Convex Optimization
Convex Optimization
Electricity markets and tools
Day‐ahead Real‐time
SCUC and SCED SCED
BOTH LOOK LIKE THIS
SCUC: Minimize f(x) SCED:
x contains x contains only
discrete & subject to continuous
continuous h(x)=c variables.
variables. g(x)< b
1
Optimization Terminology
An optimization problem or a mathematical program
or a mathematical programming problem.
Minimize f(x)
subject to
h(x)=c
g(x)< b
f(x): Objective function
x: Decision variables
h(x)=c: Equality constraint
g(x)< b: Inequality constraint
x*: solution 2
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Classification of Optimization Problems
Continuous Optimization Optimization Under Uncertainty
Unconstrained Optimization Robust Optimization
Bound Constrained Optimization Stochastic Programming
Derivative‐Free Optimization Simulation/Noisy Optimization
Global Optimization Stochastic Algorithms
Linear Programming Complementarity Constraints and
Network Flow Problems Variational Inequalities
Nondifferentiable Optimization Complementarity Constraints
Nonlinear Programming Game Theory
Optimization of Dynamic Systems Linear Complementarity Problems
Quadratic Constrained Quadratic Programming Mathematical Programs with
Quadratic Programming Complementarity Constraints
Second Order Cone Programming Nonlinear Complementarity
Semidefinite Programming Problems
Semiinfinite Programming Systems of Equations
Discrete and Integer Optimization Data Fitting/Robust Estimation
Combinatorial Optimization Nonlinear Equations
Traveling Salesman Problem Nonlinear Least Squares
Integer Programming Systems of Inequalities
Mixed Integer Linear Programming Multiobjective Optimization
Mixed Integer Nonlinear Programming 3
www.neos‐guide.org/ provides excellent overview.
Convex functions
Definition #1: A function f(x) is convex in an interval if its
second derivative is positive on that interval.
Example: f(x)=x2 is convex since f’(x)=2x, f’’(x)=2>0
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Convex functions
The second derivative test is sufficient but not necessary.
Definition #2: A function f(x) is convex if a line drawn
between any two points on the function remains on or
above the function in the interval between the two points.
www.ebyte.it/library/docs/math09/AConvexInequality.html 5
Convex functions
Definition #2: A function f(x) is convex if a line drawn
between any two points on the function remains on or
above the function in the interval between the two points.
Is a linear function convex?
Answer is “yes” since a line drawn between any two
points on the function remains on the function. 6
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Convex Sets
Definition #3: A set C is convex if a line segment between
any two points in C lies in C.
Ex: Which of the below are convex sets?
The set on the left is convex. The set on the right is not.
7
Convex Sets
Definition #3: A set C is convex if a line segment between
any two points in C lies in C.
8
S. Boyd and L. Vandenberghe, “Convex optimization,” Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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Global vs. local optima
Example: Solve the following:
Minimize f(x)=x2
Solution: f’(x)=2x=0x*=0.
This solution is a local optimum.
It is also the global optimum.
Example: Solve the following:
Minimize f(x)=x3‐17x2+80x‐100
Solution: f’(x)=3x2‐34x+80=0
Solving the above results in x=3.33 and x=8.
Issue#1: Which is the best solution?
Issue#2: Is the best solution the global solution?
9
Global vs. local optima
Example: Solve the following:
Minimize f(x)=x3‐17x2+80x‐100
Solution: f’(x)=3x2‐34x+80=0. Solving results in x=3.33, x=8.
Issue#1: Which is the
best solution?
x=8
Issue#2: Is the best
solution the global
solution?
No! It is unbounded.
10
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Convexity & global vs. local optima
When minimizing a function, if we want to be sure that we
can get a global solution via differentiation, we need to impose
some requirements on our objective function.
We will also need to impose some requirements on the
feasible set S (set of possible values the solution x* may take).
Min f(x) min f ( x)
subject to subject to
h(x)=c
g(x)< b
Feasible set
xS
Definition: If f(x) is a convex function, and if S is a convex set, then
the above problem is a convex programming problem.
Definition: If f(x) is not a convex function, or if S is not a convex set,
then the above problem is a non‐convex programming problem. 11
Convex vs. nonconvex programming problems
MATHEMATICAL
PROGRAMMING
The desirable quality of a convex
programming problem is that any locally
optimal solution is also a globally optimal Convex
solution. If we have a method of
finding a locally optimal solution, that We address convex
programming
method also finds for us the globally problems in
optimum solution. addressing linear
programming.
