DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR BEAM SECTION FOR MOMENT

This section is going to address the design of Reinforced Concrete with rectangular Beam
cross-section:
1. With Tension Steel only (Generally occurs as beam section in a slab)
2. With both Tension and Compression Reinforcements; and
3. Flanged sections i.e. T and L sections with tension steel, and with and without
compression steel.

MINIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCING BARS

Reinforcing bars can either be placed in a single row or a double row depending on the
width of the beam cross section. Sometimes when large numbers of reinforcing steel are
to be used, multiple rows are preferred to:

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 1. Avoid congesting of reinforcing bars that will prevent the effective penetration of
the vibrator; and
2. To ensure the effective bonding of concrete to all sections or parts of the
reinforcing steel hence improve the strength of the reinforced concrete element.
Hence minimum spacing of bars should be provided. According to the code, to ensure
minimum spacing;
1. The horizontal distance between bars should not be less than hagg + 5mm ;

If the bar size exceeds hagg + 5mm , the spacing should not be less than the bar size.

In the event of two or more rows:

2. The gap between corresponding bars in each row should be vertically in line; and
2
3. The vertical distance between bars should not be less than hagg
3
Where hagg = maximum size of coarse aggregates. Bundles bars when used are treated as

a single bar of equivalent area.

Such details are as shown in the figures below for both flanged and rectangular beams.

FAILURE MECHANISM OF BEAMS IN BENDING

Since concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension, a simply supported beam
will be in tension in the bottom and compression in the top fibre when loaded. At initial
loading, the stresses at both top and bottom of the beam are very low, hence at any
section of this beam, plane section before and after bending remains the same. No crack
initiate at this stage.

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On increasing the load, the load-deflection curvature increases, causing high stress at the
tension zone hence initiation of cracks and a slight shift of the neutral axis towards the
top fibre of the strain diagram.
Further increase in load will not only give rise to increase in curvature, but also increase
in stress in the tension zone, hence increase in crack length and width and continue
shifting of the neutral axis towards the compression zone.
All these factors will continue to increase on continue increases in load until the
curvature, stress and crack propagation are so high that collapse failure will occur when
the neutral axis, hence crack coincides with the top fibre.
On the other hand, the extension and expansion of cracks will be limited when
reinforcements are provided at the tension zone. The reinforcements restrict crack
propagation, hence increase in resistance of the element with increase in loading. This is
as shown in the figure below.

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-4-
 FLEXURAL FAILURES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

Depending on the amount of reinforcement, THREE failure situations can occur in

reinforced concrete beams. These are:

1. TENSION FAILURE
This is a situation in which the steel reinforcement yields before the concrete fails at
ultimate load. This occurs when the beam is “UNDER-REINFORCED”. The curvature of
the section of maximum moment will be roughly FOUR TIMES that at yielding and the
behaviour of collapse is “DUCTILE” having a long plastic region of the moment-
curvature or load-deflection diagram.
In such situation, the building undergoes DUCTILE FAILURE and the occupants of the
building will have warning of impending failure, hence have the opportunity to leave the
building before final collapse thereby reducing the consequences of collapse.

2. COMPRESSION FAILURE
This is the situation where the concrete crushes before steel yields. This is due to when
the beam is “OVER-REINFORCED”. Since the beam crushes suddenly, the beam fails in

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a “BRITTLE” manner, hence without adequate warming to the occupants causing serious
consequences of collapse.

3. BALANCED FAILURE
This is the situation where the concrete fails and steel reinforcement yields
simultaneously at ultimate load. The concrete strain is 0.0035 and the steel strain is 0.002.
The amount os steel to give this situation can be determined by equating the internal
forces C and T in the concrete.

ASSUMPTIONS IN THE DESIGN OF SINGLY REINFORCED

CONCRETE BEAM

This is the situation where the reinforcements are positioned in the tension zone of the
beam.
The ultimate moment of resistance of the section can be deduced based on the following
assumptions:
1. The strain in the concrete and reinforcement are derived assuming that “Plane
sections remain plane”
2. The tensile strength of concrete below the neutral axis is neglected since its effect
on the ultimate moment is negligible.
3. The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curve in which
the partial factor of safety, γ m = 1.15
4. The strains in the concrete in compression are also derived from the stree-strain
curve with γ m = 1.5
5. The lever arm should not be assumed to be greater than 0.95 of the effective depth
when the section is designed to resist flexure only

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 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS AND STRESSES IN RECTANGULAR BEAMS
CROSS-SECTION

Bending theory of RC structures assumes that concrete will crack in regions of tensile
strains and after cracking; all the tension is carried by the reinforcement.
It also follows from the assumptions stated above that when the cross section of a
member is subjected to bending, the resultant strain diagram is as shown below in which
THREE possible types of stress distributions in the concrete are also shown in the figures
below.

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The three possible stress blocks distribution are analyze as follows:

1. The Triangular Stress block distribution

This applies when the stresses are very nearly proportional to the strains, which generally
occurs at the loading levels encountered under working conditions and is therefore used
at the serviceability Limit state.

2. The Rectangular-Parabolic Stress Block

This represents the distribution at failure when the compressive strains are within the
plastic range and it is associated with the design for the ultimate limit state.
3. The Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
This is the simplified alternative to the rectangular-parabolic distribution since they tend
to give the same calculated values.
In design calculation, the equivalent rectangular stress block is used with a maximum
strain of concrete of 0.0035 and that of steel reinforcement being 0.002 as shown below

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 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS OF A RECTANGULAR BEAM CROSS-
SECTION
For a RCB with a rectangular cross section, the stress and strain diagrams can now be
easily drawn in which the maximum strain of the concrete is 0.0035 and that for the steel
reinforcement is 0.002.
f cu
The maximum stress according to the simplified curve is 0.67
γ m . Since according to
f cu
the assumption γ m = 1.15, then 0.67
γ m = 0.45 f cu .
fy
For the steel reinforcement, the maximum stress according is
γ m . Since according to
fy
the above assumption γ m = 1.5, then
γ m = 0.89 f y

If b, d , x, As , h are the width, effective depth, depth of the neutral axis, area of tension
steel reinforcement, and effective height respectively, then the accepted strain and stress
diagrams can be drawn and labeled as shown below.

a) Section; b) Strain diagram; c) Stress diagram

Using the concept of similar triangles, if ε st , ε cc , are the strain of both steel and concrete
respectively, then

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 ε st d − x d −x d
= ⇒ ε= ε cc  ⇒ =
x ⇒=
x 0.64d
ε cc  0.002 
st
x  x  +
 1 
 0.0035 

x = 0.64d ………………………..(1)

Hence to ensure yielding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state “The depth of the
neutral axis, x should never be greater than 0.64d ” i.e. to ensure yielding of the tension
steel;
x ≤ 0.64d …………………………(2)
Hence at ultimate limit state, member sections in flexure should be ductile and that
failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel i.e. Ductile Failure and
not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete i.e. Brittle Failure.

