LEARN PYTHON PROGRAMMING FOR BEGINNERS

Lewis Smith
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 Table of Contents

Introduction
What Is Python?
How to Use Python Programming?
Programming Language Explanation
Easiest Programming Languages for Beginners
Creation and Customization of Web Apps
How to Work with Django
User Accounts
How to Style and Deploy an App
Operators in Python
Why Are Operators Necessary?
What Are Operands and Operators?
Exercise
Loops
What Is a Loop?
Exercises
Interacting with Python
Getting Started; Python Tips and Tricks
Web Scraping
Debugging
Understanding Machine Learning
Supervised Machine Learning Models
Unsupervised Machine Learning Models
Deep Learning
Python Concepts at Intermediate Level
Recursion in Python
Fibonacci Sequence
Memoization in Python
 Namespaces in Python
Deep vs. Shallow Copy of Python Objects
Decision Making and Flow Control
Exercise
Input and Output
Printing and Formatting Outputs
Exercise
Learning About Functions
Understanding the Concept of Function
Using Various Functions
Exercise
Dictionary
Creating a Dictionary
Accessing Elements from a Dictionary
Membership Test in a Dictionary
Iteration in a Dictionary
Exercise
Using Files
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Testing Your Code
Exercise
Conditional and Iterative Programming
Code indentation
Conditional statements
Exercises
Variables and Constants in Python
Why Variables Are needed?
Variable Naming and Assignment
Constant
 Exercise
Conclusion
 Introduction
Whether your goal is to launch a career in the lucrative world of software
development or to simply make some money on the side while you are still in
college, Python is your ideal choice. Here's why Python can run on all
popular operating systems, including Linux, Windows, and Mac OS. For the
Mac OS version, you will need to install the XCode developer tools. The
latest version is recommended. Python's simplicity and adaptability make the
language ideal for scripting.
Many software programs in the WordPress and web development industries
are written in Python. This means there is an abundance of free resources that
are available and waiting to be tapped by the aspiring developer. In addition,
Python's Web Development Tools page is a valuable resource for learning
Python. It has links to resources, such as code editors, deployment servers,
and e-books. This page also gives an explanation of the capabilities and
compatibility of Python.
For the beginning coder, Python is one of the easiest languages to learn and
use. You do not need to learn other languages, such as C++, to use the
language. On the same note, Python's simple syntax allows new programmers
to understand and use the language quickly. The creators of Python aimed to
make a language that would be easy for programmers to learn while also
giving the creator enough flexibility to write practically invisible code.
Python is also relatively easy to use since there are pre-built libraries, such as
PRAW.
Here is another great resource -- a free course on Coursera that will teach you
Python in just twelve insightful lectures. You don't have to be a big-name
developer to get started with Python. There are many schools across the
world that teach Python using online courses. You will learn to take an idea,
code it up on the web, and get it online. In the industry, this can mean making
a website, a mobile app, or even a video game. In fact, you can get started
building web applications with Python as fast as you can code. Using Python,
you can reuse code made by other developers because Python is a highly
versatile language. You can build websites with advanced functionality that
can have users input data and pick orders.
The tutorials range from simple "Hello World" applications to real-world
design elements. It doesn't matter how much you already know about Python
because Programming for Beginners is the perfect Python learning resource
for everyone. Instead of finding your code on the Internet, you can find the
code that you need from scratch and make it work. Here is another fantastic
Python resource -- Python Tutor, an awesome Python tutorial site for learning
the language. This is a comprehensive course that will teach you both the
high-level and advanced features of Python. The Python Tutor is an excellent
place to learn the C programming language for Python. It covers a wide
variety of topics, ranging from web services to the Python Difflib library. The
Python Tutor also teaches you the Python programming basics and provides a
high-level introduction to Python.
 What Is Python?
This is a programming language that is object-oriented and of high level and
uses semantics. It is a high level in terms of structures in data and a
combination of dynamic typing and binding. This is what makes it attractive
to be used for Rapid Application Development and for connecting different
elements.
Python, with its simplicity and learning with ease, helps in reading the
programming language, and that is why it reduces the cost to maintain the
program. Python encourages program modularity and code reuse; this is
because it supports different packages and modules. The standard library and
the Python interpreter can be found in binary form. It is not necessary to
charge all the available platforms and can be distributed freely.
Most programmers love the Python program because they offer great
productivity. The edit-test debug is a cycle that is fast and does not need any
compilation process. It is easier to debug a Python program; it will not cause
any segmentation fault. An exception is raised when an error is discovered by
the interpreter. When the exception is not known by the program, the
interpreter prints a trace. The debugger, on a level of sourcing, will allow
being inspecting any variables. There will be a settling of breakpoints,
arbitrary expressions, and stepping on the code at any time. The Python is
what writes the debugger, the easier, and a quick debugging method and
programs of adding prints on the source and statements.
Python is open-source; this means you can use them freely for any
commercial applications. Python is programmed to work on UNIX,
Windows, and Mac and can be transferred to Java. Python is a language that
helps in scripting and helps in web applications for different content.
It is like Perl and Ruby. Python is helped by several imaging programs; users
are able to create customized extensions. There are different web applications
supporting Python API like Blender and GIMP.
This information given on Python programming is beneficial for both the
newbies and the experienced ones. Most of the experienced programmers can
easily learn and use Python. There is an easier way to install Python. Most
distributors of UNIX and Linux have the recent Python. That is the reason
why most computers are already installed with Python. Before you start using
Python, you need to know which IDEs and text editors’ best work with
Python. To get more help and information, you can peruse introductory books
and code samples.
The Python idea was discovered in 1980 after the ABC language. Python 2.0
was introduced; it had features like garbage collection and list
comprehensions, which are used in reference cycle collection. When Python
3.0 was released in 2008, it brought about a complete language revision.
Python is primarily used for developing software and webs, for mathematics
and scripting systems. The latest version of Python is known a Python 3
while Python 2 is still popular. Python was developed to help in reading and
similar aspects to different languages like English and emphasis on
Mathematics. A new line is used to complete a Python command, as opposed
to other programming languages that normally use semi-colons. It depends on
indentation, whitespace, and defining the scope.

