 9. United Nations Children’s Fund, Thirsting for a
 soil sealing
future: Water and children in a changing climate, UNICEF,
 soil waterlogging New York, March 2017. Printed with permission.

Excessive withdrawal of
water can cause imbalance
in the water cycle.

In the Philippines, 11.45

million hectares or 38%
of the total land area
are vulnerable to human-
induced soil and land
degradation. Ten million
hectares of this land
area were degraded by
water erosion and the
rest due to physical
deteriorations, chemical
deteriorations, and then
by wind erosion.
19
 Soil degradations result to reduced soil functions and lower ability to support
ecosystem services needed for human survival and well-being. Minimizing or stopping
significant soil degradation is important for the sustainable maintenance of soil services.
This is more cost-effective than restoring degraded soils.

Conversely, the arrangements of the solid parts and pore spaces of soil is called soil
structure. Clumps of soil particles held together by varied organic substances are called
soil aggregates. Well-structured aggregates of soils indicate a healthy soil.

In this activity, you will use bread as a simple model of a soil aggregate. Observe
how soil erodes due to water (or wind) flow, how soil contaminants get dispersed by water,
and how water flows when soil is compacted or sealed. This activity is designed to
introduce the concept of soil aggregate stability which is critical to soil functions and soil
health.

What’s More

Activity 2: My Bread and Soil – Soil Structure Versus Water Flow

(An activity adapted from Didi Pershouse, 2017)
Part I. Available Water Capacity: Use bread and flour to represent a soil landscape
with aggregated (unplowed) and unaggregated (plowed) soil particles respectively.
Observe what happens when water hits the aggregated and unaggregated soils.
Figure 10. Bread as an aggregated soil Figure 11. Flour as an unaggregated soil

Q1. How did the water flow past the bread? Q5. How did the water flow past the flour?

Q2. Is the water on the aggregated “soil” Q6. Is the water on the unaggregated “soil”
(bread particles) running off clear? (flour particles) running off clear?

Q3. Why do you think the “aggregated soil” Q7. Why do you think the “unaggregated
stayed put with the flow of water? soil” moved with the flow of water?

Q4. If the bread represents (unplowed) soil, Q8. If the mound of flour represents
would the rain reach the roots of the plants? (plowed) land, would the rain reach the
What is unique with the structure of the roots of the plants? What would need to be
“aggregated soil” particles? different for water to soak into the “soil”?

Q9. If the bread or flour will be compacted, how would the water flow past the “soil”
models?

20
Part II. Soil Contamination: Observe what happens when polluted water hits the
aggregated and unaggregated soil or when water hits a contaminated soil.

Figure 12. Contaminated bread Figure 13. Contaminated flour

Q10. How did the water or soil contaminants Q11. How did the water or soil
moved as water hit the bread? contaminants moved as water hit the
mound of flour?

Q12. If the water or soil becomes polluted, which landscape would be more likely to filter
or clean the water before it reaches a dug well, river or lake?

Part III. Soil Sealing: Both soil landscapes are partially sealed (covered by a
cement tile that represents an impermeable material). Observe what happens when
water hits the sealed soil landscapes.

Figure 14. Sealed aggregated soil Figure 15. Sealed unaggregated soil

Q13. How did the water moved past the Q14. How did the water moved past the
partially sealed (covered) bread? partially sealed (covered) flour?

Q15. If you lived in a place where it rains and get flooded a lot, which kind of landscape
would you rather have around your house, similar to that of the flour or that of the bread?

Q16. If you lived in a place where it seldom rains and you are trying to grow food, which
kind of land would you want to be farming on, similar to that of the flour or that of the
bread?

21
 What Is It

Of Healthy and Degraded Soils

Soil takes thousands of years to naturally form a few centimeters thick of soil cover.
Yet in just a few minutes we can lose volumes of it to natural and human-induced soil
threats like soil erosion, soil contamination, soil compaction, soil sealing, waterlogging
and through unsustainable land use/land take/land conversion practices as shown in
Figure 16.

Figure 16. From top to bottom, left to right (landslide due to water erosion, house improvements
expose grounds, urban areas have lots of storm drain systems, paved driveways and rain
gardens, cut mountainsides for roads, corn growing on a vacant dumped with construction
debris).

With increased population, the demands on what arable land is left has continued to
increase. Human settlements and urban infrastructure expanded. Residential and recreational
areas extend further into rural areas where prime farm land gets converted into other land
uses.

