Programmable logic controller

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PLC & input/output arrangements

A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC, or Programmable Controller is a small

computer used for automation of real-world processes, such as control of machinery
on factory assembly lines. The PLC usually uses a microprocessor. The program can
often control complex sequencing and is often written by engineers. The program is
stored in battery-backed memory and/or EEPROMs. Unlike general-purpose
computers, the PLC is packaged and designed for extended temperature ranges, dirty
or dusty conditions, immunity to electrical noise, and is mechanically more rugged
and resistant to vibration and impact.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Features
 2 PLC compared with other control systems
 3 Digital vs. analog signals
o 3.1 Example
 4 How PLCs package I/O capabilities: Modular, Rack, P2P
 5 Programming
 6 PID loops
 7 User interface
 8 Communications
 9 History

 10 External links
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Features
The main difference from other computers are the special input/output arrangements.
These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators. PLCs read limit switches,
temperature indicators and the positions of complex positioning systems. Some even
use machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs drive any kind of electric motor,
pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders or diaphragms, magnetic relays or solenoids. The
input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have
external I/O modules attached to a proprietary computer network that plugs into the
PLC.

PLCs were invented as less expensive replacements for older automated systems that
would use hundreds or thousands of relays and cam timers. Often, a single PLC can
be programmed to replace thousands of relays. Programmable controllers were
initially adopted by the automotive manufacturing industry, where software revision
replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels.

The earliest PLCs expressed all decision making logic in simple ladder logic inspired
from the electrical connection diagrams. The electricians were quite able to trace out
circuit problems with schematic diagrams using ladder logic. This was chosen mainly
to reduce the apprehension of the existing technicians.

The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include typical relay
control, sophisticated motion control, process control, distributed control systems and
complex networking. Today, the line between a general purpose programmable
computer and a PLC is thinning. The data handling, storage, processing power and
communication capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to
desk-top computers. PLC-like functionality, combined with remote I/O hardware,
allow a general-purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain
applications.

With the IEC 61131-3 standard, it is now possible to program PLCs using structured
programming languages, and logic elementary operations. A graphical programming
notation called Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable
controllers.

[edit]

PLC compared with other control systems

PLCs are well-adapted to a certain range of automation tasks. These are typically
industrial processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining
the automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where
changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain
everything needed to handle high power loads right out of the box; very little
electrical design is required and the design problem centers on expressing the desired
sequence of operations in ladder logic (or function chart) notation. PLC applications
are typically highly customized systems so the cost of a PLC is low compared to the
cost of contracting a designer for a specific, one-time only design. On the other hand,
in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control systems quickly pay for
themselves due to the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally chosen
instead of a "generic" solution.

However, it should be noted that some PLCs no longer have a very high cost. Modern
PLCs with full capabilities are available for a few hundred USD.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used.
For example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical
cam timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities.

A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of

units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies and
input/output hardware) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would
not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions of
units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these
controllers. (However, some specialty vehicles such as transit busses economically
use PLCS instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the
development cost would be uneconomic.)

Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require
algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs.
Very high speed controls may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft
flight controls.

[edit]

Digital vs. analog signals

Digital or Discrete signals behave as switches, yielding simply an On or Off signal (1
or 0, True or False, respectively). Pushbuttons, limit switches, and photo-eyes are
examples of devices providing a discrete signal. Discrete signals are judged using
either voltage or current, where a specific range is denominated as On and another as
Off. A PLC might use 24 V DC I/O, with values above 22 V DC representing On and
values below 2VDC representing Off. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O.

Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of values between zero and full-
scale. These are typically interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with
various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits available
to store the data. Pressure, temperature and weight are often analog signals. Analog
signals can use voltage or current, but do not have discrete ranges for On or Off.
Instead they work in a defined range of values that are reliable for a particular device.
Typically an analog 4-20 mA or 0 - 10 V signal would be converted into an integer
value of 0 - 32767. Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e. from
welders or electric motor starts) than voltage inputs.