How to Use Python Programming?

Before using Python, you first need to install and run it on your computer,
and once you do that, you will be able to write your first program. Python is
known as a programming platform that cuts across multiple platforms. You
can use it on Linux, macOS, Windows, Java, and .NET machines freely and
as an open-source. Most of the Linux and Mac machines come preinstalled
even though on an outdated version. That is the main reason why you will
need to install the latest and current version. An easier way to run Python is
by using Thonny IDE; this is bundled with the latest Python version. This is
an advantage since you will not need to install it separately.
To achieve all that, you can follow the simple steps below:

1. First, you will need to download Thonny's IDE.

2. Then run the installer to install it on your computer.
3. Click on the File option, then new. Save the file on the .py
extension, for instance, morning.py or file.py. You are allowed to
use any name for the file, as long as it ends with .py. Write the
Python code on the file before saving it.
4. To run the file, click on RUN, the run current script. Alternatively,
click on F5 to run it.
There is also an alternative to install Python separately; it does not involve
installing and running Python on the computer. You will need to follow the
listed steps below:

1. Look for the latest version of Python and download it.

2. The next step is to run the installer file to install Python.
3. When installing, look for Add Python to environment variables.
This will ensure that Python is added to the environment variables,
enabling you to run Python from any computer destination and
part. You have the advantage of choosing the path to install
Python.
4. When you complete the process of installing, you can now run
Python.
There is also an alternative and immediate mode to run Python. When Python
is installed, you will type Python on the command line; the interpreter will be
in immediate mode. You can type Python code, and when you press enter,
you will get the output. For instance, when you type 1 + 1 and then press
enter, you will get the output as 2. You can use it as a calculator, and you quit
the process, type quit, then press enter.
The second way to do it is by running Python on the Integrated Development
Environment. You can use any editing software to write the Python script
file. All you need to do is save the extension .py, and it is considered a lot
easier when you use an IDE. The IDE is a feature that has distinctive and
useful features like file explorers, code hinting, and syntax checking and
highlighting that a programmer can use for application development.
You need to remember that when you install Python, there is an IDE labeled
IDLE that will also be installed.
That is what you will use to run Python on the computer, and it is considered
the best IDE for beginners. You will have an interactive Shell when IDLE is
opened. This is where you can have a new file and ensure that you save it as a
.py extension.
 Programming Language Explanation

Learning a programming language enables a person to begin coding. So,

which programming language should a beginner start learning? The
programming languages offer varying features, which means no straight and
correct answer to this question.
Instead, an individual should evaluate his or her needs to determine which
programming language they should start learning. He or she should also
consider aspects such as dedicated community and intuitive syntax to aid in
choosing where to begin. There is a saying, "Start as you mean to go on," and
it applies here. A person who identifies and learns the right language will
eventually be ready to learn to program effectively and successfully.

Easiest Programming Languages for Beginners

Below are some of the simplest programming languages that first-time
learners can study and put in use. Understanding how they function will help
a person to determine which programming language to start learning.

1. Python
Python is a programming language that a person utilizes to form desktop and
web applications. He or she uses it as a vital tool in scientific computing,
machine learning, and data mining. Python provides one of the easiest and
best programming languages for those at a beginner level. It also enables
users to convey the idea of interest fully while using fewer lines of code.
Guido van Rossum created this programming language in the 1980s as a free
and open-source language kind. Python is easy to employ because it is
flexible, procedural, contains dynamic language, and is oriented to object
(OOP). Additionally, it also offers functional programming styles. Many
people mention Python very quickly in any talks concerning coding due to its
popularity among teachers and learners. Many schools in Europe and the
United States commonly provide Python in the introduction phase during the
courses involving programming languages.
Python is an ideal programming language for a beginner to learn because it is
straightforward and offers some fun when writing. Beginners find the Python
program's syntax to be less strange, not intimidating, and more comfortable to
process. The Python source code used in this programming utilizes only
white space, making the source code appear similar from one project to
another. Furthermore, Python provides the Pythonic approach to coding,
which is essentially the right way to encrypt. Thus, correctly writing the
Pythonic code allows the beginner learner to read and comprehend it easily.
Additionally, a person can find tutorials regarding the Python programming
language easily due to its popularity among users. Research and knowledge
are fundamental to any learning process. Hence, readily accessible Python
tutorials are a huge benefit for beginners. Some tutorials help a person to
have a sense and familiarity with the language. Likewise, some sites or
courses provide more interactive methods to comprehend the programming
language further.
Learning the Python programming language is useful because many
applications and fields apply it in their development. It uses web frameworks
like Django to enable developers to create and power different back-end
features and applications. It also provides dictionaries and libraries such as
SciPy, which a person uses to initiate a particular project. As a result, Python
enables development to proceed rapidly.
Therefore, Python is an excellent programming language for a beginner to
learn. It is free, easy to understand, and offers some benefit to its future
application.

2. JavaScript
JavaScript is a programming language that an individual uses to develop web,
mobile, and web apps. Most modern browsers run this programming
language. It provides a cross-platform nature that makes it easy for a beginner
to learn which, in turn, makes it a popular programming language. All web
browsers support JavaScript and can provide scripting, along with server-side
languages, such as when using Node.js.
A person mainly uses JavaScript in front-end development that offers
scripting language on the client-side. It provides an excellent introductory
programming language for beginners despite receiving fewer
recommendations than Python and Ruby programming languages. This
shortcoming is because JavaScript is a programming language that does not
use typing. Consequently, a person discovers any errors associated with the
runtime.
It is also important to note that beginners should not confuse JavaScript with
Java. Java is a programming language, while JavaScript is primarily a
scripting language for front-end development. JavaScript is vital in web
development and learning; it allows the person to understand the
programming language basics. In addition, it also prepares him or her for
further education related to web development, as well as C programming
language. It is because the syntax of the C programming is similar to that of
the JavaScript programming language.
It provides a solid education for beginners because it has a range of
applicability. JavaScript programming language involves dynamical-typing
or untyped, and it is also more relenting compared to other kinds. It is cross-
platform, enabling a person to function without a compiler as it runs in his or
her browser. This feature makes it a popular programming language among
users and learners. A beginner can also learn using JavaScript to access other
complex programming languages such as C++.
A beginner may face some setbacks linked with JavaScript such as issues
concerning untyped features where they do not show errors until runtime.
However, a beginner can carry out some appropriate research that will enable
him or her to comprehend JavaScript easily. It offers various benefits like
cross-platform compatibility, among others. These advantages make it valid
as an introductory programming language as it is the language of the web.

