CS 212

Embedded Systems

Lecture 02
Data Representation
Outline
 Positional Number Systems
 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers
 Base Conversions
 Integer Storage Sizes
 Binary and Hexadecimal Addition
 Signed Integers and 2's Complement Notation
 Sign Extension
 Binary and Hexadecimal subtraction
 Carry and Overflow
 Character Storage

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Positional Number Systems
Different Representations of Natural Numbers

XXVII Roman numerals (not positional)

27 Radix-10 or decimal number (positional)
110112 Radix-2 or binary number (also positional)
Fixed-radix positional representation with k digits
Number N in radix r = (dk–1dk–2 . . . d1d0)r
Value = dk–1×r k–1 + dk–2×r k–2 + … + d1×r + d0
Examples: (11011)2 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×2 + 1 = 27
(2103)4 = 2×43 + 1×42 + 0×4 + 3 = 147
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Binary Numbers
 Each binary digit (called bit) is either 1 or 0

 Bits have no inherent meaning, can represent

 Unsigned and signed integers

Most Least
Significant Bit Significant Bit
 Characters
MSB LSB
 Floating-point numbers

 Images, sound, etc. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

 Bit Numbering 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

 Least significant bit (LSB) is rightmost (bit 0)

 Most significant bit (MSB) is leftmost (bit 7 in an 8-bit number)

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Converting Binary to Decimal
 Each bit represents a power of 2

 Every binary number is a sum of powers of 2

 Decimal Value = (dn-1  2n-1) + ... + (d1  21) + (d0  20)

 Binary (10011101)2 = 27 + 24 + 23 + 22 + 1 = 157

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Some common
powers of 2

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Convert Unsigned Decimal to Binary
 Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 2
 Each remainder is a binary digit in the translated value

least significant bit

37 = (100101)2

most significant bit

stop when quotient is zero

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Hexadecimal Integers
 16 Hexadecimal Digits: 0 – 9, A – F
 More convenient to use than binary numbers

Binary, Decimal, and Hexadecimal Equivalents

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Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
 Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to 4 binary bits

 Example:

Convert the 32-bit binary number to hexadecimal

1110 1011 0001 0110 1010 0111 1001 0100

 Solution:

E B 1 6 A 7 9 4
1110 1011 0001 0110 1010 0111 1001 0100

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Converting Hexadecimal to Decimal
 Multiply each digit by its corresponding power of 16

Value = (dn-1  16n-1) + (dn-2  16n-2) + ... + (d1  16) + d0

 Examples:

(1234)16 = (1  163) + (2  162) + (3  16) + 4 =

Decimal Value 4660

(3BA4)16 = (3  163) + (11  162) + (10  16) + 4 =

Decimal Value 15268

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Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal
 Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 16
 Each remainder is a hex digit in the translated value

least significant digit

most significant digit

stop when
quotient is zero

Decimal 422 = 1A6 hexadecimal

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Integer Storage Sizes
Byte 8

Half Word 16 Storage Sizes

Word 32

Double Word 64

Storage Type Unsigned Range Powers of 2

Byte 0 to 255 0 to (28 – 1)
Half Word 0 to 65,535 0 to (216 – 1)
Word 0 to 4,294,967,295 0 to (232 – 1)
Double Word 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 0 to (264 – 1)

What is the largest 20-bit unsigned integer?

Answer: 220 – 1 = 1,048,575
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Binary Addition
 Start with the least significant bit (rightmost bit)

 Add each pair of bits

 Include the carry in the addition, if present

carry 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 (54)

+ 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 (29)

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 (83)
bit position: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

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Hexadecimal Addition
 Start with the least significant hexadecimal digits

 Let Sum = summation of two hex digits

 If Sum is greater than or equal to 16

 Sum = Sum – 16 and Carry = 1

 Example:
carry: 1 1 1
1C37286A
+ A + B = 10 + 11 = 21
9395E84B Since 21 ≥ 16
Sum = 21 – 16 = 5
AFCD10B5 Carry = 1

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Signed Integers
 Several ways to represent a signed number
 Sign-Magnitude
 Biased
 1's complement
 2's complement
 Divide the range of values into 2 equal parts
 First part corresponds to the positive numbers (≥ 0)
 Second part correspond to the negative numbers (< 0)
 Focus will be on the 2's complement representation
 Has many advantages over other representations
 Used widely in processors to represent signed integers

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Two's Complement Representation

 Positive numbers 8-bit Binary Unsigned Signed

value value value
 Signed value = Unsigned value
00000000 0 0
 Negative numbers 00000001 1 +1
 Signed value = Unsigned value – 2n 00000010 2 +2
n = number of bits ... ... ...

 Negative weight for MSB 01111110 126 +126

01111111 127 +127
 Another way to obtain the signed
value is to assign a negative weight 10000000 128 -128
to most-significant bit 10000001 129 -127
... ... ...
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
11111110 254 -2

= -128 + 32 + 16 + 4 = -76 11111111 255 -1

Forming the Two's Complement
starting value 00100100 = +36

step1: reverse the bits (1's complement) 11011011

step 2: add 1 to the value from step 1 + 1

sum = 2's complement representation 11011100 = -36

Sum of an integer and its 2's complement must be zero:

00100100 + 11011100 = 00000000 (8-bit sum)  Ignore Carry

Another way to obtain the 2's complement: Binary Value

least

Start at the least significant 1 = 00100 1 00 significant 1

Leave all the 0s to its right unchanged 2's Complement

Complement all the bits to its left = 11011 1 00
Sign Bit
 Highest bit indicates the sign