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DESIGN OF SINGLY- REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
CROSS-SECTION
In analyzing such situation, two requirements are satisfied throughout the analysis and
design of RCB and columns. These are:

1. Stress and strain compatibility

The stress at any point in a member must correspond to the strain at that point except for
short, deep beams where the distribution of strains over the depth of the member must be
linear to satisfy assumptions made above.
2. Equilibrium
The internal forces must balance the external load effects.

In analyzing singly reinforced rectangular beam cross section in bending, bending of the
section will induce a resultant tensile force, Fst in the reinforcing steel and a resultant

compressive force in the concrete, Fcc which acts through the centriod of the effective
area of the concrete in compression.
DEDUCING MOMENT OF RESISTANCE USING SIMPLIFIED STRESS BLOCK

The calculation of the moment of resistance of concrete section using the simplified

stress block is carried out for the case where the depth to the neutral axis, x is d i.e.
2
the maximum depth to the neutral axis allowed by the code. As shown in the Fig. above.
According to BS8110 code, for equilibrium to take place, the ultimate design moment,
M must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the section i.e

=M F=
cc x z Fst x z ……………….(3)

Where z = lever arm between the resultant forces Fcc and Fst . But

= =
Fcc stress x area of action 0.447 f cu bs ………..(4)

and

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 z = d − s ⇒ s = 2 ( d − z ) ………………….(5)
2
Substitute equ. (5) into equ. (3) gives

= =
M RC 0.447 f cu bs x z 0.45 f cu bz ( d −=
z ) 2 0.9 f cu bz ( d − z ) ………(6)

From equ. (5) and using the stress block,

0.45d
z= d − s =d − = d − 0.225d =0.775d
2 2 ……………(7)
= ⇒ z 0.775 = d sin ce s 0.9= x and x d
2

Substitute equ (7) into equ (6) gives

M RC 0.9 f cu b ( d − 0.775d ) 0.775d

=
= 0.9 f cu b ( 0.225d ) 0.775d ……………………(8)
= =
M RC 0.156 f cu bd 2 Kbd 2 =
where K 0.156 f cu

Hence
M RC
K= ……………………………………(9)
bd 2

Substituting equ (9) into equ (6) and rearranging gives

Kbd 2 f cu 0.9 f cu bz ( d − z )
=
⇒ Kd 2 = 0.9dz − 0.9 z 2
0 ( dividing by 0.9d 2 on both sides )
⇒ 0.9 z 2 − 0.9dz + Kd 2 =

( d ) − ( z d ) + ( K 0.9) =
0 ( solving as a quadratic in z )
……….(10)
2
⇒ z
d

z=

(
d 0.5 + 0.25 − K
0.9
 =


)I a d where I a =

(
 0.5 + 0.25 − K
0.9 )



Equation (10) is the equation for the lever arm, z of a singly reinforced section according
to the BS 8110 code of practice

Also the moment of resistance with respect to the steel according to equ (3) is given by

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 f 
M= Fst= = M RS
z Tz but F= = As x  y 
area x stress
st
 γ m 
 fy 
=
⇒ Fst As  =  0.87 f y As
 1.15 

⇒ M RS =Fst z =0.87 f y As z ……..(11)

=M RS =
0.87 f y As z where z 0.775d

Equ.(11) is used to design the area of tension steel reinforcement in a concrete section to
resist an ultimate moment, M

Instead of solving equ (10) i.e. the equation for the lever arm, a curve of ( d)
K Vs I a z

may be used to determine the lever arm, z as shown below.

In such curve, the upper limit specified by BS 8110 is z = 0.95d and the lower limit of z

is 0.775d when x = d i.e.

2
0.775d ≤ z ≤ 0.995d ……………………….(12)

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From equ (10) a given value of K will result to a corresponding value of I a as shown in
the table below

K =M 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15
bd 2 f cu

Ia = z 0.941 0.928 0.915 0.901 0.887 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.825 0.807 0.789
d

As shown in equ (10) i.e.

z=Iad  0.5 +
where I a =


( 0.25 − K 0.9) 

Deducing the value of I a from the table, multiplying the value by d will give the value
of z .
The table above can be drawn on a I a Vs K graph as shown in the figure above.

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 According to the graph, the value 0.156 of equ (8) correspond to point A of the figure
above. Hence 0.156 is the dividing line in which compression reinforcement is or is not
required i.e. when:
M
= K > O.156 Compression Re inf orcement is required ………(13)
bd 2 f cu

This is required to supplement the moment of resistance of the concrete. This means,
when
M
= K ∠ 0.156 Compression Re inf orcement not required …….(14)
bd 2 f cu

STEEL RATIO

The steel ratio, ρ indicates the percentage of steel in the section.

Since at equilibrium, the internal forces are equal i.e. the moments of resistance with
respect to the steel and concrete are equal, then the steel ratio can be easily deduced.