22
Those who rely on their land are taking actions to improve the health of their soil. Key
actions are not to disturb the soil by practicing sustainable solutions like the no/reduced
till, crop rotation, composting or leaving crop residues on the soil, and providing a
living cover crop of diverse plants and animals, above and below the soil surface.
When the solid parts – sand, silt and clay particles – stick together as aggregates,
the soil has a good combination of solid parts and pore spaces. Well-structured soils have
both large macropores (>0.08 mm) and small micropores within interconnected networks of
pores. This allows rapid infiltration and easy movement of water and air. These pores also
provide a refuge or habitat for soil organisms. Thus, healthy soils are well-structured.
Plowed or tilled soils have loose particles that easily erode, clog pores, seal surfaces, and
can be compacted.
The undisturbed soil The disturbed soil on the top
on the top layer of a layer of a field or
lawn or field that has construction site is
not been tilled for unaggregated having no
years form stable stable form, it readily falls
soil aggregates and apart during erosion. Runoff
hold together when waters are muddy. Eroded
immersed in water. Figure 17. stable soil aggregate sediments settle in layers
(USDA-NRCS Soil Health Campaign) sealing off fine pores.

Fig. 18. Fig. 19

The stable aggregate of baked bread (flour + The unaggregated flour particles got
water + yeast + heat + empty pores) acted detached by water resulting to a cloudy run-
like a sponge allowing water to soak straight off. The flour “soil” model’s surface got
down to the bottom of the bread aggregate sealed as eroded fine particles settled down
“soil” model. The runoff is clear and is in layers, sealing the flour surface. Much of
minimal. The yeast microorganism activated the water just runoff to lower areas while the
the rise of a structure. It represents the layers under the wet surface remained dry.
organic matter that exude or give off carbon- The mineral particles (represented by the
rich “snots, slimes and organic glues like the uncooked flour) on its own and without
sticky protein “glomalin”. These bind mineral contact of binding agents remained
particles into a soil aggregate. The kneading unaggregated. It has no structure and
and baking of bread stands for the formation strength against water and wind and can
processes. easily crumble to bits that we can call as dirt.

Figure 20. No till soil, clear rain water runoff. Figure 21. Tilled soil, murky rain water runoff.
(US Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources (US Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources
Conservation Service Soil Health Campaign) Conservation Service Soil Health Campaign)

23

The aggregated soil model of bread showed a greater available water capacity
(AWC or holding capacity) compared to the unaggregated soil model of flour. Water
soaked all the way through the bread “soil” while water was surface sealed off the flour
“soil”.
The same principle happens with tilled or plowed land. Pores collapse and soil breaks
apart in poor soil structures. Much of the water that falls on cultivated soil surface move
individual soil particles into empty pores. The soil gets sealed, making it difficult for water to
seep into the soil but easier to runoff to other lower areas. On the other hand, water flowing
past aggregate soil structures soaks deep, gets filtered and stored in the unplowed soil.
Figure 22. Holding capacity of aggregated and unaggregated soil.

Figure 23. Soils (b) compacted by vehicular or foot traffic changes the soil composition by
decreasing the percentages of organic matter, soil air, and soil water in the soil. These
results to a higher bulk density for minerals but with lower available water capacity (AWC) of
the soils limiting the infiltration of water so the excess water runs off and can cause
waterlogged areas where water accumulates in depressed areas that does not drain water
well.
Do the Slake Test for Real Soils!
(a) (b) The test compares two clods or chunks of
real topsoil submerged in water. See for
yourself how well and how long tilled and
untilled identical topsoil chunks will hold
together as aggregates under water.
Hook wire screen holders inside two water-
filled glasses. Submerge the soil clods on
separate water-filled glasses at the same
time. Watch and see for yourself which soil
holds together and which one falls apart.
Soil erosion by water is the greatest threat to soil productivity and one of the largest source
of water pollution. The productive topsoil layer is usually the first to be eroded and the
organic matter disintegrated. When water erodes contaminants like fertilizers, pesticides
and soil particles away into other water sources, the soil will be deposited as a pollutant
sediment.
Figure 24. Polluted bread “soil” aggregate Figure 25. Polluted unaggregated flour “soil”