The undesirable quality of a non‐convex
programming problem is that any method
which finds a locally optimal solution Non‐convex
does not necessarily find the globally We will also, later,
address a special form of
optimum solution. non‐convex programming
problems called integer
programs. 12
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Convex vs. nonconvex programming problems
It is easy to see why we require the function be convex in order to
guarantee a local optimal is a global optimal
But why do we require that the set
be convex in order to guarantee a
local optimal is a global optimal?
The range of x, [‐8, ‐6] The range of x, [‐8, ‐6], [2, 9]
defines a convex set. If you defines a nonconvex set. If
found the local minimum you found a local minimum at
at x=‐6, it would be the x=‐6, it would NOT be the
global minimum as well. global minimum (which is at
x=2).
The range of x, [‐1, 4]
The range of x, [‐8, ‐6], [‐1, 4]
defines a convex set. If you
defines a nonconvex set. If
found the local minimum
you found a local minimum at
at x=0, it would be the
x=‐6, it would NOT be the
global minimum as well.
global minimum (which is at
x=0).
13
Some simple forms of optimization problems
We focus on this one, but
Two variables with one min f ( x1 , x2 ) conclusions we derive will also
equality‐constraint s.t. h( x1 , x2 ) c apply to the other two. The
benefit of focusing on this one is
that we can visualize it.
Multi‐variable with one min f ( x)
equality‐constraint. s.t. h( x ) c
Multi‐variable with multiple min f ( x)
equality‐constraints. s.t. h( x ) c
In each case, we will only consider problems for which that
• f is convex and
• the constraints define a convex set
And so the problems will be convex programming problems. 14
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Contour maps
. Definition: A contour map is a 2‐dimensional plane, i.e., a
coordinate system in 2 variables, say, x1, x2, that illustrates
curves (contours) of constant functional value f(x1, x2).
2 2
Example: Draw the contour map for f ( x1 , x2 ) x1 x2
[X,Y] = meshgrid(‐
2.0:.2:2.0,‐2.0:.2:2.0);
Z = X.^2+Y.^2;
[c,h]=contour(X,Y,Z);
clabel(c,h);
grid;
xlabel('x1');
ylabel('x2');
15
Contour maps and 3‐D illustrations
.
Height is f(x)
Each contour of fixed value f is
the projection onto the x1‐x2
plane of a horizontal slice
made of the 3‐D figure at a Contours
value f above the x1‐x2 plane.
16
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Solving a convex program: graphical analysis
.
Example: Solve this convex program: min f ( x1 , x2 ) x12 x22
A straight line is a convex set because a line
segment between any two points on it remain on it. s.t. h(x1,x2 ) x1 x2 6
x1 x2 6 x2 x1 6
Superimpose this
relation on top of the
contour plot for f(x1,x2).
1. f(x1,x2) must be minimized, and so we would like the solution
to be as close to the origin as possible;
2. The solution must be on the thick line in the right‐hand corner
of the plot, since this line represents the equality constraint. 17
Solving a convex program: graphical analysis
.
Solution:
x* ( x1 , x2 )* (1.25,1.25)
f ( x1 , x2 )* 3
Any contour f<3 does not
intersect the equality
constraint;
Any contour f>3 intersects the
equality constraint at two
points.
The contour f=3 and the
equality constraint just touch
each other at the point x*.
“Just touch”:
The two curves are tangent to one another at the solution point.
18
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Solving a convex program: graphical analysis
The two curves are tangent to one another at the solution point.
.
The normal (gradient)
vectors of the two curves, at
the solution (tangent) point,
are parallel.
How to obtain gradients?
*
2x
*
{ f ( x1 , x2 )*} x12 x22 1
2 x2
*
*
1
{h( x1 , x2 ) * 6 } x1 x2 6
1
“Parallel” means that the two vectors have the same direction. We do not know that
they have the same magnitude. To account for this, we equate with a “multiplier” λ:
f ( x , x ) h(x ,x ) c
1 2
*
1 2 *
19
Solving a convex program: graphical analysis
.
f ( x1 , x2 )* h(x1,x2 )* c
Moving everything to the left:
f ( x1 , x2 )* h(x1,x2 )* c 0 Alternately:
f ( x1 , x2 )* c h(x1,x2 )* 0
Performing the gradient operation (taking
derivatives with respect to x1 and x2) :
*
x f ( x1 , x 2 ) h(x1 ,x 2 ) c 0
1
f ( x , x ) h(x ,x ) c 0
x 2 1 2 1 2
In this problem, we already know the solution, but what if we did not?