Since M RC = M RS then
0.156 f cu bd
=
0.156 f cu bd 2 0.674 f y As d=
⇒ As ……………(15)
0.647 f y

But the percentage of steel, ρ is defined as

100 As
ρ= …………………………………..….(16)
bd

Substituting equ (15) into equ (16) gives

100 x 0.156 f cu bd f
=ρ = 23.15 cu
fy
0.647 f y

=
for grade 30 concrete =
, f cu 30 and f y 460 N ……..…….(17)
mm 2

=ρ 23.15
= x 30
460
1.51

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Also, according to the code, the steel percentage or ratio should be within the following
design limits

100 As
0.13 ∠ ∠ 4.0 …………………..(18)
bd

Hence the steel ratio of grade 30 concrete reinforced with high yield steel is 1.51. The
same can be done for all reinforced concrete elements in which the concrete grade and
type of reinforcement are given.

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 USE OF DESIGN CHART

As earlier stated in the case of determining the value of the lever arm, design charts can
M 100 As
also be used to deduce key design parameters when values of K = 2
and ρ =
bd bd

are calculated for value of x = d .

2
Calculating K when b, d are given, ρ can be deduced, hence As when the figure below
is used.

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 DESIGN EXAMPLES

SINGLY-REINFORCED REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS OF RECTANGULAR

CROSS SECTION

DETERMINATION OF ULTIMATE MOMENT OF RESISTANCE WHEN BEAM CROSS

SECTION IS GIVEN

Q.1(when d , b given)
Determine the maximum ultimate moment of a rectangular beam assuming to be singly
reinforced of the following data;

Data
Width of beam 250mm
Effective depth 420mm
Diameter of MS hanger bar 8mm
Tension steel bars(HYS) 4-32 mm bars
Strength of concrete 40 N/mm2
Strength of steel 460 N/mm2

Q. 2
Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of the reinforced concrete beam of the following
data if the redistribution of the maximum moments is limited to 10%.

Given: f y = 450 MPa; f cu = 25MPa; d = 550mm; b = 300m; As = 2Y 16

Q.3
A grade 30 reinforced concrete beam with rectangular cross section has width of 300mm and
effective depth of 520mm If the area of tension reinforcement is 1470mm2, determine:
a) Depth to the neutral axis
b) Check whether the steel will have yielded
c) Ultimate moment of resistance

Q.4 (when h, b given)

Determine the maximum ultimate moment that can be applied to the section of a simply
supported rectangular beam that is assumed to be singly reinforced.

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 Data
Characteristic strength of concrete 30 N/mm2
Characteristic strength of steel 460 N/mm2
Width of beam 250 mm
Overall height of beam 475 mm
Tension steel bars 3-32 mm HYS bars
Diameter of hanger bars 8mm
Diameter of MS links 8mm
Nominal maximum aggregate size(hagg) 20mm
Diameter of main tension steel 32 mm
Diameter of shear links 8 mm
Exposure condition Mild
Minimum required fire resistance 1.0 hour

DETERMINATION OF AREA OF TENSION REINFOCEMENT WHEN ULTIMATE BENDING MOMENT

IS GIVEN
Q.5
Determine the area of tension reinforcement required to resist an applied ultimate bending
moment of 150 kNm of a simply supported rectangular beam whose section is assumed to be
singly -reinforced.
Data
Width of beam 200 mm
Overall height 450 mm
Diameter of MS links 10 mm
Diameter of MS hanger bars 8 mm
Characteristic strength of concrete 40 N/mm2
Characteristic strength of steel 460 N/mm2
Nominal maximum aggregate size (hagg) 20 mm
Diameter of main tension steel Assume 25 mm
Diameter of shear links 10 mm
Exposure condition Moderate
Minimum required fire resistance 2.0 hours

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Q. 6
Calculate the area of reinforcement required to resist an applied bending moment of 200 kNm
to a 750 x 300 beam.

Given: f y = 450 MPa; f cu = 30 MPa; d = 675mm

Q.7
A simply supported reinforced concrete rectangular beam of 8m span carries a uniformly
distributed dead load which includes allowance for self-weight of 6 kNm-1 and an imposed load
of 4 kNm-1. If the breath of the beam is 200mm, overall height of 430mm and the beam is
exposed to mild environment, determine using the data below:
a) The ultimate design bending moment;
b) The nominal concrete cover to the reinforcement;
c) The effective depth
d) Whether the section is singly reinforced
e) Area of tension reinforcement
f) Choose the appropriate reinforcement

Data
Nominal maximum aggregate size ( hagg ) = 20mm
Diameter of main tension steel assume 25mm
Diameter of shear links 10mm
Exposure condition Moderate
Required fire resistance 2.0 hours
Diameter of mild steel hangers bars 8mm

The beam is of grade 30 concrete and with high yield reinforcement

Q.8
A simply supported reinforced concrete rectangular beam of 8m span carries a uniformly
distributed dead load which includes allowance for self-weight of 7 kNm-1 and an imposed load
of 5 kNm-1. If the width of the beam is 200mm and of effective depth of 450mm, determine
using the data below:
i) The ultimate design bending moment;
ii) The nominal concrete cover to the reinforcement;
iii) The effective depth;
iv) Whether the section is singly reinforced;
v) Area of tension reinforcement;
vi) Choose the appropriate reinforcement

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Data
Nominal maximum aggregate size ( hagg ) = 20mm
Diameter of main tension steel assume 25mm
Diameter of shear links 10mm
Exposure condition Moderate
Required fire resistance 2.0 hours
Diameter of mild steel hangers bars 8mm

The beam is of grade 30 concrete and with high yield reinforcement

Use design charts to compare your result

Q. 9
A grade 30 reinforced concrete beam with rectangular cross section has width of 300mm and
effective depth of 320mm If the area of tension reinforcement is 1470mm2, determine:
i) Depth to the neutral axis
ii) Check whether the steel will have yielded;
iii) Ultimate moment of resistance;
iv) Use chart to compare your results

Q.10
A slab 1m wide and 130mm deep with a effective depth of 100mm is subjected to a moment of
10.5 kNm. Find using chart or otherwise, the area of reinforcement required. The concrete is
grade 30 with a reinforcement grade of 460.