Most of the liquid and solid contaminants on Most of the liquid contaminants got sealed
the soil soaked into and got filtered in the onto the soil’s surface. While most of the solid
bread “soil aggregate”. What little excess contaminants spread over the “unaggregated
water that wasn’t able to infiltrate the soil, soil” surface some were carried away by the
runs off as a polluted water. polluted runoff waters.
24
Soil erosion can damage or wash away human structures like roads and weakened building
foundations or cause landslides on steep slopes. It can also uproot or damage vegetation
and crops, covering plants with eroded soil and field residue. Mulch tillage, crop residues,
and cover crops help hold the soil in place and filter out fertilizers and pesticides.
Figure 26. Mulch Tillage leaves crop residue Figure 27. Corns planted into no till corn
on soil surface as a cover even when the soil residues provide soil organisms with food and
was disturbed during reduced tilling. (US cover against heat and water evaporation. (US
Department of Agriculture–Natural Resources Department of Agriculture–Natural Resources
Conservation Service Soil Health Campaign) Conservation Service Soil Health Campaign)

Figure 28. Both soil landscapes are partially sealed (covered by a cement tile that
represents an impervious material). The exposed part at the lower right allowed water to
interact with the aggregated (a) and unaggregated (b) soils. There is greater water run-off
from the partially sealed aggregated soils (a) as compared to the open aggregated soil (c).
But still this is a lesser volume as compared to the runoffs from both the partially sealed (b)
and open unaggregated soils (d). It is evident that the spread of soil and water pollution is
far greater when water flows over impermeable or impervious materials covering soils.

(a) partially sealed aggregated soil (b) partially sealed unaggregated soil

(c) open/exposed aggregated soil (d) open/exposed unaggregated soil

Surface or soil sealing is a “land take” trend that appears to have no end at present
because of the demands of growing cities, changing lifestyles, and land planning decisions
(European Union, 2013). Converting green spaces for areas like houses, offices, factories,
roads and other structures degrades the soil by covering productive land with hard layers of
concrete and asphalt that prevent the production of plants or animals.
Soils in urban areas can be natural soils (weathered by underlying bedrock or
deposited by water, wind or ice) or anthropogenic soils (formed in human-deposited
material or fill) to modify landscape or improve undesirable soil properties for specific human
activities.
25
 Urban soil fill materials can be any or a combination of (a) human-moved natural
soils, (b) construction debris, (c) waterways dredged materials, (d) coal ash, and (e)
municipal solid waste. Moving and using anthropogenic soils generally lead to topsoil
removal, digging deep, overturning and mixing subsoil and topsoil. This alter soil properties
and predicting soil behavior in urban areas become difficult (USDA-NRCS, 2005).

What I Have Learned

Activity 3: Oh My Soil! – A Simple Household Soil Site Survey

(Adapted from KidsGardening.org, 2018)

What kind of soil conditions do you have My Soil-Landscape

at home?
Inventory of Existing Features.
Sketch your home or dwelling space area
from a bird’s-eye view on your learner’s
notes.
Outline the property lines and all existing
features (where applicable) like the
fence, house, pathways, sitting area,
laundry area, garden area, water source,
septic tank, storm drain, rain water
collecting area, waste area, etc.

Summary of Soil Site.

Locate areas with healthy soils and areas with degraded soils. Look at the ground or
containers and check out your soil. Observe, record notes and make labels on:
 soil locations (indoor, own backyard, adjacent vacant lot, or community garden),
 soil containment (ground, raised bed, containers),
 soil conditions (no vegetation, sealed, polluted, compacted, waterlogged, etc.), and
 types (natural or anthropogenic soils).

Q17. What are the existing indoor or outdoor plant materials (flowers, herbs, vegetables,
shrubs, trees, etc.) and landscape beds (if there is any) in your site?
Q18. What do you consider are the top two soil-related problem areas in your home soil
site?

What’s More

Household Gardening – Green Gigs for Urban Home Soils

There are reasons for soil management at home:

(a) Humanitarian reasons – for adequate domestic supply of nutritious food
(b) Economic reasons – for livelihood out of growing and producing food
(c) Stewardship reasons – for sustainable use, conservation and protection of soils
(d) Environmental reasons – for safe water, clean air, productive soils and secure areas
(e) Aesthetic reasons – for enjoyable and invigorating green spaces
26
Potential home garden products are legume tree crops (malunggay), fruits, vegetables,
spices, herbs, hanging or potted plant decors, compost, etc. Potential home green space
technologies are rain gardens and rain water harvesting systems.