[edit]

Example

As an example, say the facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is drawn
from the tank by another system, as needed and our example system must manage the
water level in the tank.
Using only digital signals, the PLC has two digital inputs from float switches (tank
empty and tank full). The PLC uses a digital output to open and close the inlet valve
into the tank.

If both float switches are off (down) or only the 'tank empty' switch is on, the PLC
will open the valve to let more water in. If only the 'tank full' switch is on, the valve
turns off. Both switches being on would signal that something is wrong with one of
the switches, as the tank cannot be both full and empty at the same time. Two float
switches are used to prevent a 'flutter' condition where any water usage activates the
pump for a very short time causing the system to wear out faster.

An analog system might use a load cell (scale) that weighs the tank, and a rate valve.
The PLC could use a PID feedback loop (see section below) to control the rate valve.
The load cell is connected to one of the PLC's analog inputs and the rate valve is
connected to another of the PLC's analog outputs. This system fills the tank faster
when there is less water in the tank. If the water level drops rapidly, the rate valve can
be opened wide. If water is only dripping out of the tank, the rate valve adjusts to
slowly drip water back into the tank.

In this system, to avoid 'flutter' adjustments that can wear out the valve, many PLCs
have a "deadband". A technician adjusts this deadband so the valve moves only for a
significant change in rate. This will in turn minimize the motion of the valve, and
reduce its wear.

A real system might combine both approaches, using float switches and simple valves
to prevent spills, and a rate sensor and rate valve to optimize refill rates. Backup and
maintenance methods can make a real system very complicated.

[edit]

How PLCs package I/O capabilities: Modular, Rack,

P2P
Modular PLCs have a limited number of connections built in for inputs and outputs.
Typically, expansions are available if the base model does not have enough I/O.

Rack-style PLCs have processor modules with separate [optional] I/O modules, which
may occupy many racks. These often have thousands of discrete and analog inputs
and outputs. Often a special high speed serial I/O link is used so that racks can be
remotely mounted from the processor, reducing the wiring costs for large plants.

PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication
between processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have
individual control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the
communication link. These communication links are also often used for HMI devices
such as keypads or PC-type workstations.

A rule-of thumb is that the average number of inputs installed is three times that of
outputs for both analog and digital. The 'extra' inputs arise from the need to have
redundant methods to monitor an instrument to appropriately control another, and
from the need to use both manual command inputs to the system and feedback from
the controlled system itself.

[edit]

Programming
Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary programming
panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function
keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Programs were
stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were very
minimal due to lack of memory capacity. More recently, PLC programs are typically
written in a special application on a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-
connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The very oldest PLCs used non-
volatile magnetic core memory but now the program is stored in the PLC either in
battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory.

Early PLCs were designed to be used by electricians who would learn PLC
programming on the job. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic", which
strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. Modern PLCs can be
programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder logic to more traditional programming
languages such as BASIC and C. Another method is State Logic, a Very High Level
Programming Language designed to program PLCs based on State Transition
Diagrams.

Recently, the International standard IEC 61131-3 has become popular. IEC 61131-3
currently defines five programming languages for programmable control systems:
FBD (Function block diagram), LD (Ladder diagram), ST (Structured text, similar to
the Pascal programming language), IL (Instruction list, similar to assembly language)
and SFC (Sequential function chart). These techniques emphasize logical organization
of operations.

While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all

manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction set
mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different
makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models
may not be directly compatible.

[edit]

PID loops
PLCs may include logic for single-variable generic industrial feedback loop, a
"proportional, integral, derivative" loop, or "PID controller."

A PID loop is the standard solution to many industrial process control processes that
require proportional, integral("improve errors") or derivative ("faster response")
control techniques. A PID loop could be used to control the temperature of a
manufacturing process, for example.

[edit]

User interface
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm
reporting or everyday control. A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is employed for
this purpose.

A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text displays are
available as well as graphical touch screens. Most modern PLCs can communicate
over a network to some other system, such as a computer running a SCADA system
or web browser.