3. Ruby
Ruby is a programming language that facilitates multiple paradigms such as
imperative, functional, and object-oriented programming. As a result, Ruby is
a very adaptable programming language that assists a learning beginner in
several ways. A person employs the Ruby programming language when
developing applications based on the web, mobile apps, and websites.
Ruby provides a syntax that people can read easily. It contains a general-
purpose and dynamic language that a beginner not only finds readable but
straightforward as well. This syntax enables a person to learn many things,
and use the programming without necessarily studying other numerous jargon
and commands. An individual employs the Ruby programming language
when dealing with the back-end development of his or her work.
Ruby on Rails refers to a web framework based on the Ruby programming
language. It comprises a group of Ruby shortcuts. A beginner can learn Ruby
on Rails and use it to develop web applications, such as a web blog in a
matter of minutes. Learning Ruby and its associated framework like Ruby on
Rails can help a person in several ways. It can enable him or her to gain
knowledge and skills in a commonly used programming language. It also
helps them get jobs because even the beginner level of expertise is highly
valuable to various startups.

4. Java
Java is one of the most dependable and influential programming languages
around. A person uses Java programming language to develop native
applications on Android. He or she can also employ it as a server-side
language. James Gosling developed it in the 1990s, and Oracle currently
maintains it. Thus, Oracle’s Java is among the oldest programming languages
that exist.
Java is a programming language that is class-based and object-oriented.
Therefore, it allows for the application of cross-platform and portability. Java
usually is available during later or advanced stages in school because it
utilizes syntax derived from other programming languages like C and C++.
Nevertheless, it is also helpful to a beginner because it enables them to
develop a thinking process similar to a programmer.
Even though Java builds many of its syntaxes on C or C++, it is still
necessary for a beginner to know it. He or she learns and comprehends
information processing on a PC. In turn, this knowledge provides a strong
foundation for further coding learning and career. The analytical
programming knowledge that a beginner gains from learning Java helps them
use it and address any problems connected to Java. Moreover, many
questions or challenges relating to Java already have answers or solutions
since it is one of the oldest programming languages.
Hence, the beginners learning Java may need to start by learning about C or
C++ and developing their analytical thinking skills. Despite this setback, Java
offers many benefits to the learner because it is a standard programming
language with many resources. It provides a long-standing language and a
solid programming foundation. The beginner can start and grow his or her
programming skills. He or she can then effectively utilize Java in the
subsequent application and web development.

5. PHP
PHP is a programming language that an individual utilizes to maintain scripts
and develop websites. It is the most common server-side programming
language, and it provides server-side scripting. Additionally, it can also create
graphics and templates, create desktop operations and command-line scripts.
PHP programming language offers a code that makes it easy for a learner to
envision how it functions.
As a result, PHP is ideal for a beginner because they can perceive the code
functionality use the programming language’s versatility. PHP can apply to
any significant operating system and enable the use of procedural or/and
object-oriented programming. It helps a beginner to learn and understand the
simple aspects of the programming language. It also helps him or her access
wide-ranging programming aspects, which they can apply in other
complicated processes.

6. C and C++
C and C++ programming languages developed many parts of game engines,
mobile apps, games, desktop apps, software, and operating systems. The C
programming language helps to define the basics because it is among the
essential programming languages in the field of computer science. Hence, a
beginner will likely learn the C and C++ programming languages before
moving on to others.
C programming language utilizes complicated code in comparison to others
but still makes the basics clear. For this reason, a beginner needs to learn it
despite the complexity of coding that it provides. C++ bases upon the C
programming language and is one of the most critical programming
languages around. It includes enhancement whereby; it enables object-
oriented programming. It also allows a person to understand how things and
information work in computer science.
A beginner mainly concerned with game development can start by learning
the C++ programming language because it features a lot in developing games
and game engines. C++ may be slightly more challenging to learn than C, but
it offers many rewards to those who successfully overcome it. Thus, a
beginner learning C and C++ programming languages gain valuable
background knowledge of computer science. He or she also learns how to
apply C and C++ in software and game development.