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 DESIGN OF DOUBLY-REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
CROSS SECTION

Beams and slabs can be doubly reinforced i.e. reinforcing both the tension and
compression zones because of the following reasons:

1. Reduced sustained Load deflections

Addition of compression reinforcement reduces the long-term deflection of the beam
subjected to sustained loads;

2. Increased Ductility
The addition of compression reinforcement causes a reduction in the depth of the
compression stress block, hence increases the strain in the tension reinforcement at
failure resulting in a more ductile behaviour. Such property is important or essential in
seismic regions or situations were moment redistribution is desired.

3. Change of mode of failure from compression to tension

The addition of compression reinforcement changes the mode of failure of the beam from
brittle to ductile i.e. from crushing of concrete first to yielding of the reinforcement first.
The compression steel strengthened the compression zone sufficiently enough to allow
the tension steel to yield before the concrete crushes, hence displays a ductile failure
mode.

4. Fabrication Ease
When assembling the reinforcing case for a beam, it is customary to provide bars in the
corners of the stirrups to hold the stirrups in place in the form, and also to help anchor the
stirrups. Theses bars in effect are compression reinforcements although generally
disregarded in design since their effect in the moment capacity is small.

As stated in equ (13), when the design moment, M exceeds the concrete capacity i.e.
0.156 f cu bd 2 , double reinforcement is required.

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The stress and strain diagrams of a doubly-reinforced section is as shown below in which
because of the presence of steel reinforcement in the compression zone, there are the
force in the concrete in compression, Fcc and the force in the compression steel,

(
Fsc with lever arms of z i.e. d − s
2 ) and ( d − d ) respectively.
'

If ε sc , ε st are the strains in the compression steel and in the tension steel respectively,
then using the concept of similar triangles in the strain diagram gives;

(x − d ) '
ε sc
=
x
ε cc ε sc
⇒ x−d )
(= '
x
ε cc

 ε   0.002 
⇒ d ' = x 1 − sc  = x 1 − =0.43 x …………………..(19)
 ε cc   0.0035 

d'
⇒ =
d ' 0.43 x ⇒ = 0.43
x

To accommodate redistribution of moments in excess of 10%, the code reduced the value
to 0.37 . Hence for compression reinforce to yield

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 d'
= 0.43 or
x
………………(20)
d'
= 0.37 for compression re inf orcement to yield
x

For equilibrium of the section,

F=
st Fcc + Fsc ………………………..(21)

At yielding of reinforcements
=
0.87 f y As 0.45 f cu bs + 0.87 f y As'

but= =
s 0.9 x 0.9=
d 0.45d
2

As 0.45b ( 0.45d ) + 0.87 f y As' …………………(22)

⇒ 0.87 f y=

⇒ 0.87 f y As = 0.201 f cu bd + 0.87 f y As'

Considering the moment of the compression force, Fcc about the line of action of Fst
gives

M =Fcc x z + Fsc x ( d − d ' )

=⇒ M 0.201 f cu bd 2 x 0.775d + 0.87 As' f y ( d − d ' ) …………..(23)

M − 0.156 f cu bd 2 M − M RC
=⇒A = '
=
sin ce M RC 0.156 f cu bd 2
0.87 f y ( d − d ) 0.87 f y ( d − d ' )
s '

M
Since =
K ⇒M
= Kbd 2 f cu then
bd 2 f cu
Kbd 2 f cu − 0.156 f cu bd 2
A =
'
……………(24)
0.87 f y ( d − d ' )
s

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For singly reinforced, K ' = 0.156 , then

Kbd 2 − K 'bd 2 f cu ( K − K ) f cu bd
' 2

=As =
0.87 f y ( d − d ' ) 0.87 f y ( d − d ' )
……………(25)

As =
( K − K ) f bd
'
cu
2

0.87 f ( d − d )
y
'

Equations 22 to 24 can be used by the code to determine the required area of compression
d'
reinforcement of doubly-reinforced concrete beam when ≤ 0.37 and redistribution of
x
moment is 10%.

Also at equilibrium, tensile force = compressive force i.e.

F=
st Fcc + Fsc

⇒ 0.87 f y As = 0.201 f cu bd + 0.87 f y As' ………………(26)

0.201 f cu bd 2
=
⇒ As + As'
0.87 f y

If both sides of equ (26) is divided by z = 0, 775d , then

0.156 f cu bd 2
=As + As' ……………….(27)
0.87 f y z

but K ' = 0.156, then

………………(28)
K ' f cu bd 2
=As + As'
0.87 f y z

Equations 26 to 28 can be use to determine the area of tension reinforcement.

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Note
All expressions to determine the areas of both tension and compression reinforcements
can only be used when steels on both zones yield i.e. when

d' d'
≤ 0.37 or ≤ 0.185 when x=
d
x d 2
( for doubly − re inf orced beam ) ………….(29)

If on the other hand conditions in equ (29) does not hold i.e. the left hand side is greater
than that in the right-hand-side, the compression steel does not yield and the above
equations cannot be used to calculate the areas of both tension and compression
reinforcements.

In such situation, the strain of the steel in compression, ε sc , has to be calculated from the
strain distribution diagram i.e. by using the concept of similar triangles in the strain
diagram for the doubly-reinforced beam i.e.

ε sc 0.003 x − d' ε sc  x − d' 

= ⇒ = ⇒ ε= 0.003   ………….(30)
x − d'
sc
x x 0.003  x 

On deducing the strain from equ (30), the stress, f sc can be determined when the modulus

of elasticity of the steel, Es is known i.e. from the expression:

(
f sc = Esε sc N
mm 2 )
…………………..(31)
200, 000 ε sc
⇒ f sc =

Hence the modified equations become

-26-
 A '
=
( K − K ) f bd
'
cu
2

f (d − d )
s '
sc

………………….(32)
( for compression re inf orcement )

and

K ' f cu bd 2 f sc
=As + As'
0.87 f y z 0.87 f y
……………………(33)
( for tension re inf orcement )

As for in singly-reinforced beam, design charts can also be used to determine the areas of
both tension and compression reinforcements. The graph below can be used in which on
M
determining , the areas, As' and As can be determined from values from the steel
bd 2
ratio axis on the graph.

