Basic UNIX commands

UNIX is case-sensitive.

Files
 ls --- lists your files
ls -l --- lists your files in 'long format', which contains lots of useful information, e.g. the
exact size of the file, who owns the file and who has the right to look at it, and when it
was last modified.
ls -a --- lists all files, including the ones whose filenames begin in a dot, which you do
not always want to see.
There are many more options, for example to list files by size, by date, recursively etc.
 more filename --- shows the first part of a file, just as much as will fit on one screen. Just
hit the space bar to see more or q to quit. You can use /pattern to search for a pattern.
 emacs filename --- is an editor that lets you create and edit a file. See the emacs page.
 mv filename1 filename2 --- moves a file (i.e. gives it a different name, or moves it into a
different directory (see below)
 cp filename1 filename2 --- copies a file
 rm filename --- removes a file. It is wise to use the option rm -i, which will ask you for
confirmation before actually deleting anything. You can make this your default by
making an alias in your .cshrc file.
 diff filename1 filename2 --- compares files, and shows where they differ
 wc filename --- tells you how many lines, words, and characters there are in a file
 chmod options filename --- lets you change the read, write, and execute permissions on
your files. The default is that only you can look at them and change them, but you may
sometimes want to change these permissions. For example, chmod o+r filename will
make the file readable for everyone, and chmod o-r filename will make it unreadable for
others again. Note that for someone to be able to actually look at the file the directories it
is in need to be at least executable. See help protection for more details.
 File Compression
o gzip filename --- compresses files, so that they take up much less space. Usually
text files compress to about half their original size, but it depends very much on
the size of the file and the nature of the contents. There are other tools for this
purpose, too (e.g. compress), but gzip usually gives the highest compression rate.
Gzip produces files with the ending '.gz' appended to the original filename.
o gunzip filename --- uncompresses files compressed by gzip.
o gzcat filename --- lets you look at a gzipped file without actually having to
gunzip it (same as gunzip -c). You can even print it directly, using gzcat
filename | lpr
 printing
o lpr filename --- print. Use the -P option to specify the printer name if you want to
use a printer other than your default printer. For example, if you want to print
 double-sided, use 'lpr -Pvalkyr-d', or if you're at CSLI, you may want to use 'lpr
-Pcord115-d'. See 'help printers' for more information about printers and their
locations.
o lpq --- check out the printer queue, e.g. to get the number needed for removal, or
to see how many other files will be printed before yours will come out
o lprm jobnumber --- remove something from the printer queue. You can find the
job number by using lpq. Theoretically you also have to specify a printer name,
but this isn't necessary as long as you use your default printer in the department.
o genscript --- converts plain text files into postscript for printing, and gives you
some options for formatting. Consider making an alias like alias ecop 'genscript
-2 -r \!* | lpr -h -Pvalkyr' to print two pages on one piece of paper.
o dvips filename --- print .dvi files (i.e. files produced by LaTeX). You can use
dviselect to print only selected pages. See the LaTeX page for more information
about how to save paper when printing drafts.

Directories
Directories, like folders on a Macintosh, are used to group files together in a hierarchical
structure.

 mkdir dirname --- make a new directory

 cd dirname --- change directory. You basically 'go' to another directory, and you will see
the files in that directory when you do 'ls'. You always start out in your 'home directory',
and you can get back there by typing 'cd' without arguments. 'cd ..' will get you one level
up from your current position. You don't have to walk along step by step - you can make
big leaps or avoid walking around by specifying pathnames.
 pwd --- tells you where you currently are.

Finding things
 ff --- find files anywhere on the system. This can be extremely useful if you've forgotten
in which directory you put a file, but do remember the name. In fact, if you use ff -p you
don't even need the full name, just the beginning. This can also be useful for finding other
things on the system, e.g. documentation.
 grep string filename(s) --- looks for the string in the files. This can be useful a lot of
purposes, e.g. finding the right file among many, figuring out which is the right version
of something, and even doing serious corpus work. grep comes in several varieties (grep,
egrep, and fgrep) and has a lot of very flexible options. Check out the man pages if this
sounds good to you.