7. C#
C# is a programming language developed by Microsoft that a person uses in
web and application development. It is excellent for beginners because it
provides an Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) that is simple to use and wide-
ranging. The syntax in C# bases upon the C programming language. Hence, it
helps the learner gain a solid foundation in computer science since C
provides the field's primary programming languages.
C# contains multiple and complex compilers and interpreters which may be a
setback for first-time learners. However, the easy to utilize IDE, computer
science background, and Visual Studio make C# ideal for a beginner to learn
and use. Visual Studio simplifies the startup process and offers features like
auto-generated files and auto-complete.
 Creation and Customization of Web Apps
A web application runs on a remote server as a software application. Most of
the time, web browsers are for web applications like the internet. Some of the
applications are used for intranets, schools, firms, and organizations. They
are not the same as other applications, since you do not need to install them.
Some of the common web applications include Flickr, Wikipedia, Facebook,
and Mibbit. They are popular as most operating systems are on the web
browser and programmers can change them with ease.
Several benefits come with using web application:
• They do not need to be installed since they run inside a browser.
• They do not require a lot of space for storage; only a display of data is
needed.
• Web applications help with compatibility problems; all that is needed is a
browser.
• Most of the data used is remotely stored; hence, ease of cooperation and
communication.
• Web application helps in mail and communication.
Apart from the listed benefits of web applications, there are also drawbacks:
• Most of the known web applications seem to look different as compared to
the regular programs. The reason is that they run inside a browser. The user
experience might be different and not liked by many.
• To follow standards, web applications need to be coded, and any small
changes will prevent the web application from being used in any browser.
• There is a need to have a connection between the web application and the
server in order for it to run smoothly. For the connection to happen, you will
need bandwidth. When the connection is not adequate, you may experience
data loss or the application may be unstable.
• Most of the web applications depend on the server that hosts them. The web
application is not usable when it is off, but the traditional applications will
still work.
• The overall control of the web application is with the mother company.
They have the power to create a new version when they feel like it.
• When the data is remotely stored, exporting it to be used by other
applications will be hard.
• Web applications enable the company to track all the activities of the users,
hence privacy issues.
At this point, you need to know how a web application works. Most of the
web applications are coded in a language that is browser supported, like
HTML or JavaScript. The main reason is that the languages depend on the
browser to execute their programs. Others are considered static, and will not
need any processing from the server.
When you have a web application, you will need a webserver to manage all
the client's requests. The server will help in performing all the tasks, and store
data and information. The application servers include ASP, PHP, and JSP. A
normal web application has a specific flow:
• The user will trigger a request using the internet that goes to the webserver.
This can be done through the web browser or user interface on the
application.
• The web server will then forward that request to the specific web
application server.
• The requested task will be performed by the web application server; this
includes querying the database and data processing that will generate the
required results.
• The results will be sent to the web server by the web application server; this
is concerning the data processed or the required information.
• The client will get a response from the web server; they will get the
information they have requested on the user’s display.

How to Work with Django

Django is used to create web applications. It is specifically meant to create a
web application that connects to a database. You can also deal with user
management, good security, and internationalization. Some of the common
web applications include Disqus, Pinterest, and Instagram. You can use
Django as standalone libraries, even though it will require extra work. That is
the reason why it is not advisable to use it as a standalone tool.
Django is a combination of different components that work by responding to
user requests.
The first step is having the request-or-response system. The main work is to
receive and return web responses. Django will accept all the URLs' requests
and return all the HTML information to the web browser. The page can be in
plain text or something better.
The web requests will enter the Django application through the URLs. The
only entry point for any Django application is the URL; developers control
available URLs. When you access the URL, Django will enable the viewing.
The views will process all your requests. Django views are considered to be
codes generated from Python, when the URL is accessed. Views are
something simple like returning a text to the user. The text can be made
complex. It can be form processing, credit card processing, and database
querying. When the view has completed processing, a web response is sent to
the user.
When a web response is returned, the user can access the URL on the
browser to access the response. This could be an HTML web page that shows
a combination of images and text. They are created using the template system
from Django.
With Django information, there is the flexibility to have more applications.
You can use that you create a simple blog, mobile applications, or desktop.
Sites like Instagram and Pinterest power the Django framework.

User Accounts
A user account is on the network server used to store the username of the
computer, password, and any relevant information. When you have the user
account, it will allow you or not to connect with other computers or networks.
With a network with multiple users, you will need user accounts. A good
example of a user account is your email account.
There are different types of user accounts, regardless of the operating system
that you are using. You will be able to trace, authenticate, and monitor all the
services. When you install an operating system, it creates user accounts to
have access after the installation. After the installation, you will have four
user accounts: system account, super user account, regular and guest user
account.
• System account: These are accounts that are used to access resources in the
system. The operating system will use these accounts to know if a service is
allowed to access the resources or not. When they are installed, they create
relevant accounts. After installation, the account will be able to access the
needed information. If you are a network or system administrator, you will
not need to know the accounts.
• Super user account: This account is privileged in the operating system.
When one is using Windows, the account is referred to as the Administrator
account. When using Linux, the account is the root account, and the operating
system will help the user with completely different tasks. Tasks are like
starting services, creating and deleting new user accounts, installing new
software, and changing system files.
• Regular user account: This account does not have many privileges and
cannot make changes in the system properties and files. They only operate on
tasks they are authorized to, like running applications, creating files, and
customizing variables.
• The Guest user account: This is the account with less privilege; you will not
be able to change anything with the system. The account performs temporary
tasks like playing games, watching movies, or browsing the internet. Using
Windows, this account will be created after installation; in Linux, you will
need to create the account manually after installation.
The next step is to know how to create a user account. When you have
multiple users using the same computer, you will need to have new user
accounts for each user. When using Windows, you can create several
accounts. Each of the user accounts has its settings. It will allow you to
control the files separately, and when each user logs in, it will be like their
own computer.
The first step in creating a user account is to click on Start on the Control
Panel then click on Add or Remove User Accounts. Click on Create a New
Account and choose the account type. You will enter the account name, and
then select the account type that you wish to create. The administrator has the
privilege to create and change accounts, and install programs. The difference
is a standard user cannot perform such tasks. The last step will be to click on
the Create Account button and close the Control Panel.

How to Style and Deploy an App

Different deployment options need to be considered. When an app is
developed in the application builder, it is created in the workplace. All the
workplaces have IDs and names; all you need is to create an application in
the development, and then deploy it in production.
During deployment, you will decide where you want the existing ID in the
workplace; in the existing HTTP server, or a new one. The deployment
options are given below.
You will first create an application that is expressed by end-users. The best
way to deploy an application is by creating an Application Express for end
users. Then, send the URL and login details to the users. It will work when
the user population is tolerant and small.
You will need to use the same schema and workplace. You need to export
and then import the application, then install it under a different application
ID. This strategy will work when there are fewer changes to any known
objects.
Use the same schema and a different workplace; export all, and then import
the applications into another workplace. It will prevent any production and
modification by developers.
Use a different schema and workspace. Export and then import the
application into a separate workplace, and install it in a separate schema.
Use a different database for all variations. Export, then import to another
Oracle application, and then install it to a different database and schema.
To deploy an app, in the configuration manager console, click on Software
Library. Go to Application Management, and then choose Application or
Application Group.
Choose from an application or application group in the deploy list, and click
Deploy.
 Operators in Python

Why Are Operators Necessary?