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 SUMMARY 1 - MOMENT REDISTRIBUTION FACTOR, βb  0.9

According to the above deduction, to design for compression reinforcement, the

following design procedure should be followed:

1. Calculate K = M to check if compression reinforcement is or is not

bd 2 f cu
required. If it is greater than, then it is required otherwise not required
2. Calculate x
d' d'
3. Check if compression steel will yield i.e. whether ≤ 0.185 or ≤ 0.37 . If
d x
satisfied, then
4. Calculate area of compression steel as

=A ' (=
M − 0.156 f bd ) cu
where M
2

Design Moment
0.87 f ( d − d )
s '
y

5. Calculate area of tension reinforcement as

0.156 f cu bd 2
=As + As' where 0.775 ≤ z ≤ 0.995d
0.87 f y z

6. Select the reinforcements and check whether the chosen reinforcement satisfy the
following code requirements i.e.

7. (A '
s prov − As' req ) ≥ ( As prov − As req ) and 0.13 ∠
100 As
bd
∠ 4.0

d' d'
8. If on the other hand ≥ 0.185 or ≥ 0.37 , then the compression steel does not
d x
yield and its stress should be determined. The areas of both compression and
tension reinforcements are determined using the following equations:

A'
=
( K − K ) f bd '
cu
2

; and
f (d − d )
s '
sc

K ' f cu bd 2 f sc
=As + As'
0.87 f y z 0.87 f y

( for tension re inf orcement )

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EXAMPLES – DOUBLY-REINFORCED BEAM

-29-
 MOMENT OF RESISTANCE OF SECTION USING MOMENT
REDISTRIBUTION

All the above developed expressions for both singly and doubly-reinforced concrete
considered the depth to the neutral axis, x to be the maximum permitted by the code i.e.

=
x d= 0.5d i.e. when the section still maintain 90% of its strength i.e. with a
2
moment redistribution or plastic behaviour of 10%.
Under such plastic behaviour or the redistribution of moment, the neutral axis depth,
according to the code, is given by:

x ≤ ( βb − 0.4 ) d …………………………(34)

Where

moment at the sec tion after redistribution

βb ≤ 1 ………………..(35)
moment at the sec tion before redistribution

This means that for the section to have sufficient rotation capacity for the redistribution to
occur, the resistance moment must be at least 70%.

According to equ (34), no reduction in x need to be made if redistribution does not

exceed 10%. Hence for rectangular section with compression reinforcement, elastic
analysis can only take place when the redistribution does not exceed 10% i.e.
βb = 90% i.e. the maximum allowed by the code.

Using the simplified stress block analysis:

=
x ( βb − 0.4 ) d
hence
………………….(36)
d − 1 x 0.9 ( βb − 0.4 ) d
z=
2

-30-
Hence for doubly-reinforced beam, substituting equ (36), the moment of resistance of
concrete used by the code is derived as follows:

M RC = Fcc z
= 0.45 f cu b 0.9 ( βb − 0.4 ) d  d − 0.45 ( βb − 0.4 ) d 

=0.405 f cu bd 2 ( βb =0.4 ) 1 − 0.45 ( βb − 0.4 ) 

=M RC 0.405 f cu bd 2 ( βb − 0.4 ) − 0.18 ( βb − 0.4 )

2
……………………….(37)

M RC
= K'
f cu bd 2

K ' 0.405 ( βb − 0.4 ) − 0.18 ( βb − 0.4 )

where =
2

Also at equilllibrium, the area of the compression steel can be deduced as follows:

=
M M RC + M RS

⇒ M RS =M − M RC

⇒ 0.87 f y As' ( d − d ' ) = M − M RC …………………………(38)

M − M RC
⇒ As' =
0.87 f y ( d − d ' )

d' d'
when ≤ 0.43 or =
0.185
x d

Also the area of the tension steel can be deduced as follows:

-31-
 F=
st Fcc + Fsc

⇒ 0.87
= f y As 0.405 f cu bd ( βb − 0.4 ) + 0.87 f y As' …………………………(39)

0.405 f cu bd ( βb − 0.4 ) + 0.87 f y As'

⇒ As =
0.87 f y

OTHER DESIGN CRITERIA TO BE MET

According to the code and in order to ensure a gradual tension type failure and to
maintain the limitation on the depth of the neutral axis, the areas of compression and
tension reinforcement required and provided should meet the following requirements:

(A '
s prov − As' req ) ≥ ( As prov − As req ) ………………………….(40)

SUMMARY 2 - MOMENT REDISTRIBUTION FACTOR, βb ∠ 0.9

The following design procedures are to be followed when the moment redistribution
factor is less than 0.9:

1. Calculate K = M
bd 2 f cu

K ' 0.402 ( βb − 0.4 ) − 0.18 ( βb − 0.4 )

2. Calculate =
2

If K ∠ K ' , the compression is not required and so proceed as for singly reinforced. If
greater than, compression steel is required.
3. Calculate=
x ( βb − 0.4 ) d
'
If d ∠ 0.43 ; then compression steel has yielded and f sc = 0.87 f y and
x
'
If d > 0.43 , calculate the steel compressive strain, ε sc and hence the stress, f sc and
x
calculate the areas of both compression and tension reinforcement as shown in
summary 1 above.

-32-
 Links should also be provided to give lateral restrain to the outer layer of compression
steel according to the following rules:
1. The links should pass round the corner bars and each alternate bar;
2. The link size should be at least one-quarter the size of the largest compression
bar;
3. The spacing of the links should not be greater than TWELVE TIMES the size of
the smallest compression bar;
4. No compression bar should be more than 150mm from a restrain bar.