Then could we use the above equations to find the solution?
20
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Solving a convex program: analytical analysis
In this problem, we already know the solution, but what if we did not?
Then could we use the above equations to find the solution?
*
x f ( x1 , x 2 ) h(x1 ,x 2 ) c 0
1
f ( x1 , x2 ) h(x1,x 2 ) c 0
x 2
NO! Because we only have 2 equations, yet 3 unknowns: x1, x2, λ.
So we need another equation. Where do we get that equation?
Recall our equality constraint: h(x1, x2)‐c=0 . This must be satisfied!
Therefore: *
x f ( x1 , x 2 ) h(x 1 ,x 2 ) c
1 0 Three equations,
f ( x1 , x 2 ) h(x 1 ,x 2 ) c 0 we can solve.
three unknowns,
x2
0
h ( x1 , x 2 ) c
21
Solving a convex program: analytical analysis
Observation: The three equations are simply partial derivatives of the
f ( x1 , x2 ) h(x1 ,x2 ) c
function
*
x f ( x1 , x 2 ) h(x 1 ,x 2 ) c
1 0
f ( x , x ) h(x ,x ) c 0
x 2 1 2 1 2
0
h ( x1 , x 2 ) c
This is obviously true for the first two equations , but it is not so
obviously true for the last one. But to see it, observe
f ( x1, x2 ) h(x1,x2 ) c 0
h(x1,x2 ) c 0 h(x1,x2 ) c
22
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Formal approach to solving our problem
Define the Lagrangian function:
L ( x1 , x2 , ) f ( x1 , x2 ) h(x1 ,x2 ) c
In a convex programming problem, the “first‐order conditions” for
finding the solution are given by
L ( x1 , x2 , ) 0
L ( x1, x2 , ) 0
x1
L ( x, ) 0
OR
L ( x1, x2 , ) 0
Or more x
x2 compactly
L ( x, ) 0
L ( x1, x2 , ) 0
where we have
used x=(x1, x2)
23
Applying to our example
Define the Lagrangian function:
L ( x1 , x2 , ) f ( x1 , x2 ) h(x1,x2 ) c
x12 x22 x1 x2 6
L ( x1 , x2 , ) 0
L ( x1, x2 , ) 0 L ( x1 , x2 , ) 2 x1 0
x1 x1
OR L ( x1, x2 , ) 0 L ( x1 , x2 , ) 2 x2 0
x2 x2
L ( x1, x2 , ) 0
L ( x1 , x2 , ) x1 x2 6 0
A set of 3 linear equations and 3 unknowns;
we can write in the form of Ax=b. 24
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Applying to our example
2 0 1 x1 0
0 2 1 x 0
2
1 1 0 6
1
x1 2 0 1 0 1.2247
x2 0 2 1 0 1.2247
1 1 0 6 2.4495
And the objective
function evaluates to:
f ( x1 , x2 )* x12 x22 *
1.2247 2 1.2247 2 3
25
Now, let’s go back to our example with a
nonlinear equality constraint.
26
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Example with nonlinear equality
.Non-convex because a line connecting two points in the min f ( x1 , x2 ) x12 x22
set do not remain in the set. (see “notes” of this slide)
s.t. h(x1,x2 ) 2 x1 x2 3
3
2 x1 x2 3 x2
2 x1
Superimpose this
The relation on top of the
constraint
also provides contour plot for f(x1,x2).
a similar
curve in the
lower left‐
hand‐corner
1. f(x1,x2) must be minimized, and so we would like the solution
to be as close to the origin as possible;
2. The solution must be on the thick line in the right‐hand corner
of the plot, since this line represents the equality constraint. 27
Example with nonlinear equality
.
Solution:
x* ( x1 , x2 )* (1.25,1.25)
f ( x1 , x2 )* 3
Any contour f<3 does not
intersect the equality
constraint;
Any contour f>3 intersects the
equality constraint at two
points.
The contour f=3 and the
equality constraint just touch
each other at the point x*.
“Just touch”:
The two curves are tangent to one another at the solution point.
28
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Example with nonlinear equality
The two curves are tangent to one another at the solution point.
.