One of the main characteristics of a computer is that it has strong computing
power. It inputs the data obtained from the outside into the computer, carries
out operations through programs, and finally outputs the desired results. In
this chapter, we will discuss various types and functions of operators in
Python and how to use Python to design expressions for arithmetic
calculation and logical judgment.
No matter how complex the program is, the ultimate goal is to help us
complete all kinds of operations, and the process must rely on one expression
to complete. The expression is just like the usual mathematical formula,
For example: first=(second+third)*(first+10)/3.
The above mathematical formula is an expression; the =,+,* and/sign are
operators, and variables first, second, three, and constants 10 and 3 are
operands. An expression consists of an operator and an operand.
What Are Operands and Operators?
From the following simple expression (which is also a program statement):
first = second+5 the above expression contains three operands first, second,
and 5, an assignment operator "=," and an addition operator "+." In addition
to arithmetic operators, Python also has comparison operators and logical
operators applied to conditional judgment expressions.
In addition, there is an assignment operator that assigns the result of the
operation to a variable. Operator if there is only one operand, it is called
"unary operator," such as "-23" which expresses negative value. When there
are two operands, they are called "binocular operators." Arithmetic operators
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are called
"binocular operators," such as 3+7. These various and fully functional
operators have different operation priorities. This chapter will introduce the
usage of these operators in detail.
Arithmetic operator
This is the most frequently used operator in programming languages. It is
commonly used for some four operations, such as addition operator,
subtraction operator, multiplication operator, division operator, remainder
operator, division operator, exponent operator, etc. The +, -, *, and/operators
are the same as our common mathematical operation methods, while the sign
operator is mainly used to represent the positive/negative value of operands.
Usually, the + sign can be omitted when the constant is set to a positive
number.
For example, "first=5" and "first=+5" have the same meaning. In particular,
we should remind everyone that negative numbers are also represented by the
"-" operator. When negative numbers participate in subtraction, in order to
avoid confusion with subtraction operators, it is better to separate negative
numbers with small brackets "().”
"/"and "//"are both division operators. The operation result of "/"is a floating-
point number. The "//"will remove the decimal part of the division calculation
result and only takes the integer. The "%" operator is the remainder.
For example:
first= 5
second= 2
Print(first/second) # result is floating-point number 2.5
Print(first// second) # result is integer 2
Print(first% second) # Result Is Remainder 1
If the result of the operation is not assigned to other variables, the data type
of the operation result will be dominated by the variable whose data type
occupies the largest memory space in the operand. In addition, when the
operands are integers, and the operation result will produce decimals, Python
will automatically output the result as decimals. We do not need to worry
about the conversion of data types.
However, if the operation result is to be assigned to a variable, the memory
space occupied by the variable must be large enough to prevent the
excessively long part of the operation result data from being discarded. For
example, if the result of the operation is a floating-point number and is
assigned to an integer variable, the decimal part of the operation result will be
truncated.
The division "/"operator in the arithmetic operator is a conventional division.
The quotient obtained after the operation is a floating-point number. If the
quotient is expressed as an integer, the int () function can be called.
Int(15/7) # Output 2 "* *" is a power operation, for example, to calculate the
fourth power of 2:
print(7** 4) # The result is 28
Note that the priority of arithmetic operators +, -, *, and/is "multiply and
divide first, then add and subtract." The following example illustrates that the
operation result of the above formula of 10+2*3 is 16. In the expression, the
precedence of parentheses is higher than in multiplication and division.
If the above expression is changed to (10+2)*3, the operation result will be
36. If operators with the same priority are encountered, the operations are
performed from left to right. Let's take a look at the application of the simple
four operations with an example program.
This sample program allows users to input Celsius temperature and convert it
to Fahrenheit temperature through program operation.
The formula for converting Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit temperature is
F=(9/5)*C+32.
[sample procedure: sampletemp.py]
Celsius temperature is converted to Fahrenheit temperature
-*- coding: utf-8 -*-
#converts the input Celsius temperature into Fahrenheit temperature
Tip: F = (9/5) * C+32
Celsius = float(input ("Give the Celsius temperature"))
Fahren = (9 / 5) * Celsius + 32
The execution results of the 08 print ("Celsius temperature {0} is converted
to Fahrenheit temperature {1}.”format(C,F)).
Program Code Resolution:
Line 02: Let the user input Celsius temperature and call float () function to
convert the input into a floating-point data type.
Line 03: Converts the input Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit.
Line 04: Output the conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit according to
the specified format string. Incidentally, the "+" sign can be used to connect
two strings.
sample="mno"+"pqrs"
# result sample = "mnopqrs"