EXAMPLES
1. A rectangular beam of width 300mm, effective depth 540mm, and d ' of 100mm is
to designed to resist an ultimate design moment of 270kNm with βb = 0.7 and to

cause hogging. If the beam has characteristic material strengths of f cu = 30Nmm-2

and f y = 460Nmm-2, determine

i) The exact nature of the beam

ii) The area(s) of reinforcement(s) required;
iii) The suitability of the choosen reinforcements
iv) The minimum link size, and
v) The maximum link spacing.
2. A beam with rectangular cross section has a width of 200mm, effective depth of
300mm, and d ' of 40mm is subjected to an ultimate moment of 113.4 kNm that
results after a redistribution of 20%. If grade 30 concrete and 460 reinforcement
grade are used, determine using simplified stress block analysis and design charts:
i) The exact nature of the beam section;
ii) The area(s) of reinforcement(s)

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS

Such beams, which can be T or L sections, usually occur where beams are cast integral
with and support a continuous floor slab. When the beams are resisting sagging moments,

-33-
part of the slab acts as a compression flange and the member may be designed as T or L –
beams.
The effective breadth b of flanged beams is given in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.1.5:
1. T-beams—web width bw+lz/5 or the actual flange width if less
2. L-beams—web width bw+lz/10 or the actual flange width if less

T- and L- section are as shown below.

With hogging moments the slab will be in tension and assumed to be cracked, hence the
beam must be designed as a rectangular section of width bw and overall depth, h .
When the slab does act as the flange, its effective width , according to the code, is defined
as follows:
1. For T-section, the lesser of the actual flange width, or the width of the web plus

(
one-fifth of the distance between zero moments i.e. bw + lz
5 ) where l z is the

distance between points of zero moments;

2. For L-sections, the lesser of the actual flange width or the width of the web plus

(
one-tenth of the distance between zero moments i.e bw + lz
10 ).

-34-
The stress block of a T- or L- section usually falls within the slab thickness since slab
acts as a large compression area, hence the section may be designed as an equivalent
rectangular section of breath, b f .

To prevent cracking, transverse reinforcement should be placed across the top of the
flange and the area of this reinforcement should not be less than 0.15 percent of the
longitudinal cross-section of the flange.

DESIGN CLASSIFICATIONS OF T-SECTIONS

The design procedures of T-section depend on where the neutral axis lies. It may lie in
the flange i.e. when the depth of the stress block, s is less than height of flange, i.e.
s ∠ h f (fig. a) or lie in the web i.e. when s > h f (fig. b).

Case 1 – When the stress block or neutral axis lies within the flange

Two design approaches are used to analysis such situation:

1. When the depth of the stress block is less than depth of flange i.e. s ∠ h f

2. When the applied moment, M is greater than the moment of resistance, M R

Under such condition, the design procedures remain the same as that for rectangular
beam cross-section.

-35-
The stress of concrete remains the same at 0.45 f cu and that in the steel reinforcement as

0.87 f y . Hence if Fcc is the force in the compression zone, then taking moment about the

tension zone:

 h 
=
M F=
cc z = 0.45 f cu bh f  d − f 
0.45 f cu bsz
R
 2 
…………………….(41)
 h 
=M R 0.45 f cu bh f  d − f 
 2 

Since this situation is the same as that for rectangular beam cross section, expression(s)
or design procedures remain(s) the same as those derived earlier for rectangular beam
cross section.

Examples
1. A continuous slab 100mm thick is carried on T-beams at 2m centers. The overall
depth of the beam is 350mm and the breath of the web is 250mm. The beams are
6m span and res simply supported. The dead load including self-weight and
finishes is 7.4 kNm-2 and the imposed load is 5 kNm-2. Deesign the beam using
the simplified stress block and design charts when a grade 30 concrete and grade
460 reinforcement are used.
2. A rectangular beam of width 600mm, effective depth 530mm, effective height of
580mm, flanged depth of 150mm, web width of 250mm, and characteristic
strengths of concrete and steel of 30 Nmm-2 and 460 Nmm-2 respectively has a
design moment at ultimate state of 190 kNm to cause sagging. Design for
reinforcement of the T- section to ensure adequate safety.

Case 2 – When the stress block or neutral axis lies within the Web

Two design approaches are used to analysis such situation:

1. When the depth of the stress block is less than depth of flange i.e. s > h f

-36-
 2. When the design moment, M is greater than the moment of resistance of the
flange, M f .

3. When the force in the steel, Fst is greater than that concrete in the flange, C f

Under any of the above conditions are honoured, the section behaves as a T-section and
not as a rectangular beam cross section. Hence the stress block can be divided into two
positions: one for that in the flange and the other in the web as shown in the figure below.

If C f , Cw are the concrete forces in compression, then:

=C1 0.45 f cu h f ( b − bw ) i.e. Force = stress x area; and ………….(1)

C=
2 s 0.45 f cu × bw ( 0.45d=
(0.45 f cu ) × bw= ) 0.2 fcu bw d
…………..(2)
⇒ C2 =
0.2 f cu bw d

If the force in the steel is Fst , the steel force in tension is

Fst = 0.87 f y …………………(3)

If z1 , z2 are the lever arms C1 ; C2 respectively; then

-37-
 z1= d − 0.5h f
………………….(4)
z2 =d − 0.5 × 0.4d =0.77 d

Taking moment about the force, C1 , and M to be the moment of resistance of the section,
then the area of tension steel can be deduced as follows:

M =Fst z1 − C2 ( z1 − z2 )
= 0.87 f cu As ( d − 0.5h f ) − 0.2 f cu bw d ( 0.225d − 0.5h f )
= 0.87 f cu As ( d − 0.5h f ) − 0.1 f cu bw d ( 0.45d − h f ) …………………..(5)

M + 0.1 f cu bw d ( 0.45d − h f )
⇒ As = when x less than 0.5d
0.87 f cu ( d − 0.5h f )

Also taking moments about the tension steel, the moment of resistance of the concrete is
give by:

=
M c C1 z1 + C2 z2

⇒ M c 0.45 f cu h f ( b − bw ) ( d − 0.5h f ) + 0.2 f cu bw d ( 0.77d )

=

= 0.45 f cu h f ( b − bw ) ( d − 0.5h f ) + 0.155 f cu bw d 2

Mc h  bw   h f  bw
⇒ = 0.45 f 1 −  1 −  + 0.155
 b   2d 
2
f cu bd d b

β f f cu bd 2
⇒ Mc =

h f  bw   h f  bw
β f 0.45
where = 1 −  1 −  + 0.155 ………..(6)
d  b   2d  b

Hence for a section with tension reinforcement, the applied moment, M must not exceed
the moment of resistance of the concrete, M c .