[edit]

Communications
PLCs usually have built in communications ports for at least RS232, and optionally
for RS485 and ethernet. Modbus is the lowest common denominator communications
protocol. Others are various fieldbuses such as Profibus.

[edit]

History
The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the American automotive industry.
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing
automobiles was accomplished using relays, timers and dedicated closed-loop
controllers. The process for updating such facilities for the yearly model change-over
was very time consuming and expensive, as the relay systems needed to be rewired by
skilled electricians. In 1968 GM Hydramatic (the automatic transmission division of
General Motors) issued a request for proposal for an electronic replacement for hard-
wired relay systems.

The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Boston, Massachusetts. The
first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associates eighty-fourth project,
was the result. Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to developing,
manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: Modicon, which stood for
MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that project was Dick
Morley, who is considered to be the "father" of the PLC. The Modicon brand was sold
in 1977 to Gould Electronics, and later acquired by German Company AEG and then
by Schneider Electric, the current owner.
One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Modicon's headquarters in
North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon by GM, when the unit
was retired after nearly twenty years of uninterrupted service.

The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs, and Modicon still
numbers some of its controller models such that they end with eighty-four. PLCs are
used in many different industries and machines such as packaging and semiconductor
machines. Well known PLC brands are ABB Ltd., Koyo, Honeywell, Siemens,
Modicon, Omron, Allen-Bradley, General Electric, Tesco Controls, Panasonic
(Matsushita), and Mitsubishi.

[edit]

External links
 NETPROG - industrial automation company - PLC programing
 mikroElektronika - Development Tools, Compilers, Books PICPLC boards
and free online books for PLC controllers
 PLC tutorial site for beginners
 Online PLC simulator program
 Management of your company's PLC
 Timeline of PLC History
 Basic PLC Information
 Interview with Dick Morley (pdf)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller"

Ladder Logic
http://www.electronicsteacher.com/digital/ladder-logic/

it has everything you need about control circuits and PLC AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
Ladder Logic

 
Ladder diagrams are used to describe the logic of electrical control systems. There are
differences in the way ladder logic was implemented in computerized form as
compared to hard wired so I will be talking about the old way first. The basic
component of the control system is the control relay which is a solenoid that operates
a number of switches or contacts. The contacts come normally open and normally
closed, normal being when the relay is not energized. Relays come in various breeds
like time delay and latching types. Other components of the control system are the
field devices such as push buttons, limit switches, lights, and controlled devices like
motor starters and solenoid operated valves. As I said, ladder diagrams show the logic
of the controls but they are not used to build the system, a wiring diagram is used for
that. But the wiring diagram wouldn’t be used to trouble shoot with or show
functionality, that’s where the ladder is most useful.

When viewing the pictorial version of the controls as in Figure 1, one can see that the
devices on a rung of the ladder are in series reading horizontally and in parallel
reading vertically. Control voltage is supplied to the vertical rails, L1 being hot and
L2 being common or ground. In industry it is common to see 120vac control and
480vac power circuits. Anything less than 600 volts is considered low voltage and
virtually everything will have an insulation rating of 600 volts. (My robot uses 5vdc
control and 28vdc power circuits.) In Figure 1 we see a normally closed (N.C.) stop
button and a normally open (N.O.) start button and a motor starter. The circle with the
M represents the coil of a relay, not the actual motor. The M contact is physically part
of the starter and actuates with the coil. The contact labeled O.L. (over load) is also
part of the starter and is a circuit breaker tripped by over current in the motor legs.
The M contact is called the seal contact. Without it, the motor would run as long as
someone held down the start button and would stop when released. With it, the power
is allowed to flow through the start button to energize the coil, which closes the M
contact, maintaining the complete circuit when the start button is released. To stop the
motor, any element in series with the coil can break the circuit, in this case the stop
button. True, this was a long winded explanation but you now have the critical pieces,
how to turn something on, make it stay on, and how to shut it off. It’s a truth table in
disguise, ANDs and ORs, ONs and OFFs.