About other people

  w --- tells you who's logged in, and what they're doing. Especially useful: the 'idle' part.
This allows you to see whether they're actually sitting there typing away at their
keyboards right at the moment.
 who --- tells you who's logged on, and where they're coming from. Useful if you're
looking for someone who's actually physically in the same building as you, or in some
other particular location.
 finger username --- gives you lots of information about that user, e.g. when they last
read their mail and whether they're logged in. Often people put other practical
information, such as phone numbers and addresses, in a file called .plan. This
information is also displayed by 'finger'.
 last -1 username --- tells you when the user last logged on and off and from where.
Without any options, last will give you a list of everyone's logins.
 talk username --- lets you have a (typed) conversation with another user
 write username --- lets you exchange one-line messages with another user
 elm --- lets you send e-mail messages to people around the world (and, of course, read
them). It's not the only mailer you can use, but the one we recommend. See the elm page,
and find out about the departmental mailing lists (which you can also find in
/user/linguistics/helpfile).

About your (electronic) self

 whoami --- returns your username. Sounds useless, but isn't. You may need to find out
who it is who forgot to log out somewhere, and make sure *you* have logged out.
 finger & .plan files
of course you can finger yourself, too. That can be useful e.g. as a quick check whether
you got new mail. Try to create a useful .plan file soon. Look at other people's .plan files
for ideas. The file needs to be readable for everyone in order to be visible through 'finger'.
Do 'chmod a+r .plan' if necessary. You should realize that this information is accessible
from anywhere in the world, not just to other people on turing.
 passwd --- lets you change your password, which you should do regularly (at least once a
year). See the LRB guide and/or look at help password.
 ps -u yourusername --- lists your processes. Contains lots of information about them,
including the process ID, which you need if you have to kill a process. Normally, when
you have been kicked out of a dialin session or have otherwise managed to get yourself
disconnected abruptly, this list will contain the processes you need to kill. Those may
include the shell (tcsh or whatever you're using), and anything you were running, for
example emacs or elm. Be careful not to kill your current shell - the one with the number
closer to the one of the ps command you're currently running. But if it happens, don't
panic. Just try again :) If you're using an X-display you may have to kill some X
processes before you can start them again. These will show only when you use ps -efl,
because they're root processes.
 kill PID --- kills (ends) the processes with the ID you gave. This works only for your
own processes, of course. Get the ID by using ps. If the process doesn't 'die' properly, use
the option -9. But attempt without that option first, because it doesn't give the process a
chance to finish possibly important business before dying. You may need to kill
 processes for example if your modem connection was interrupted and you didn't get
logged out properly, which sometimes happens.
 quota -v --- show what your disk quota is (i.e. how much space you have to store files),
how much you're actually using, and in case you've exceeded your quota (which you'll be
given an automatic warning about by the system) how much time you have left to sort
them out (by deleting or gzipping some, or moving them to your own computer).
 du filename --- shows the disk usage of the files and directories in filename (without
argument the current directory is used). du -s gives only a total.
 last yourusername --- lists your last logins. Can be a useful memory aid for when you
were where, how long you've been working for, and keeping track of your phonebill if
you're making a non-local phonecall for dialling in.

