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TERESA COLLEGE
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COLLEGE DEPARTMENT

Memory

Introduction
Man cannot function without memory. We rely on our memory throughout the
day. Without it, we would have no sense of continuity in our lives, no realization of the
past. We could not even link our present to the past. Without memory, we would not
even be considered humans.

Student Learning Objectives (SLO)

 Define memory
 Discuss the processes and types of memory
 Explain the different theories of forgetting

Content
Memory is the ability to take in information, encode it, store it, and retrieve it at a later
time.

The Memory Process

1. Encoding (or registration): the process of receiving, processing, and
combining information. Encoding allows information from the outside world to
reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first
stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the
encoding process.
2. Storing: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information.
Storage is the second memory stage or process in which we maintain
information over periods of time.
3. Retrieving (or recall, or recognition): the calling back of stored information in
response to some cue for use in a process or activity. The third process is the
retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to
our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type
of information.

Problems can occur at any stage of the process, leading to anything from

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forgetfulness to amnesia. Distraction can prevent us from encoding information
initially; information might not be stored properly, or might not move from short-term to
long-term storage; and/or we might not be able to retrieve the information once it’s
stored.

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information
after the original stimulus has ceased. One of the most common examples of sensory
memory is fast-moving lights in darkness: if you’ve ever lit a sparkler on the Fourth of
July or watched traffic rush by at night, the light appears to leave a trail. This is
because of “iconic memory,” the visual sensory store. Two other types of sensory
memory have been extensively studied: echoic memory (the auditory sensory store)
and haptic memory (the tactile sensory store). Sensory memory is not involved in
higher cognitive functions like short- and long-term memory; it is not consciously
controlled. The role of sensory memory is to provide a detailed representation of our
entire sensory experience for which relevant pieces of information are extracted by
short-term memory and processed by working memory.

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory is also known as working memory. It holds only a few items
(research shows a range of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20 seconds.
However, items can be moved from short-term memory to long-term memory via
processes like rehearsal. An example of rehearsal is when someone gives you a
phone number verbally and you say it to yourself repeatedly until you can write it
down. If someone interrupts your rehearsal by asking a question, you can easily
forget the number, since it is only being held in your short-term memory. Another
technique is chunking, the splitting of information into smaller pieces to make reading
and understanding faster and easier.

Long-Term Memory
Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for periods of time longer
than a few seconds; long-term memory encompasses everything from what we
learned in first grade to our old addresses to what we wore to work yesterday. Long-
term memory has an incredibly vast storage capacity, and some memories can last
from the time they are created until we die.
There are many types of long-term memory. Explicit or declarative memory requires
conscious recall; it consists of information that is consciously stored or retrieved.
Explicit memory can be further subdivided into semantic memory (facts taken out of
context, such as “Paris is the capital of France”) and episodic memory (personal
experiences, such as “When I was in Paris, I saw the Mona Lisa“).
In contrast to explicit/declarative memory, there is also a system for
procedural/implicit memory. These memories are not based on consciously storing
and retrieving information, but on implicit learning. Often this type of memory is
employed in learning new motor skills. An example of implicit learning is learning to

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ride a bike: you do not need to consciously remember how to ride a bike, you simply
do. This is because of implicit memory.

Memory Retrieval: Recognition and Recall

Memory retrieval, including recall and recognition, is the process of
remembering information stored in long-term memory.

 Retrieval cues can facilitate recall. Cues are thought to be most effective
when they have a strong, complex link with the information to be recalled.
 Memories of events or items tend to be recalled in the same order in which
they were experienced, so by thinking through a list or series of events, you
can boost your recall of successive items.
 The primacy and recency effects show that items near the beginning and
end of a list or series tend to be remembered most frequently.

Types of Forgetting
There are many ways in which a memory might fail to be retrieved, or be forgotten.

 The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade
automatically as a function of time; under this theory, you need to follow a
certain path, or trace, to recall a memory.
 Under interference theory, all memories interfere with the ability to recall
other memories.
 Proactive interference occurs when memories from someone’s past influence
new memories; retroactive interference occurs when old memories are
changed by new ones, sometimes so much that the original memory is
forgotten.
 Cue-dependent forgetting, also known as retrieval failure, is the failure to
recall information in the absence of memory cues.
 The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the failure to retrieve a word from
memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.

Memory Disorders
 Anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories; long-term
memories from before the event typically remain intact. However, memories
that were not fully consolidated from before the event may also be lost.
 Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall memories from before the onset
of amnesia. A person may be able to encode new memories after the event,
and they are more likely to remember general knowledge rather than specifics.
 Childhood amnesia is the inability to remember events from very early in
childhood, due to the fact that the parts of the brain involved in long-term
memory storage are still undeveloped for the first couple years of life.
 ” Dementia ” is a collective term for many neurocognitive disorders affecting
memory that can arise in old age, including Alzheimer’s disease.
 Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that slowly

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destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability to carry out the
simplest tasks. Some features include plaques and tangles in the brain.

Flashbulb memories are memories of learning something so shocking or surprising

that it creates a strong and seemingly very accurate memory of learning about the
event--but not the event itself.

Repressed memory is a hypothetical concept used to describe a significant memory,

usually of a traumatic nature, that has become unavailable for recall.

Pseudomemory is false or otherwise inaccurate memory that has usually been

implanted by some form of suggestion.

Assessment and Evaluation

Read the comprehensive explanation of the lesson on
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-
memory/. Be ready to give your own example.

Prepare for a quiz.

References

Introduction to Memory. Lumen Learning. Retrieved December 1, 2020.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction
to-memory/

Prepared: Checked: Approved:

Dr. AUDREE D. ALDAY Dr. JANET T. COMETA Dr. RANDYM. BAJA

Instructor Department Head Dean

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