The normal (gradient)
vectors of the two curves, at
the solution (tangent) point,
are parallel.
How to obtain gradients?
*
2x
*
{ f ( x1 , x2 )*} x12 x22 1
2 x2
*
2 x
{h( x1 , x2 ) * 3} 2 x1 x2 3 2
*
2 x1
“Parallel” means that the two vectors have the same direction. We do not know that
they have the same magnitude. To account for this, we equate with a “multiplier” λ:
f ( x , x ) h(x ,x ) c
1 2
*
1 2
*
29
Example with nonlinear equality
This gives us the following two equations.
*
x f ( x1 , x 2 ) h(x1 ,x 2 ) c 0
1
f ( x , x ) h(x ,x ) c 0
x 2 1 2 1 2
And we add the equality constraint to give 3 equations, 3 unknowns:
*
x f ( x1 , x 2 ) h(x 1 ,x 2 ) c
1 0 Three equations,
f ( x , x ) h(x ,x ) c 0 three unknowns,
x2 1 2 1 2
we can solve.
0
h ( x1 , x 2 ) c
30
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Example with nonlinear equality
Define the Lagrangian function:
L ( x1 , x2 , ) f ( x1 , x2 ) h(x1,x2 ) c
x12 x22 2 x1 x2 3
L ( x1 , x2 , ) 0
L ( x1, x2 , ) 0 L ( x1 , x2 , ) 2 x1 2x2 0
x1 x1
OR L ( x1, x2 , ) 0 L ( x1 , x2 , ) 2 x2 2x1 0
x2 x2
L ( x1, x2 , ) 0 L ( x1 , x2 , ) 2 x1 x2 3 0
3
x1 x2 1.2247
You can solve this algebraically to obtain 2 and f=3 in
3 both cases
x1 x 2 1.2247
2 31
Example with nonlinear equality
Our approach worked in this case, i.e., we
found a local optimal point that was also a
global optimal point, but because it was
not a convex programming problem, we
had no guarantee that this would happen.
The conditions we established, below, we call first order conditions.
For convex programming problems, they are first order sufficient conditions to provide
the global optimal point.
For nonconvex programming problems, they are first order necessary conditions to
provide the global optimal point.
L ( x, ) 0
x
L ( x, ) 0
32
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Multiple equality constraints
min f ( x) We assume that f and
h are continuously
s.t. h( x) c differentiable.
L ( x, ) f ( x) 1 h1( x ) c1 2 h2( x ) c2
... m hm( x ) cm
First order necessary conditions finds (x*, λ*) that solves the above:
L ( x* , * ) 0
x
L ( x* , * ) 0
33
Multiple equality & 1 inequality constraint
min f ( x) We assume that f, h, and
g are continuously
s.t. h( x ) c
differentiable.
g ( x) b
Solution approach:
• Ignore the inequality constraint and solve the problem.
(this is just a problem with multiple equality constraints).
• If inequality constraint is satisfied, then problem is solved.
• If inequality constraint is violated, then the inequality constraint
must be binding inequality constraint enforced with equality:
g ( x) b
Let’s look at this new problem where the inequality is binding.
34
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Multiple equality & 1 inequality constraint
min f ( x ) We assume that f, h, and
s.t. h( x ) c g are continuously
differentiable.
g ( x) b
L ( x, , ) f ( x) 1 h1( x ) c1 2 h2( x ) c2
... m hm( x ) cm g ( x) b
First order necessary conditions finds (x*, λ*, μ*) that solves the
above:
L ( x* , * , * ) 0 We were able to write down this
x solution only after we knew the
* * inequality constraint was binding.
L ( x , , *) 0 Can we generalize this approach?
L ( x* , * , *) 0
35
Multiple equality & 1 inequality constraint
L ( x, , ) f ( x) 1 h1( x ) c1 2 h2( x ) c2
... m hm( x ) cm g ( x) b
If inequality is not binding, then apply first order necessary
conditions by ignoring it:
μ=0
g(x)-b≠0 (since it is not binding!)
If inequality is binding, then apply first order necessary
conditions treating inequality constraint as an equality constraint
μ≠0
g(x)-b=0 (since it is binding!)
This relation encodes our
Either way: solution procedure!