Connecting to the outside world

 nn --- allows you to read news. It will first let you read the news local to turing, and then
the remote news. If you want to read only the local or remote news, you can use nnl or
nnr, respectively. To learn more about nn type nn, then \tty{:man}, then \tty{=.*},
then \tty{Z}, then hit the space bar to step through the manual. Or look at the man page.
Or check out the hypertext nn FAQ - probably the easiest and most fun way to go.
 rlogin hostname --- lets you connect to a remote host
 telnet hostname --- also lets you connect to a remote host. Use rlogin whenever possible.
 ftp hostname --- lets you download files from a remote host which is set up as an ftp-
server. This is a common method for exchanging academic papers and drafts. If you need
to make a paper of yours available in this way, you can (temporarily) put a copy in
/user/ftp/pub/TMP. For more permanent solutions, ask Emma. The most important
commands within ftp are get for getting files from the remote machine, and put for
putting them there (mget and mput let you specify more than one file at once). Sounds
straightforward, but be sure not to confuse the two, especially when your physical
location doesn't correspond to the direction of the ftp connection you're making. ftp just
overwrites files with the same filename. If you're transferring anything other than ASCII
text, use binary mode.
 lynx --- lets you browse the web from an ordinary terminal. Of course you can see only
the text, not the pictures. You can type any URL as an argument to the G command.
When you're doing this from any Stanford host you can leave out the .stanford.edu part
of the URL when connecting to Stanford URLs. Type H at any time to learn more about
lynx, and Q to exit.

Miscellaneous tools
 webster word --- looks up the word in an electronic version of Webster's dictionary and
returns the definition(s)
 date --- shows the current date and time.
 cal --- shows a calendar of the current month. Use e.g., 'cal 10 1995' to get that for
October 95, or 'cal 1995' to get the whole year.
  Program listings are organized by general subject categories. Keys preceded by a ^

character are CONTROL key combinations. Access the online manual with the man

program to get more information on these programs, for example,

      man cp

 To find a program not on this list (and there are hundreds), try the man program with

the -k option followed by a keyword, for example,

      man -k tape

to find all on-line manual entries that refer to programs that work with tapes.

 Terminal control characters for C-shell (csh)

^h,
erase previously typed character
backspace

^u erase entire line of input so far typed

^d end-of-input for programs reading from terminal

^s suspend writing to terminal (freezes terminal)

^q continue writing to terminal

^z suspend currently running job; restart with bg or fg

^c kill currently running program and allow clean-up before exiting

^\ emergency kill of currently running program with no chance of cleanup

 Login and authentication

login access computer; start interactive session

logout disconnect terminal session

change local login password; you must set a strong password that is not easily
passwd guessed

kinit obtain kerberos ticket for connections to other kerberized computers

kdestroy destroy kerberos tickets (authorizations)

 Information

date show date and time

history list of previously executed commands

man show online documentation by program name

info online documentation for GNU programs

w, who who is on the system and what they are doing

whoami who is logged onto this terminal

top show system stats and top CPU using processes

uptime show one line summary of system status

 File management

cat combine files

cp copy files
ls list files in a directory and their attributes

mv change file name or directory location

rm remove files

ln create another link (name) to a file

chmod set file permissions

crypt encode/decode a file with a private key

gzip,
compress/decompress a file
gunzip

find find files that match specific criteria

 Display contents of files

cat copy files to display device

more show text file on display terminal with paging control

head show first few lines of a file(s)

tail show last few lines of a file; or reverse line order

vi full-featured screen editor for modifying text files

pico simple screen editor for modifying text files

grep display lines that match a pattern

lpr send file to printer

pr format file with page headers, multiple columns, etc.

diff compare two files and show differences

cmp compare two binary files and report if different

comm compare two files; show common or unique lines

od display binary files as eqivalent octal/hex codes

strings show printable text embedded in binary files

file examine file(s) and guess type: text, data, program, etc.

wc count characters, words, and lines in a file

 Directories

cd change to new directory

mkdir create new directory

rmdir remove empty directory (you must remove files first)

mv change name of directory

pwd show current directory

  Disks

df summarize free space on disk filesystems

du show disk space used by files or directories

 Special character handling for C-shell (See man csh)

* match any characters in a file name

~user shorthand for home directory of user

$name substitute value of variable name

\ turn off special meaning of character that follows

' in pairs, quote string with special chars, except !