-38-
 Thus for the ultimate moment, M when:

1. M < β f f cu bd 2 , then the section contains tension steel only and not more than 10%

redistribution has been carried out, and

2. M > β f f cu bd 2 , then compression reinforcement is required and the areas of the steel

are give by:

M − Mc
As' =
0.87 f y ( d − d ' )
…………………..(7)
0.2 f cu bw d + 0.45h f ( b f − bw )
=As + As'
0.87 f y

SUMMARY: T - Sectioned Beam

1. Flanged sections can either be T-section or L-section

2. For T-section, the depth of the neutral axis can either lie within the flanged or
within the web
3. For that where the neutral axis lies within the flange, two methods can be used to
determine that: a) the depth of the stress block, s is less than flange i.e. s < h f ,

and b) the applied moment, M is greater than the moment of resistance, M R . In

both cases, the analysis is the same as that for rectangular beam cross-section.
4. For that where the neutral axis lies within the web, three methods can be used to
analyze the situation: a) s > h f b) design moment greater than moment of

resistance of the flange i.e. M > M f ; and c) Fst > C f

5. Taking moment about C f , the area of the tension steel is given by:

M + 0.1 f cu bw d ( 0.45d − h f )
As =
0.87 f cu ( d − 0.5h f )

-39-
 6. Taking moment about the tension steel, the moment of resistance of the concrete,
M c is given by:

Mc hf  bw   h f  bw
= 0.45 1 −  1 −  + 0.155
 b   2d 
2
f cu bd d b

and

M c = β f f cu bd 2

h f  bw   h f  bw
β f 0.45
where = 1 −  1 −  + 0.155
d  b   2d  b

7. When the ultimate moment, M less than the moment of resistance of the concrete,

M c i.e. M < M c compression reinforcement is not required otherwise it is

required with areas of steel give by:

M − Mc
As' =
0.87 f y ( d − d ' )

0.2 f cu bw d + 0.45h f ( b f − bw )
=As + As'
0.87 f y
8. Providing transverse steel in the top of the flange, the area is given by:

Area = 0.15h f × 1000 =

1.5h f mm 2 per metre length of the beam.
100

Examples

1. A grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement are used in a T-beam section of

flange width 600mm, effective height 400m, effective depth 340mm, and flanged

depth 100mm is subjected to an ultimate moment of 260 kNm. Determine the area

of reinforcement required.

-40-
2. A reinforced T-section of flange width 400mm, flange depth 100mm, effective

depth 350mm, web width 200mm, f cu of 30 Nmm-2, and f y of 460 Nmm-2 has an

ultimate design moment of 180kNm. Determine the area of reinforcement of the

section

-41-
 DESIGN THEORY FOR SHEAR

Introduction

Since on loading a reinforced concrete beam, cracks initiate at portion with high tensile

stress, the rate of propagation of these cracks towards the compression zone depend on

not only whether the beam is or is not reinforced, but on whether shear forces developed

during loading are adequately addressed. Though reinforcing steel applied at the tension

zone of a RCB tends to absorb some of the tensile stresses developed during loading,

hence improving its resistance, RCBs has to be designed to adequately resist shear forces

resulting from various combinations of ultimate loads. This is because these shear forces

is accompany by a change in bending moment in beams and give rise to diagonal stress in

the concrete and bond stresses between concrete and steel. On loading, the combination

of principal compressive stresses and tensile stresses across the span of a homogeneous

concrete beam give rise to principal stresses that are inclined at a steeper angle at the

supports causing diagonal cracks a shown in the fig. below.

If this exceeds the limited tensile strength of the concrete, the extent of propagation of

cracks will be rapid, hence shear reinforcements and or shear links must be provided.

These shear reinforcements or shear links can either be in the form of a) Stirrups, or b)

inclined bars (used in conjunction with stirrups).

-42-
In reinforced concrete with shear reinforcements, shear is carried by the combination of

the following three main components:

1. Dowelling action of tensile reinforcement;

2. Concrete in the compression zone;

3. Aggregate interlock across flexure cracks

These are shown in the fig. below

The 3 actions in RCB without shear reinforcements

a) Stirrups

These are vertical members inserted in conjunction with longitudinal reinforcement

placed at both top and bottom chords thereby allowing the concrete to act as the diagonal

(Fig. a) with the stirrups usually placed at a distance equal to the effective depth, d of the

beam. This makes the diagonal concrete compression member to be at an angle of 450

that conforms to experiment data of cracks in RCBs close to the supports. This results to

an analogous truss system.

-43-
If in the analogous truss system,

= stirrup spacing; = cross sectional area of two-legs of the stirrups; =

characteristic strength of links; = ultimate shear stress resisted by concrete; = shear

force due to the load; = horizontal length of the crack; = average or nominal

shear stress;

Then at the ultimate limit state, the force in the vertical stirrup member must be equal the

shear force i.e.

……………..(1)

But

…………….(2)

therefore substitute (2) into (1) gives

……..(3)

-44-
If d = number of links crossing the crack, then (3) becomes
sv

0.87 f yv Asv d = γ bv d=
sv (γ − γ c ) bv d

Asv γb
⇒ =v …….(4)
sv 0.87 f yv

Asv ( γ − γ c ) bv
⇒ =
sv 0.87 f yv

Shear resisted by reinforcement = V − Vc = ( γ − γ c ) bv d …..(5)

Equation (4) is the one used by the code to which sv can be calculated when bar strength

and diameter are chosen.

Values of γ c (N/mm2) for concrete strength of f cu = 30 N are given in the table

mm 2

below.