μ(g(x)-b)=0 It can be used to generalize our
necessary conditions 36
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Multiple equality & multiple inequality constraints
min f ( x ) We assume that f, h, and
s.t. h( x ) c g are continuously
differentiable.
g ( x) b
L ( x, , ) f ( x) 1 h1( x ) c1 2 h2( x ) c2 - ... m hm( x ) cm
1 g1 ( x) b1 2 g1 ( x) b1 ... n g1 ( x) b1
First order necessary conditions finds (x*, λ*, μ*) that solves the
above:
L(x , , ) 0
* * * These conditions also referred
x to as the Kurash-Kuhn-
Tucker (KKT) conditions
L ( x , , *) 0
* *
An additional requirement
min f ( x ) We assume that f, h, and
s.t. h( x ) c g are continuously
differentiable.
g ( x) b
For KKT to guarantee finding a local optimum, we need the
Kuhn-Tucker Constraint Qualification (even under convexity).
This condition imposes a certain restriction on the constraint functions .
Its purpose is to rule out certain irregularities on the boundary of the
feasible set, that would invalidate the KKT conditions should the optimal
solution occur there.
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Economic dispatch calculation (EDC)
Generator unit cost function:
COSTi = CiPi aiPi biPi ci
2
where Power balance
COSTi = production cost n
Pi = production power
i 1
Pi PD PLOSS Ptie PT
(no transmission
Unit capacity limits representation)
Pi P i Pi P i
where:
Pi P min min generation level
Notation: double underline means lower bound.
39
Double overline means upper bound.
General EDC problem statement.
n Two unit system, KKT conditions:
min f ( Pi ) Ci Pi L C1 P1
0 1 1 0
P1 P1
i 1 L C 2 P2
Subject to 0 2 2 0
n P2 P2
P
i 1
i PT L
0 P1 P2 PT 0
k 0, k 1, 2
Two unit system, Lagrangian function:
L P1, P2, , 1, 1, 2, 2 C1 P1 C2 P2
P1 P2 PT
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Unit 1 Unit 2
Generation
Specifications:
Minimum Generation 200 MW 100 MW
Maximum Generation 380 MW 200 MW
Cost Curve Coefficients:
Quadratic Term 0.016 0.019
Linear Term 2.187 2.407
Constant Term 120.312 74.074
h(P1 , P2 ) P1 P2 400
200 P1 380 P1 380, -P1 200
100 P2 200 P2 200, -P2 100 41
LaGrangian function
L P1, P2, , 1, 1, 2, 2 0.016 P1 2.187 P1 120.312
2
P1 P2 400
1P1 200 1 P1 380
L
0 0.032 P1 2.187 1 1 0
P1
L
0 0.038 P2 2.407 2 2 0
P2
L
0 P1 P2 400 0
g x c 0 1 P1 200 0, 1 P1 380 0
2 P2 100 0, 2 P2 200 0
42
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Assume all inequality constraints are non‐binding.
This means that
i 0 and i 0 i 1, n
And KKT conditions become
0.032 0 1 P1 2.187
0 0.038 1 P2 2.407
1 1 0 400
Solution yields:
P1 220.29
P 2 179.71
9.24
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What is = $9.24/MW‐hr ???
It is the system “incremental cost.”
It is the cost if the system provides an
additional MW over the next hour.
It is the cost of “increasing” the RHS of the
equality constraint by 1 MW for an hour.
We can verify this.
45
46
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Get cost/hr for each unit.
C1 P1 0.016220.29 2.187220.29 120.312
2
C 2 P 2 1120.25 $ / hr
Total cost/hr are C1+C2
CT C1 P1 C 2 P2 1378.53 1120.25 2498.78
47
Now solve EDC for Pd=401 MW to get P1,P2
P1 220.83
P 2 180.17
9.25
48
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C 2 P 2 1124.51 $ / hr
Total cost/hr are C1+C2
CT C1P1 C 2P2 1383.52 1124.51 2508.03
Total cost/hr changed by 2508.03‐2498.78 = 9.25 $/hr,
which is in agreement with our interpretation of lambda.