Sample Home garden products

Figure 29. Traditional urban garden plots on vacant lot grounds

Figure 30. Traditional urban plants on bags, sacks and recyclable tires

Figure 31. Urban plants along fences (ube), seed boxes (Ylang-ylang), raised beds or pots

27
 What I Can Do

Activity 4: My Soil-Saving Green Digs

Now that you have an initial soil site analysis at home, design a plan to adopt an existing or
to create a future green space at home. Apply at least two soil-water conservation practices.

1. Describe two soil-water conservation practices you will use in your “green dig” plan.

A.
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

B.
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

2. Sketch the green space on a base map where you will apply the conservation practices.

3. Write a paragraph to justify why you have chosen the two practices and their locations.
Discuss the benefits of your adopted home green space.

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

28
 Additional Activities

Additional Activity Options:

Option 1: Do the Slake Test if you are near a vacant lot, community garden or farm that has
both tilled (cultivated) and untilled (uncultivated) soil areas. Soil on fence-rows are generally
uncultivated. A fence-row (Oxford Language, accessed July 11, 2020) is an uncultivated
strip of land on each side of and below a fence (wayside fencerows, vacant lots, or roadside
ditches).

Option 2: Write a persuasive letter to your parent or guardian regarding your designed plan
in maintaining or creating a green space at home.

Option 3: Get your soil science right on how soil structures help build healthy soils. Design
a research study based on soil structure and soil health.
 Biological cementing is the work of soil microbes that glues the aggregates of the
untilled soils together. Glomalin are like little chewing gum globs on plant roots and
the fungal hyphae. Sand, silt, clay, plant debris and organic carbon matter fall into
this sticky “string bag” (sciencedaily.com, accessed July 11, 2020).
 Compacted soils reduce hyphal growth. These soils need aeration and compost.
Yard clippings and compost encourage mycorrhizal fungi, which convert nitrogen and
phosphorous for plant growth, and glomalin for soil aggregate structure formations
(mygreenmontgomery.org, accessed July 11, 2020).

Summary
The freshwater in our world is found in three main places:
 Atmospheric water in the air either as a solid (hail, snow), liquid (fog, mist, rain) or
gas (invisible water vapour)
 Surface water as runoff and base-flow into and from the catchment areas like lakes
 Groundwater in the cracks and spaces of soil, sand, and rocks underground,
generally adequate and of high quality that does not require treatment for human
use.

Two categories of water use:

 direct - use of actual water in activities
 indirect.- virtual water used to produce or process a commodity, commercial goods
or service

Water footprint - the measurement of virtual water along the full production - consumption
chain of supply. There are 3 water footprint components:
 green water footprint - consumption of green water resources like rainwater and is
important for agriculture, forestry and horticulture.
 blue water footprint - consumption of blue water resources like surface water and
groundwater. Domestic, industry and irrigated agriculture uses blue water.
 grey water footprint - polluted water or water used to dilute pollutants to satisfy
water quality standards. This is what goes into bathroom floor drains, sinks and
sewage facilities.
29
Water footprints differ. Products, services and goods require different amounts of virtual
water use along the different supply chain processes of growing, feeding, producing,
manufacturing and processing into a commodity.

Water footprints for crops are lower than those for animals because animals feed on
plant materials. Using, reusing, recycling goods, services and energy with lower water
footprints conserve big amounts of water more than the conservation of direct water use
conception.

Conservation of actual/direct water use deliver immediate benefits and savings.

Safe hand washing is an important hygiene practice against respiratory and water-borne
diseases. Saving clean water from other non-essential activities means more water
available much needed for the frequent safe hand washing needs.

Water Audit - quantitative analysis of water use from entry up to discharge in a system

Water conservation can be a technological or a behavioral solution for water availability

An ecosystem change happens when people interact with their surroundings to satisfy their
basic needs and improve their well-being. We describe these interactions as “drivers” of
ecosystem change

Human activities for land use, land conversion, land take (activities on the natural drainage
area), water use, and water diversion impact the quality availability of water for human needs.