Assignment operator
The assignment operator "=" consists of at least two operands. Its function is
to assign the value to the right of "=" to the variable to the left of the equal
sign. Most beginners of many programming languages cannot understand the
meaning of the equal sign "=" in programming languages.
It is easy to confuse it with the mathematical equivalent function. In
programming languages, the "=" sign is mainly used for assignment, but we
understand it from a mathematical point of view, and "=" used to be
considered as the concept of "equal."
For example, the following program statement:
addition = 0;
addition= addition + 1;
The meaning of addition=0 in the above program statement is also easy to
understand, but for the statement addition=addition+1, many beginners often
cannot understand the meaning of this statement. In fact, the "=" in Python
programming language is mainly used for "assignment."
We can imagine that when a variable is declared, the memory will be
allocated, and the memory address will be arranged. Only when the specific
value is set to the variable by using the assignment operator "=" will the
memory space corresponding to the memory address be allowed to store the
specific value.
In other words, addition= addition+1 can be seen as the result of adding 1 to
the original data value stored in the sum memory address, and then re-
assigning to the memory space corresponding to the sum memory address.
The right side of the assignment operator "=" can be a constant, variable or
expression, and will eventually assign the value to the variable on the left.
On the left side of the operator can only be variables, not numeric values,
functions, expressions, etc. For example, the expression first-second=Third is
an illegal program statement.
Python assignment operators have two types of assignments: single
assignment and compound assignment.
For example, the sample1 = 10 assignment operator can assign the same
value to multiple variables at the same time, in addition to assigning one
value to the variable at a time. If we want multiple variables to have the same
variable value at the same time, we can assign variable values together. For
example, if you want variables first, second, and third to have values of 100,
the assignment statement can be written as follows:
first= second = third = 100 when you want to assign values to multiple
variables in the same line of program statements, you can separate variables
with,".” For example, if you want the variable first to have a value of 10, the
variable second to have a value of 20, and the variable third to have a value
of 30, write the assignment statement as follows: first, second, third = 10, 20,
and 30 python also allows ";.”
To continuously write several different program statements to separate
different expressions.
For example, the following two lines of program code:
result= 10
Index = 12 ";"can be used. Write the above two lines on the same line.
Please look at the following demonstration:
result= 10;
Index = 12 # concatenates two program statements or expressions with
semicolons in one line

Exercise
The report card statistics assistant is again time to practice. The theme is to
make a report card statistics program. Enter the names of 10 students and
their scores in mathematics, English, and Chinese. Calculate the total score
and average score and judge which grade belongs to A, B, C, and D
according to the average score. 3.8.1 The sample program shows that this
time, the students' scores are not inputted one by one, which is too time-
consuming.
The author has established the scores.csv file in advance. The file contains
the names of 10 students and their scores in mathematics, English, and
Chinese. The topic requirements for this exercise are as follows:
(1) Read in a CSV file with the file name scores.csv
(2) Calculate the total score, average score, and grade (A, B, C, D). A: an
average of 80 to 100 points b: an average of 60 to 79 points c: an average of
50 to 59 points d: an average of fewer than 50 points
(3) Output the student's name, total score, average score (reserved to one
decimal place), and grade. CSV file.
The so-called open data refers to data that can be freely used and distributed.
Although some open data require users to identify the data source and the
owner, most open platforms for government data can obtain the data free of
charge. These open data will be published on the network in common open
formats.
If different applications want to exchange data, they must use a common data
format. CSV format is one of them. The full name is Comma-Separated
Values. Fields are separated by commas and are all plain text files like TXT
files. They can be edited by text editors such as Notepad. CSV format is
commonly used in spreadsheets and databases.
For example, Excel files can export data to CSV format or import CSV files
for editing. Much Open Data on the network will also provide users with
directly downloaded CSV format data. When you learn how to process CSV
files, you can use these data for more analysis and application.
Python Built-in CSV module can process CSV files very easily. CSV module
is a standard library module, which must be imported with import instruction
before use. Let's look at the usage of the CSV module. Usage of the CSV
module can read CSV file or write to CSV file. Before reading, you must first
open the CSV file and then use the CSV.reader method to read the contents
of the CSV file.
The code is as follows:
[get the module] csv # to load csv.py
With open ("furst.csv,” encoding = "utf-8") ascsvfile:
# open file specified as cssvfile
Reader = csv.reader (cssvfile)
# returns reader object
For row in reader:
#for loop reads data row by row
 Loops
What Is a Loop?
We sometimes need some portion of our programs to repeat when a specific
condition is satisfied. This is achieved using loops. As in the conditional
statements, the loops also have blocks. In the if-else structure, the if block or
the else block was executed depending on the condition. In loops, the loop
block is repeatedly executed as long as the condition is satisfied. This means
that the condition has to be modified inside the loop block so that the number
of repetitions of a loop would be finite, otherwise the loop would become an
infinite loop which makes our programs stuck.
The while loop
The general structure of a while loop is as follows:
while (condition):
commands in the

while block will

be executed until
the condition becomes
False
Let's analyze a simple while loop example as follows:
a=0
while a<20:
print ("Current value of a is", a)
a += 1
print ("The loop ended.")

The value of a is set as 0 at the beginning. The commands in the while loop
(again, an indented block) will be executed as if a is less than 20
(a<20). In the beginning a=0 therefore the command in the loop will execute.
First, the print statement will print the current value of a as 0.
Then the expression a += 1 will increment a by one making the new value of
a to be 1. Then the loop condition will be checked again. Since a is still less
than 20, the command in the loop block will be executed also and the new
value of a will be 2. This will continue until a=20. When a=20, the loop
condition will be broken, and then looping will end. The last line which is
after the loop will be executed and the program will exit. The output of our
program utilizing a while loop.
We increment the loop variable a so that at some point the loop will exit.
In the above example, we incremented it by one in each loop (a += 1). We
can modify the loop variable per our need, not necessarily incrementing by 1.
For example, let’s increment a by 5 in each loop:

a=0

while a<20:
print ("Current value of a is", a)
a += 5
print ("The loop ended.")
The output of this program will show that a is incremented by 5 in each loop:

The same loop incrementing the value of a by 5

Note that Current value of a is 20 is not executed as the a=20 breaks the loop
condition (a<20) and the loop has existed before executing this command.
If we fail to make the loop condition False at some point, the loop continues
forever and forms an infinite loop. For example, if we forget to increment the
value of the loop variable, we form an infinite loop: a=0
while a<20:
print ("Current value of a is", a)
print ("The loop ended.")
Since the value of will not be updated, the loop will
continue printing
Current value of a is 0 forever. I have done the dangerous 105

Note: Executed this program in IDLE (infinite loop WARNING: don’t try at
home, or you can try and just press CTRL together to force quit the IDLE
prompt):
The infinite loop tried to print Current value of a is 0 infinitely until I have
beaten it by pressing Ctrl+C
Another possible situation where an infinite loop occurs is setting the loop
condition incorrectly.
For example:
a=1
while a>0:

print("Current value of a is", a)

a += 1
print("The loop ended.")
Since the value of a will always be greater than 0, the loop condition will
always be True and the loop will continue forever (until we press Ctrl+C).
Another infinite loop beaten by Ctrl+C

Therefore, we should be extra careful about the loop conditions to avoid

infinite loops.
The break and continue keywords. The break and continue keywords are
used for controlling the behavior of loops. When a break statement is
executed in a loop, the loop exits immediately without checking the state of
the loop variable: a=0
while a<11:
if a==5:
print("The break statement will be executed now.")

break

print("Current value of a is", a)

a += 1
print("Loop finished.")
The loop would print the values of a as 0,1…,10. However, when a=5, the
condition of the if the statement becomes True and the commands inside the
if the statement is executed, including the break statement.
Therefore, the loop ends immediately when a=5:

The break keyword broke the loop.