49
The λ we have computed here is the same as the LMP assuming the transmission system has
infinite capacity (“copper plate”). Observe in the above that the LMPs are very close to the
same. This is because it was only 9:10am and load was not yet very heavy, and so almost all
transmission was unconstrained (looked like infinite capacity). 50
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The Lagrange multiplier corresponding to a
constraint gives the change in the objective
function for an increase in the right‐hand‐side
of the constraint by one unit.
h(P1 , P2 ) P1 P2 400 9.24
P1 380 1 0
-P1 200 1 0
P2 200 2 0
-P2 100 2 0
51
Generation with Limited Energy
Supply
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Fuel Delivery Networks
Schedule oil usage so as to not
empty storage tank until new
supplies are available
Generators with hydro units on river networks
Schedule hydro to
avoid overflow of
reservoirs
54
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Generation With Limited Energy Supply
• Economic operation requires that fuel
expenditure should be minimum
• Fuel supply with no limitation
• Fuel supply with limitation
– Incorporate fuel supply constraints in the
economic dispatch
– Solve the economic dispatch by appropriate
method
“Take or Pay” Fuel Supply Contract
• Purchase a specific number of cubic feet of
gas for a fix price
• Contract specifies a time period for the gas to
be taken
• If buyer does not take all the gas purchased
the unused gas remains with the seller.
• There is no refund for the unused gas.
• Summary: Buyer pays fixed amount for gas
whether it uses the gas or not.
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Take or Pay example
The T generator is supplied
By a take‐or‐pay gas contract
Generators 1 to N do not have
Fuel supply restrictions.
57
Problem Variables
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Load Conversion to Discrete Hours
Basic Optimization Blocks
Determine the minimum production cost for units 1 to N
subject to constraints that ensure that fuel consumption
is as contracted and also subject to the set of constraints
to ensure that power supplied is within limits each
interval.
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LaGrange Function
For any given time period j = k
and
has the units $/ton or $/bbl or $/cuft and therefore serves as a fuel price
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Example 5A
Gas contract calls for the T plant to burn 40
million cuft of gas Gas contract cost =
2$/1000cuft x 40 million cuft = $ 80,000 Use
use six 4 hour time periods for a 24 hour day
Load Profile
Time Period Load
1. 0000–0400 400 MW
2. 0400–0800 650 MW
3. 0800–1200 800 MW
4. 1200–1600 500 MW
5. 1600–2000 200 MW
6. 2000–2400 300 MW
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Solution to Sample
Optimum Economic Schedule
(Gas Constraints Ignored) Optimal Schedule (Gas Constraints Met)
Uses 21.8 million
cuft of gas
Generators with hydro units on river networks
Schedule hydro to
avoid overflow of
reservoirs
66
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Hydroplant Components.
Incremental water rate versus
power output
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Basic Hydro – Thermal Problem
Hydro Scheduling Problem
max
• The hydroplant can supply the load by itself
for a limited time.
• The energy available from the hydroplant is
insufficient to meet the load:
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Problem Statement
• Use up the entire amount of energy from
the hydroplant in such a way that the cost of
running the steam plant is minimized.
• The steam‐plant energy required is
• The steam unit is not required to run for the
entire interval of Tmax hours. Therefore,
Scheduling Problem
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• This means that the steam plant should be run
at constant incremental cost for the entire
period it is on.
• Let this optimum value of steam‐generated
power be 𝑃∗ for all time intervals the steam
unit is on.
• The total cost over the interval is
Where
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Example 5D Part 2:
Instead of specifying the energy limit on the
steam plant, let the limit be on the volume of
water that can be drawn from the hydroplants’
reservoir in 1 week. Suppose the maximum
drawdown is 250,000 AF, how long should the
steam unit run?
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THE HYDROTHERMAL
SCHEDULING PROBLEM
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The Lagrange function is
and for a specific interval j = k,
gives
And gives
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The Lagrange function with
network loss
• At each hour
• Lagrange function
• Equations for hour k
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Hydraulically Coupled
Hydroelectric Plants
Pump Storage Hydro Plant
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Pump Storage Hydro Plant
Pump Storage Hydro Plant
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Pumped‐Storage Hydroplants
• Pumped‐storage hydroplants serve the peak
load with hydro‐energy and then pumping the
water back up into the reservoir at light load
periods.
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Pumped‐Storage Hydro‐
Scheduling with a λ‐γ Iteration
Assumptions
Constant head hydro‐operation.
An equivalent steam unit with convex input–output curve.
A 24‐h operating schedule, each time intervals equals 1 h.
In any one interval, the plant is either pumping or
generating or idle (idle will be considered as just a limiting
case of pumping or generating).
Beginning and ending storage reservoir volumes are
specified.
Pumping can be done continuously over the range of
pump capability.
Pump and generating ratings are the same.
There is a constant cycle efficiency.
Pump Storage Hydro Plant
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• The total Lagrange function is
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