 1 = negative Sign bit

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
 0 = positive Negative

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Positive

For Hexadecimal Numbers, check most significant digit

If highest digit is > 7, then value is negative
Examples: 8A and C5 are negative bytes
B1C42A00 is a negative word (32-bit signed integer)
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Sign Extension
Step 1: Move the number into the lower-significant bits
Step 2: Fill all the remaining higher bits with the sign bit
 This will ensure that both magnitude and sign are correct
 Examples
 Sign-Extend 10110011 to 16 bits
10110011 = -77 11111111 10110011 = -77
 Sign-Extend 01100010 to 16 bits

01100010 = +98 00000000 01100010 = +98

 Infinite 0s can be added to the left of a positive number
 Infinite 1s can be added to the left of a negative number

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Two's Complement of a Hexadecimal
 To form the two's complement of a hexadecimal

 Subtract each hexadecimal digit from 15

 Add 1

 Examples:

2's complement of 6A3D = 95C2 + 1 = 95C3

2's complement of 92F15AC0 = 6D0EA53F + 1 = 6D0EA540

2's complement of FFFFFFFF = 00000000 + 1 = 00000001

 No need to convert hexadecimal to binary

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Binary Subtraction
 When subtracting A – B, convert B to its 2's complement
 Add A to (–B)
borrow: 1 1 1 carry: 1 1 1 1

01001101 01001101
– +
00111010 11000110 (2's complement)
00010011 00010011 (same result)

 Final carry is ignored, because

 Negative number is sign-extended with 1's
 You can imagine infinite 1's to the left of a negative number
 Adding the carry to the extended 1's produces extended zeros

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Hexadecimal Subtraction
16 + 5 = 21

Borrow: 1 1 1 Carry: 1 1 1 1 1
B14FC675 B14FC675
- +
839EA247 7C615DB9 (2's complement)

2DB1242E 2DB1242E (same result)

 When a borrow is required from the digit to the left, then

Add 16 (decimal) to the current digit's value

 Last Carry is ignored
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Ranges of Signed Integers
For n-bit signed integers: Range is -2n–1 to (2n–1 – 1)
Positive range: 0 to 2n–1 – 1
Negative range: -2n–1 to -1

Storage Type Unsigned Range Powers of 2

Byte –128 to +127 –27 to (27 – 1)
Half Word –32,768 to +32,767 –215 to (215 – 1)
Word –2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647 –231 to (231 – 1)
–9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
Double Word –263 to (263 – 1)
+9,223,372,036,854,775,807

Practice: What is the range of signed values that may be stored in 20 bits?

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Carry and Overflow
 Carry is important when …
 Adding or subtracting unsigned integers
 Indicates that the unsigned sum is out of range
 Either < 0 or >maximum unsigned n-bit value
 Overflow is important when …
 Adding or subtracting signed integers
 Indicates that the signed sum is out of range
 Overflow occurs when
 Adding two positive numbers and the sum is negative
 Adding two negative numbers and the sum is positive
 Can happen because of the fixed number of sum bits

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Carry and Overflow Examples
 We can have carry without overflow and vice-versa
 Four cases are possible (Examples are 8-bit numbers)
1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 15 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 15
+ +
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 248 (-8)

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 23 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 7

Carry = 0 Overflow = 0 Carry = 1 Overflow = 0

1 1 1 1

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 79 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 218 (-38)
+ +
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 64 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 157 (-99)

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 143 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 119
(-113)
Carry = 0 Overflow = 1 Carry = 1 Overflow = 1
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Range, Carry, Borrow, and Overflow
 Unsigned Integers: n-bit representation
Numbers < min Numbers > max

Borrow = 1 Carry = 1
Finite Set of Unsigned Integers
Subtraction Addition
n
min = 0 max = 2 –1

 Signed Integers: n-bit 2's complement representation

Numbers < min Numbers > max

Negative Positive
Finite Set of Signed Integers
Overflow Overflow
n-1
min = -2
n-1
0 max = 2 –1

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Character Storage
 Character sets
 Standard ASCII: 7-bit character codes (0 – 127)
 Extended ASCII: 8-bit character codes (0 – 255)
 Unicode: 16-bit character codes (0 – 65,535)
 Unicode standard represents a universal character set
 Defines codes for characters used in all major languages
 Used in Windows-XP: each character is encoded as 16 bits
 UTF-8: variable-length encoding used in HTML
 Encodes all Unicode characters
 Uses 1 byte for ASCII, but multiple bytes for other characters

 Null-terminated String
 Array of characters followed by a NULL character

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Printable ASCII Codes
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
2 space ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . /
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?
4 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
5 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _
6 ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
7 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ DEL

 Examples:
 ASCII code for space character = 20 (hex) = 32 (decimal)
 ASCII code for 'L' = 4C (hex) = 76 (decimal)
 ASCII code for 'a' = 61 (hex) = 97 (decimal)
Control Characters
 The first 32 characters of ASCII table are used for control
 Control character codes = 00 to 1F (hexadecimal)
 Not shown in previous slide
 Examples of Control Characters
 Character 0 is the NULL character  used to terminate a string
 Character 9 is the Horizontal Tab (HT) character
 Character 0A (hex) = 10 (decimal) is the Line Feed (LF)
 Character 0D (hex) = 13 (decimal) is the Carriage Return (CR)
 The LF and CR characters are used together
 They advance the cursor to the beginning of next line
 One control character appears at end of ASCII table
 Character 7F (hex) is the Delete (DEL) character

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