Main direct drivers of freshwater ecosystem change

 Soil erosion - affects freshwater ecosystems due to the transportation and
deposition of sediments, nutrients and contaminants to surface water systems. This
results in sedimentation, flooding, turbidity, and eutrophication.
 Pollution - effluents, discharges, nutrients and sediments are pollutants from
domestic, industrial and agricultural (fertilizer and fungicide) runoffs
 habitat modification – creation of structures like dams, harbors, power generation
plants, wastewater treatment facilities, etc. to manipulate or divert water flow
 introduction of species – non-native species of fish induce shifts in feeding, nursing
and breeding and the spread of invasive species

Eutrophication is a global prevalent freshwater quality problem due to the high nitrogen
and phosphorus loads in water and causes harmful algal blooms, dead zones and fish
kills.

The quality of water is affected by chemical, microbiological and thermal pollutions.

Indirect drivers of ecosystem change are demographic; economic; socio-political; cultural

and religious; and scientific and technological factors which influence or modify a direct
driver.
Soil - finite, precious, dynamic, thin overlapping boundaries of the earth systems where air,
water, minerals and life intersect and interact. Soil is the unconsolidated mineral or
organic material on the immediate surface of the earth, formed from a parent rock
material through processes that show the effects of climate, macro and micro-organisms, the
topography of its location on land, and of formation time.

An idealized soil is about 45% mineral matter, 25% water, 25% air and 5% organic matter.

30
Soils perform and deliver life-sustaining ecosystem services and goods as it:
 provides food, fiber, fuel, freshwater, construction earth material, surface
foundation, habitat for soil organisms and biological materials
 regulates water quality, water supply, climate and erosion
 supports nutrient cycling and soil formation
 preserves natural and cultural landscape and heritage

Soil functions are globally challenged by 10 soil threats which are nutrient imbalance, soil
acidification, soil biodiversity loss, soil compaction, soil contamination, soil erosion, soil
organic carbon (SOC) loss, soil salinization, soil sealing, and soil waterlogging.

Soil degradation - reduced soil functions to support ecosystem services needed for human
survival and well-being due to human-induced soil threats

Some soil management and conservation practices for soil health include maximum
cover and food for soil and its inhabitants using diverse, living cover crops; and no or
minimal soil disturbance through practices of no/reduced till, crop rotation, mulch tillage,
etc.

Soil organic matter (SOM) is the most important component because it influences the
physical, chemical and biological properties of a healthy soil’s functions.

A soil aggregate is a stable well-structured soil that can hold itself even when immersed in
water for a long time and is an indicator of healthy soils. Unplowed soils contain stable
soil aggregates with high available water capacity (holding capacity) that allows storage
of water in soil for filtration and supply supporting organic matter processes in the soil.
Plowed soils lack structure or have weakened soil aggregates that easily crumble under
water and wind agents of erosion.

Urban soils can be:

 natural soil that are naturally water or wind eroded; naturally weathered soils from
underlying parent bedrock, or
 anthropogenic soil formed in human-deposited material or fill to modify landscape
or improve undesirable soil properties for specific human activities

Soil erosion by water is a prevalent soil threat together with soil pollution, soil
compaction, and soil sealing.

Soil sealing – soils are covered with impervious materials like asphalt or concrete and can
no longer be used for growing of food and animals

Moving and using anthropogenic soils through topsoil removal and mixing of subsoil
and topsoil results to degraded soil. Altered soil properties presents difficulty in
predicting soil behavior against natural hazards and disasters in urban areas.

A soil site survey includes a map and an inventory of existing properties and plant
materials, landscapes, soil descriptions, and soil problems.

Soil management can be done at home for many reasons and can be good for urban
gardening through production of home garden products and the development of green
space technologies like rainwater harvesting for excess rainfall and the creation of rain
gardens for water runoffs.

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 Assessment

Post-test
Write the letter of your choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Which term is referred to as a green water resource?

A. Rainwater
B. Groundwater
C. Surface water
D. Polluted water

2. Why will activities that lead to sedimentation affect the quality of freshwater in lakes?
A. Additional sediment loads on the lake decrease water depth.
B. Deposited soil sediments carry food to aquatic plants and animals.
C. Fertilizer run-offs will add organic matter and heavy metals to the lake.
D. Rain over denuded lands will deposit silt to the lake as sediment pollutants.

3. Which is considered a direct water use?

A. Buying notepads made from recycled paper.
B. Eating greens and grains more than processed meat.
C. Turning off fans and lights when no one is using the room.
D. Turning off the tap when washing the face or brushing the teeth.