" in pairs, quote string with special chars, except !, $

` in pairs, substitute output from enclosed command

 Controlling program execution for C-shell (See man csh)

& run job in background

^c kill job in foreground

^z suspend job in foreground

fg restart suspended job in foreground

bg run suspended job in background

; delimit commands on same line

() group commands on same line

! re-run earlier commands from history list

jobs list current jobs

ps show process information

kill kill background job or previous process

nice run program at lower priority

at run program at a later time

crontab run program at specified intervals

limit see or set resource limits for programs

alias create alias name for program (normally used in .login file)

sh, csh execute command file

 Controlling program input/output for C-shell (See man csh)

| pipe output to input

> redirect output to a storage file

< redirect input from a storage file

>> append redirected output to a storage file

tee copy input to both file and next program in pipe

script make file record of all terminal activity

 Email and communication

msgs read system bulletin board messages

mailx send/read email; can be run by other programs to send exisiting files via email

uuencode
encode/decode a binary file for transmission via email
uudecode

rn read USENET news groups

 Editors and formatting utilities

sed programmable text editor for data streams

vi full-featured editor for character terminals

emacs GNU emacs editor for character terminals

xemacs GNU emacs editor for X Window terminals

pico very simple text editor

fmt fill and break lines to make all same length

fold break long lines to specified length

 X Window client programs (output to X terminal or server)

xterm provide login shell window

xauth manipulate authorization files

xload show system load

xman full screen online manual viewer

xemacs GNU emacs editor

gv interface to contol gs to display PostScript or PDF files on screen

xdvi display DVI files on X Window (screen preview)

gnuplot interactive data plotting on screen

 TeX typesetting system

tex process TeX files to DVI (device independent) output

latex process LaTeX files to DVI

dvips print DVI files on Postscript laser printer

xdvi display DVI files on X Window (screen preview)

latex2html translate LaTeX files to HTML (for web pages)

 Printing (BSD based)

lpr send file to print queue

lpq examine status of files in print queue

lprm remove a file from print queue

enscript convert text files to PostScript format for printing

 Interpreted languages and data manipulation utilities

sed programmable text editor for data streams

awk pattern scanning and processing language

perl Practical Extraction and Report Language

sort sort or merge lines in a file(s) by specified fields

tr translate characters

cut cut out columns from a file

paste paste columns into a file

dd copy data between devices; reblock; convert EBCDIC

 Graphics and mapping

gnuplot interactive data plotting; outputs to PostScript or X Window

gs "ghostscript" converter displays PostScript files on X Window displays or other devices

 Networking/communications

ssh remote login/command execution; encrypted

scp remote non-interactive file copy; encrypted

sftp remote interactive file copy; encrypted

telnet remote network login; plain text password - not recommended

ftp network file transfer program; plain text password - not recommended

host find IP address for given host name, or vice versa

lynx web browser for character based (text-only) terminals

gzip,
compress/decompress a file
gunzip

tar combine multiple files/dirs into single archive

uuencode
encode/decode a binary file for transmission via email
uudecode

 Compilers, interpreters and programming tools

csh command language interpreter (C-shell scripts)

ksh command language interpreter (Korn-shell scripts)

sh command language interpreter (Borne-shell scripts)

f77 Fortran 77 compiler

f2c convert fortran source code to C source code

gcc GNU C compiler

g++ GNU C++ compiler

dbx command-line symbolic debugger for compiled C or Fortran

make recompile programs from modified source

cflow generate C flow graph

 Programming libraries (see man library_name)

lapack Fortran 77 routines for numerical linear algebra (supersedes LINPACK and EISPACK)

X routines to interface with X window system (no man page -- get the X Toolkit book)

dbm database routines

xdr library routines for external data representation

netcdf routines for machine independent data representation

  Tape manipulation and archiving

mt manipulate tape drive and position tape

dd unformatted tape read and write; file conversion

tar archive disk files on tape or disk

ltf read/write ANSI standard label tapes