Value of ultimate shear stress, υc (N/mm-2) for a concrete strength of f cu = 30N/mm2

100 As EFFECTIVE DEPTH (MM)
bd 150 175 200 225 250 300 ≥ 400
≤ 0.15 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
0.25 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.46 0.42
0.50 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.59 0.57 0.53
0.75 0.76 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.64 0.61
1.00 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.72 0.67
1.50 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.83 0.76
2.00 1.08 1.04 1.01 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.85
≥ 3.00 1.23 1.19 1.15 1.11 1.08 1.04 0.97

Alternatively, the design concrete shear stress can be deduced from the following

expression:

-45-
 1

( )
1

0.79   3 400
100 As
bv d 
4

γc =  d
for f cu = 25 Nmm-2 and γ m = 1.25 ………(6)
γm

As
Where 100 should not exceed 3.0 and 400 should not be less than unity
bv d d

The above formula gives values of f cu of 25 Nmm-2. For values greater than that,
1

multiply each value by  cu  and f cu should not be greater than 40 Nmm-2.

f 3

 25 

The concrete shear stress, γ c increases for shallow members and those with larger

percentages of tensile reinforcement i.e. deep beam have lower shear capacity than

swallow ones.

At the face of a support, the average shear stress should never exceed the lesser of

0.8 f cu or 5 Nmm-2 i.e. maximum shear stress

Rearranging equ (4), the shear resistance for a given stirrup size and spacing is given by:

A 
γ bd = sv × 0.87 f yv + bvγ c  d ……(7)
shear resis tan ce =
 sv 

The following must also be noted when designing for shear:

1. The spacing of bars is limited to 0.75d in the direction of span;

2. The spacing of legs should not exceed d ;

0.4bv sv
3. The minimum area of link is given by: Asvmin = . This provides a design
0.87 f yv

shear resistance of 0.4 Nmm-2

-46-
4. In minor beams such as lintel, links may be omitted provided that γ < 0.5γ c ;

5. For beams with compression reinforcement, size of link must not be less than one-

quarter of the size of largest compression bar or 6mm. The spacing should not

exceed 12 times size of smallest compression bar.

b) Inclined or Bent-up bars

As stated earlier, inclined or bent-up bars can also be used to resist shearing forces

and bent up near the support. Such system can either be single or multiple as shown

below

In such systems, design shear resistance can be calculated by assuming the bent-up

-47-
bars forming the tension member of one or more single systems of trusses in which

the concrete forms the compression members. In this case, the bent-up bars and

concrete in compression are considered to act as an analogous lattice girder, and the

shear resistance of bars is determined by taking a section through the girder.

Using the figs. Above, if α = inclination of bars; β = inclination of cracks;

then

-48-
 Spacing of bent-up bars, sb = horizontal length over bent-up bars cross the crack =

( d − d ) ( cot α + cot β )
'

If sb = spacing of bent-up bars; Asvb = cross sectional area of pairs of bars; f yv =

characteristic strength of bent-up bars, then the shear resistance, V at any section of a

single bar is given by:

V = 0.87 f yv Asb sin α ……………..(8)

For multiple system of bent-up bars, the shear resistance is increased proportionately

to the spacing, sb hence

V = 0.87 f yv Asb sin α

( d − d ) ( cot α + cot β )
'

…………..(9)
sb

where α , β ≥ 450

The following should be noted

1. According to the code, the spacing, sb has a maximum value of 1.5d ;

2. If α= β= 450 , then s=
b ( d − d ) and equ(9) for multiple stirrup becomes
'

V = 1.34 f yv Asb

3. Code states that links must make up at least 50% of the shear reinforcement

-49-
 SHEAR REINFORCEMENT CLOSE TO THE SUPPORT

Since crack initiation starts from the supports, then the total area of shear

reinforcement for section close to the support is given by:

2d γ c 
av bv  γ −
 av  0.4bv sv
=∑ sv
A
0.87 f yv
≥
0.87 f yv

where av = dist. From support transverse by the failure plane;

2d γ c
= enhanced shear stress
av

For beams carrying uniform loads or where the principal load is applied more than

2d from the face support, the following simplified steps as to be used in design taking

enhanced shear strength into account:

1. Calculate the shear stress at d from the face of support;

2. Determine γ c and amount of shear reinforcement in the form of vertical links;

3. Provide the shear reinforcement between the section at d and the support. No

further checks for shear reinforcement are required;

4. Check for maximum shear stress at the face of support

Examples

1
A beam carrying a UDL and whose cross section is as shown below has characteristic
strengths for the stirrups, f yv = 250 Nmm −2 , bent-up bars, f yv = 460 Nmm −2 ; and
concrete, f cu = 30 Nmm −2 , determine the shear reinforcement of such beam shown below.

-50-
 Solution

1. Determine the shear resistance of the concrete

100 As 100 × 982

= = 0.43 sin ce 2T=
25, As 982mm 2
bd 350 × 650

100 As
u sin g table of γ c and int erpolate between 0.25 ≤ ≤ 0.50
bd
gives γ c = 0.5 Nmm −2

Also for R12 bar, Asv = 113 mm2, and Sv = 100

Asv 2 ×113
∴ = =
2.26 (sin ce two leg stirrups, Asv =
2 ×113)
Sv 100

2. Determine the shear resistance between concrete and stirrups

Shear resistance of stirrups and concrete, Vs is given by

Asv
Vs = × 0.87 f yv d + bγ c d = 2.26 × o.87 × 650 + 350 × 0.5 × 650
Sv
= 433, 257.5
= 433 ×103 N

3. Determine the shear resistance of bent-up bars

-51-
 Since the bent-up bars are arranged in double system, then the shear resistance of the

bent-up bars, Vb is given by:

Vb = 1.34 f yv Asb = 1.34 × 460 × 491 = 302 ×103 N

Therefore Vs > Vb (as required by code)

4. Determination of total shear resistance, V

The total shear resistance, V = Vs + Vb = (433 + 302) ×103 = 735 ×103 N

5. Check

V
In checking, the shear at the face of the support, should not exceed 0.8 f cu or 5
bd

Nmm-2

V 735
=
i.e. = 3.2 < 5 Nmm-2, hence O.K
bd 350 × 650

FLOW CHART FOR DETAILED DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL

ELEMENTS

Below shows steps to be followed to ensure detailed designed of reinforced structural

element.

Preliminary Design

-52-
1. Preliminary analysis and member sizing;

2. Detailed analysis and design of reinforcement; and

3. Serviceability calculations

-53-