4. What is the threat to soil when farmlands are converted into built-up areas with concrete
foundations for houses, roads, offices and malls?
A. Soil sealing
B. Soil pollution
C. Soil compaction
D. Soil acidification

5. Based on global average, which among the following has the largest water footprint in
L/kg?
A. Rice
B. Pork
C. Fruits
D. Vegetables

6. Soils act like _________, soaking up water and limiting run-off.

A. Filters
B. Faucets
C. Sponges
D. Supermarket

7. Which food product pollutes the greatest volume of water per kilogram of production?
A. Egg
B. Potato
C. Banana
D. Chocolate
32
8. What soil threats can possibly occur during a construction of a school building?
A. soil compaction, soil contamination, soil erosion, and soil sealing
B. soil contamination, soil nutrient imbalance, soil salinization, and waterlogging
C. soil nutrient imbalance, soil acidification, soil pollution, and soil biodiversity loss
D. soil acidification, soil compaction, soil biodiversity loss, and soil organic carbon loss

9. Why will the use of pesticides cause water pollution? It leads to the pollution of
A. air when chemicals break down and produce gases that go into surface waters.
B. household drinking water when chemicals enter underground pipes that corrodes.
C. nearby irrigated water when farm animals lay on mud to cool off during heavy rains.
D. surface waters when heavy rain carry chemicals from the soil to rivers downstream.

10. Which makes use of virtual water?

A. Buying food from farms.
B. Fixing your leaky faucets.
C. Installing a low-flow showerhead.
D. Watering your lawn in the early morning.

11. Soils act like __________, providing refuge to macro and micro-organisms in soil.
A. Hotels
B. Faucets
C. Sponges
D. Supermarkets

12. Nenita is a science club member. Which event could be part of her conservation poster?
A. Learn how to make a school water audit.
B. Learn how to nurse stray animals in the campus.
C. Learn how to build a campfire without using a match.
D. Learn how to balance a Science and Technology Fair budget.

13. Soils act like __________, providing air, water, and nutrients to soil organisms.
A. Buffers
B. Faucets
C. Strainers
D. Supermarkets

14. Soils act like __________, regulating the quality of air and water flowing into soil pores.
A. Filters
B. Buffers
C. Faucets
D. Supermarkets

15. Which activity will help freshwater stay clean the most and why?
A. Mixing food and garden waste for composting will save fresh water.
B. Introducing new fish species for an aquaculture project add water purifiers.
C. Leaving crop residues to cover newly harvested cornfields prevents soil erosion.
D. Disinfecting wastewater at the discharge points treats water before infiltration to soil.

16. Why is soil erosion by rushing waters considered a great soil threat?
A. The soil volume is reduced in eroded areas and increased in deposited areas.
B. Water changes the physical composition of the soil affecting soil management.
C. The soil’s chemical composition is enhanced changing soil texture and structure.
D. Water carries topsoil and nutrients, then deposits it to receiving areas as pollutants.
33
17. An artificial body of water reservoir will store drinking water for a water-stressed place.
Which of the following could contaminate the stored water and lead to health-related
problems and loss of native species?
A. Enclosing the reservoir with a fence.
B. Applying fertilizer for higher farm yield.
C. Developing a water management plan.
D. Monitoring the water treatment facility.

18. Which component of the soil is crucial for soil health?

A. Air
B. Water
C. Organic matter
D. Mineral particles

19. How do organic matter help maintain soil health?

A. It regulates the humus part of the soil making it dark and fertile.
B. It greatly helps micro-organisms to provide air and food for the plants.
C. It gives more space for pore spaces to exchange air, water and nutrients.
D. It biologically binds minerals and creates interconnected pores in structured soils.

20. Which soil management practices build up healthy soils?

A. Application of fertilizers and pesticides against crop pests.
B. Constant clearing of vegetation from weeds for cleaner rows
C. Regular cultivation and tilling of fields for greater agricultural yield.
D. Use of diverse cover crops, planned crop rotation, and mulch tillage.

34
Answer Key

35
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APPENDIX I. Sample Template for Learner’s Notes

42
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PHOTO/ILLUSTRATION CREDITS:

United Nations Children’s Fund. 2017 Thirsting for a Future – Water and children in a
changing climate. New York: UNICEF. March 2017, p. 20. and p. 22.