We can also use the True keyword as the loop condition to intentionally make
an infinite loop and use the break statement to control the loop as follows:
while True:
user_input=input("Please enter the password:")
if user_input == "12345":

print("Correct password.")
break
print("Incorrect password!! Please try
again...")
Since the loop condition is set as True, the while loop is expected to execute
indefinitely. However, if the user enters the correct password, the commands
in the if statement will execute breaking the infinite cycle. The loop continues
until the correct password is entered.

Another useful command used in conjunction with loops is the continue

keyword. Its operation is similar to the break statement.
However, instead of finishing the loop, the continue command makes the
program to skip the current iteration of the loop and continue with the next
iteration:
a=0
while a<10:
if a==4:
a += 1

print("The commands under this point will be skipped.\nThe

The loop will continue with the next value.")
continue
print("Current value of a is", a)
a += 1
print("The loop ended.")
In this example, when a=4, the if block will be executed which contains a
continue statement. The execution of the current loop will be skipped and
continue with the next iteration:
continue statement skipped the loop at a=4

The for loop

Another type of loop in Python is the for loop. The for loop enables us to
sweep over a list, tuple, or dictionary structure easily without the need for
managing the loop variable. In order to observe the ease provided by the for
loop, let's first try to sweep over a list using the while loop:
my_list=[1,2,4,5,8,9,11,15]
i=0 # The loop variable

while i<len(my_list):

print("The {}th element of the list is:

{}".format(i, my_listChapteri]))
i += 1
Here, we defined a loop variable i and swept it from 0 to the number which is
(length of my_list -1) and printed the value of i th element in each iteration:
Sweeping over the elements of a list using a while loop and managing a loop
variable
The same program can be re-written using the for loop as follows: my_list=
[1,2,4,5,8,9,11,15]
for the member in my_list:
print("The current element of the list is:", member)

Sweeping over the list elements using the for loop, the general structure of a
for loop is s follows:
for member in list:
Commands in the loop (typically using the current member of the loop) We
can also sweep over strings using the for loop:
my_string="Hello"
for current_char in my_string:
print(current_char)
The for loop iterates the string's each element (character) and prints on the
screen:

Sweeping a string using a for loop.

The range() function
The for loop can also be used to iterate over tuples and dictionaries but this is
rarely used. On the other hand, we can also form a number sequence using a
built -in the function called range() and iterate over this sequence using the
for loop. The usage of the range() function is as follows:
sequence=range(start, stop, step(optional))
Let's form a sequence using the range function and print it:
sequence=range(0,10)

print(*sequence)
Note that we used the * operator here to split the values of the sequence for
printing on the screen (remember that we used the * operator in strings too).
Also, note that the last value specified in the range function is not included in
the sequence:
The output sequence of the range function
We can iterate over the elements of a range() function as follows: for i in
range(0,10,2):
print(i)

