1 Schwarzschild Metric

Reading: LL §100

It is generally hard to find analytic solutions of a nonlinear system of equations, like those of
Einstein
Gµν = 8πGTµν . (1.1)

This is a hard problem even in vacuum, where Tµν = 0. Symmetries usually simplify the task. In
particular, assuming spherical symmetry allows us to find a simple and yet very important analytic
solution. Spherical symmetry means that we can write the metric as

ds2 = −h(t, r)dt2 + 2k(t, r)dtdr + l(t, r)dr2 + r2 dΩ2 , (1.2)

where dΩ2 is the metric of a unit round sphere

dΩ2 = dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 . (1.3)

Here we have chosen one of the coordinates (r) to describe the area of the symmetric spheres (4πr2 ).
This is must be familiar from the spherical coordinates in 3d Euclidean geometry where

ds2 = dr2 + r2 dΩ2 . (1.4)

However, it is a special feature of R3 that r also measures the distance to the origin. For instance,
the unit 3-sphere metric can be written as

dr2
ds2 = + r2 dΩ2 . (1.5)
1 − r2

Here 4πr2 determines the area of 2-spheres at coordinate r, but it does not measure the distance
between them and the r = 0 point. One can think of the coordinate system (1.5) as picking an
arbitrary point (say the North pole) on the 3-sphere and foliating the manifold with 2-spheres at
constant distance from the North pole. These are a higher dimensional analogs of the latitudes on
the surface of the Earth; so I’ll call them such.

1. Show that the above metric is equivalent to

ds2 = dχ2 + sin2 χdΩ2 , (1.6)

and find the distance between a point at r and the North pole (r = 0).

There is a coordinate singularity at r = 1 in (1.5). This is the analog of the equator. The 3-sphere
is not singular there, it is just the area of the latitudes that is not a good coordinate for the

1
entire manifold because it ranges over the same values on the northern and southern hemispheres.
Similarly, the coordinates in (1.2) might not cover the entire manifold.

We can set gtr = 0 in (1.2) by the coordinate transformation

k(t, r)
t → f (t, r) with ∂r f (t, r) = . (1.7)
h(t, r)

The gtt and gtr components will change under this transformation, but they remain functions of t
and r. It is convenient to parametrize the new metric as

ds2 = −eν(t,r) dt2 + eλ(t,r) dr2 + r2 dΩ2 . (1.8)

2. Find the transformation that takes the metric

ds2 = −dt2 + 2tdtdr + dr2 (1.9)

to one with gtr = 0, and gtt = e2r . What is the new grr ?

It is relatively easy to compute the Riemann tensor and hence Rµν , R and Gµν for the metric (1.8).
For instance
λ̇
Gtr = , (1.10)
r
λ0 eν
 
ν−λ 1
Gtt = e − 2 + 2, (1.11)
r r r
 0
eλ

ν 1
Grr = + 2 − 2, (1.12)
r r r
where dot denotes d/dt and prime d/dr. In vacuum Gµν = 0. Therefore, from (1.10) we learn that
λ is a function of r only. From the combination

ν 0 + λ0
0 = eλ−ν Gtt + Grr = (1.13)
r

we learn that
ν(t, r) = −λ(r) + ν̃(t). (1.14)

But we can set ν̃(t) = 0 by a coordinate redefinition of t → t̃:

Note that this does not involve r and hence does not change gtr or grr . I will drop the tilde and
call the new coordinate t, in terms of which ν = −λ. Finally, we can integrate (1.11) to find
 rg  2 dr2
ds2 = − 1 − dt + 2 2
r
+ r dΩ , (1.16)
r 1 − rg

2
where rg (the gravitational radius) is an integration constant.

The fact that spherical symmetry uniquely fixes the vacuum solution up to one parameter rg
(also known as the Birkhoff’s theorem) is reminiscent of electromagnetism, where the role of rg is
played by the electric charge Q. This is the consequence of the fact that there is no spherically
symmetric electromagnetic or gravitational waves, which in turn results from the nonzero helicity
of photons and gravitons.

Newtonian limit. The Schwarzschild metric describes the spacetime outside spherically sym-
metric matter distribution. As a simple model for the matter distribution consider a non-relativistic,
static star. This means that there is a choice of coordinates where Ti0 = 0 and

T00 = ρ(r), ρ(r) = 0. (1.17)

In these coordinates we continue to have gtr = 0 and ν̇ = λ̇ = 0 inside the star. In the non-
relativistic limit, the spacetime is close to Minkowski, so we can linearize in ν and λ, moreover
Tij ≈ 0. We can now use

1
8πGρ = Gtt = (λ + rλ0 ) + O(ν 2 , λ2 , νλ), (1.18)
r2

and the trace of the Einstein equation

R = −8πGTµµ ≈ 8πGe−ν ρ, (1.19)

where using ν̇ = λ̇ = 0, and to linear order in ν, λ

2λ 1
R(1) = − (rν 00 + 2ν 0 − 2λ0 ). (1.20)
r2 r

Eliminating λ gives
ν0
ν 00 + 2 ≈ 8πGρ (1.21)
r
which is the Poisson equation for the Newtonian potential φ = ν2 . Its solutions is
Z ∞
GM
φ=− , M≡ 4πr2 ρ(r)dr. (1.22)
r 0

3. What is the necessary condition on the radius of the star for the non-relativistic approximation
to be valid?

Orbits. Free test particles move on geodesics, described by

dxν dxα dxβ

3
where τ is the proper time for massive particles and the affine parameter for the massless ones.

4. Derive the geodesic equation by varying the point particle action with respect to xµ
r
dxµ dxν
Z
Spp = −m dσ −gµν (x) . (1.24)
dσ dσ

At large distances, the orbits of the Schwarzschild metric are well approximated by Keplerian orbits,
however when r ∼ rg there are significant differences. For instance, there is an innermost circular
orbit as we will see next.
π
Without loss of generality, we can choose the circular geodesic to be in the θ = 2 plane. Then

dt dϕ
uµ = (ṫ, 0, 0, ϕ̇), ṫ ≡ , ϕ̇ ≡ . (1.25)
dτ dτ

Note that we changed the definition of dot from d/dt to d/dτ .

Since the metric is independent of t and ϕ, we have two conservation laws:

d e
ut = 0 ⇒ ṫ = r , (1.26)
dτ 1 − rg

d `
uϕ = 0 ⇒ ϕ̇ = 2 , (1.27)
dτ r
where the constants e and ` are, respectively, the energy and angular momentum per unit mass.
The normalization of the 4-velocity uµ uµ = −1 implies

`2
 
2 rg 

e = 1− 1+ 2 . (1.28)
r r

Finally, the r component of (1.23) implies

rg 2
− ṫ + 2rϕ̇2 = 0. (1.29)
r2

Substituting the above expressions for ṫ, ϕ̇, and e gives

rg r
`2 =  . (1.30)
3rg
2 1− 2r

The minimum value for r for this to have a solutions is rmin = 23 rg .