Jane Hawkey, Ian Image Library (ian.umces.edu/imagelibrary/). Copyright © 2017

openclipart.org

publicdomainvectors.org

United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation Service

Soil Health Photo Gallery

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/34785381053/in/photostream/
SoilHealthSystem1 (USDA-NRCS photo by Chris Lee)

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/35425961522/in/photostream/
Conventional1-MR (USDA-NRCS photo by Chris Lee)

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/8053617246/in/photostream/
Soil Pores in Healthy Soil (USDA-NRCS photo by Colette Kessler)

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/8053616886/in/photostream/
Soil Health: Productivity with cover crops (USDA-NRCS)

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/8053618432/in/photostream/Corn planted
into no-till corn residue (USDA-NRCS photo by Jason Johnson)
49
For inquiries and feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)

DepEd Division of Cagayan de Oro City

Fr. William F. Masterson Ave Upper Balulang Cagayan de Oro
Telefax: ((08822)855-0048
E-mail Address: cagayandeoro.city@deped.gov.ph
Part of Martin Kiszko’s “Water Walk” poem:
. . . At four miles, I ask myself whether you ever gave a thought, about the trek I must make
through scorching heat – to the spring, the river bank, a muddy hole, where I collect the dirty
water I must drink. I start the four mile journey home . . . a full container on my back. I day
dream about other children far away from Africa and wonder what the distance is of their daily
water walk.
Source: https://en.calameo.com/read/003540726edac0d600206 OR https://bit.ly/31u82Zn

With Permission from UNICEF (emailed correspondence)

Figure 1. World’s small fraction of freshwater for human needs.

Source: UN Environmental Programme, Vital Water Graphics: An overview of the state of the world’s fresh and marine waters,
2nd ed., UNEP, Nairobi, 2008; United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Outlook 3: Past, present, and
future perspectives, UNEP, Nairobi, 2002.; UN Population Division, 2015 Revision of World Population Prospects, UN DESA,
New York, Jul 2015.

Source: https://www.unicef.org/media/49621/file/UNICEF_Thirsting_for_a_Future_ENG.pdf
OR https://uni.cf/2Vys1Cr
Illutsrated by Hannah Isabel M. Bacot. (rights waived) as adapted from the diagram created
by Jane Hawkey, Ian Image Library (ian.umces.edu/imagelibrary/). Copyright © 2017 and is
licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 International in the article “First Human Impacts and
Responses of Aquatic Systems: A Review of Palaeolimnological Records from around the
World.” The Anthropocene Review 5, no. 1 (April 2018): 28-68. Source DOI:
10.1177/2053019617740365.

Modified further by author for the activity.

All pictures for the plated food were taken and adapted by author.
All picture in the soil unit not attributed to USDA-NRCS and UNICEF were personal photos
of the author.
For even page For odd page

Author mixed the pictures here that are from the openclipart.org and
publicdomainvectors.org sites.

Further adaptation of the author for the activity.

Sample template for learner’s notes was created by the author for public use.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/34785381053/
SoilHealthSystem1 USDA-NRCS photo by Chris Lee

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/35425961522/in/photostream/
Conventional1-MR USDA-NRCS photo by Chris Lee
https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/8053616886/in/photostream/
Soil Health: Productivity with cover crops (USDA-NRCS)

https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/8053617246/in/photostream/
Soil Pores in Healthy Soil (USDA-NRCS photo by Colette Kessler
https://www.flickr.com/photos/87743206@N04/8053618432/in/photostream/
Corn planted into no-till corn residue (USDA-NRCS photo by Jason Johnson)

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/314814/1549433334.png
https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/280914/

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/189914/dirtylaundry.png
https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/297858/farm.png

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/277240/FishingFromRaft.png
https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/224027/HidroelectricDam.png

pix to replace old electric power plant (no longer used)

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/182398/

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/11445/nicubunu-RPG-map-symbols-Farm-2.png
https://openclipart.org/image/800px/svg_to_png/168923/paysage.png

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/285193/publicdomainq-0000803abnbfe.png
https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/138739/usine.png
https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/169437/water-

https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/320687/weedkillerspray-usda.png
https://openclipart.org/image/400px/svg_to_png/235859/WoodenBridge.pn

https://openclipart.org/detail/205755/emblem-of-north-korea

was not yet changed

https://openclipart.org/detail/274921/water-wheel

https://publicdomainvectors.org/en/free-clipart/Environmental-protection/83947.html
https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/