In this program, we created a sequence using the range() function which goes
from 0 to 9 with step=2, therefore the sequence returned by range(0,10,2) is
0,2,4,6,8. Let's try this in Python:
Elements of the sequence returned by the range(0,10,2) function are printed
using a for loop.
That's all about the loops in Python. Please try to write the programs given in
the exercises below before continuing to the next chapter where we will see
writing our own functions in Python.
Exercises
1. The factorial of a number n is defined as n!=n.(n-1).(n-2)...2.1. For
example, 6!=6.5.4.3.2.1=720. Please write a program that asks for an integer
from the user and calculates and prints the factorial of that number.
2. Write a program that calculates and prints the sum of the first 100 positive
integers.
3. Write a program that will ask for the grades of 20 students and will
calculate the average of these grades.
4. Write a program that will calculate the greatest common divisor of two
numbers entered by the user.
Beginner’s Guide to Python Programming
5. Write a program that will print the integers from n to 0 in the reverse order
such as if n=6, the program will print 6,5,4,3,2,1,0. The value of n will be
entered by the user.
 Interacting with Python
Finally, any application you fabricate interfaces with the PC and the
information implanted. The emphasis is on the information in light of the fact
that there is no rhyme or reason to have an application without information.
Any application you use deals with the information somehow. The
abbreviation CRUD sums up what most applications do:
• Create
• Read
• Update
• Delete
Utilize the order line for your potential benefit
To begin Python from an order brief, type Python and press Enter. Be that as
it may, that is not everything you can do. You can likewise give extra data to
change the manner in which Python works:
Alternatives: A choice or order line choice starts with a short sign followed
by at least one letter. For instance, on the off chance that you need assistance
with Python, type Python - h and press Enter. You see extra data about
utilizing Python on the order line.
Document Name: Providing an info record name advises Python to stack
that document and run it. You can run any example application from the
download code by giving the filename containing the info model. For
instance, assume you have a model called SayHello.py. To run this model,
type Python SayHello.py and press Enter.
Contentions: Additional data can be acknowledged by an application as a
contribution to control its execution. This extra data is called contention.
Most decisions don't bode well at this point. For instance, - s is an alternate
choice from - S. Python alternatives are
- b: Add admonitions to the yield when your application utilizes some Python
highlights, including str (bytes_instance), str (bytearray_ occurrence), and
coordinating bytes or bytearray with str ().
- bb: add mistakes to the yield when your application utilizes some Python
highlights, for example, str (bytes_instance), str (bytearray_ occasion), and
coordinating bytes or bytearray with str ().
- B: Do not type .py or .pyco records when you play out a module import.
- C cmd: Use the data gave by cmd to begin a program. This choice
additionally advises Python to stop handling on the remainder of the data as
alternatives (they are prepared as a significant aspect of the order).
- d: dispatches the debugger (used to search for mistakes in your
application).
- E: Ignore all Python condition factors, for example, PYTHONPATH, used
to design Python use.
- h: Displays help on choices and factors in the fundamental screen condition.
Python consistently stops in the wake of playing out this assignment without
taking any kind of action so you can see the assistance data.
- I: Python power to let you assess the code intelligently subsequent to
running a content. Power a brief regardless of whether stdin (the default input
gadget) doesn't give off an impression of being a terminal.
- m mod: Launches the module determined by mod as a content.
- O: somewhat enhances the produced bytecode (makes it quicker).
- OO: Performs extra streamlining by erasing report strings.
- q: advises Python not to print form and copyright messages at the intuitive
beginning.
- s: power Python not to add the client's site registry to sys.path (a variable
that discloses to Python where to discover the modules).
- S: Do not dispatch "import site" at startup. Utilizing this choice implies that
Python won't search for ways that may contain the necessary modules.
- u: Allow unbuffered bitstreams for stdout (standard yield) and stderr
(classic blunder) gadgets. The stdin gadget is still cushioned.
- v: Put Python in the full mode with the goal that you can see all the import
guidelines. Utilizing this choice on numerous occasions expands the degree
of verbosity.
- W arg: Allow Python to show little alarms by decreasing the alarm level.
Legitimate arg values are:
• Action
• Message
• Classification
• Module
• Lineno
- x: overlook the main line of a source code record, which permits utilizing of
non-Unix types of #! Cmd.
- X pick: Defines an alternative explicit to the execution. (The documentation
for your Python form examines these alternatives assuming any.)
Use Python Environment Variables to your Advantage
Condition factors are explicit boundaries that are a piece of the order line or
terminal condition of the working framework. They are utilized to arrange
Python reliably. Condition factors perform vast numbers of similar
alternatives exercises set when beginning Python.
Most working frameworks permit you to briefly set nature factors by
designing them during a particular meeting or arranging them forever as a
significant aspect of the operating framework arrangement. The most
effective method to play out this errand relies upon the working framework.
For instance, the Define order can be embraced when working with
Windows.
The utilization of condition factors is valuable when you have to design
Python similarly all the time. The Python condition factors are recorded
beneath:
PYTHONCASEOK = x: Python constrains you to overlook the situation
while investigating the import guidelines. This is a Windows interface just
for factors.
PYTHONDEBUG = x: plays out a similar movement as the - d choice.
PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE = x: plays out a similar movement
as an alternative - B.
PYTHONFAULTHANDLER = x: Python powers Python following to
bomb lethally.
PYTHONHASHSEED = arg: decides the seed esteem that is utilized to
produce hash esteems for different sorts of information. At the point when
this variable is indiscriminate, Python uses an irregular incentive to engender
the hashes of the DateTime, str, and byte objects. The full legitimate range is
from 0 to 4294967295.
Utilize a particular seed an incentive to create an anticipated hash incentive
for testing purposes.
PYTHONHOME = arg: sets the default search way utilized by Python to
scan for modules.
PYTHONINSPECT = x: plays out a similar movement as the - I choice.
PYTHONIOENCODING = arg: indicate the encoding [: errors], (for
example, utf-8) utilized for stderr, stdin and stdout gadgets.
PYTHONNOUSERSITE = plays out a similar action as the - s choice.
PYTHONOPTIMIZE = x: plays out a similar action as the - O choice.
PYTHONPATH = arg: gives a comma-isolated rundown of catalogs (;) to
look for modules.
PYTHONSTARTUP = arg: characterizes the record name that will be
executed when the Python application is begun. This condition variable
doesn't have default esteem.
PYTHONUNBUFFERED = x: plays out a similar activity as the - u choice.
PYTHONVERBOSE = x: plays out a similar movement as the - v
alternative.
PYTHONWARNINGS = arg: plays out a similar movement as the - W
choice.
Enter a request
Subsequent to propelling the Python order line rendition, you can start to type
orders. Utilizing orders permits you to perform errands, test your thoughts for
composing your application, and find more Python data. Using the order line
gives you a hands-on understanding of how Python functions - subtleties that
can be covered up by an intuitive improvement condition (IDE, for example,
IDLE. The accompanying areas permit you to begin utilizing the order line.
Instruct the PC
Python, similar to some other programming language, relies upon the orders.
An order is basically a phase inside a method. When working with Python, an
order, similar to print (), is the same: a stage inside a methodology.
For the PC to comprehend what to do, it issues at least one order perceived
by Python. Python makes an interpretation of these orders into guidelines
comprehended by the PC; so observe the outcome. An order like print () can
show the outcomes on the screen for guaranteed results. Be that as it may,
Python is good with a wide range of orders, some of which show no
outcomes on the screen, yet at the same time, keep on accomplishing
something significant. As you travel through the book, you use orders to play
out a wide range of errands. Every one of these undertakings will assist you
with accomplishing an objective, just as the means of a technique.
Tell the PC you're finished
Sooner or later, the made technique closes. When toasting, the procedure
closes when you get done with buttering. IT systems work in a similar way.
They have a state of takeoff and appearance. When entering orders, the
endpoint of a particular advance is the Enter key.
You press Enter to leave the PC alone mindful that you are going to type the
order. All through the book, you will realize that Python offers a few
different ways to demonstrate that a stage, a gathering of steps, or even a total
application is finished. Regardless of how the undertaking is done, PC
programs consistently have a different beginning stage and breakpoint.
See the outcome
You currently realize that a request is a stage in a strategy and that each
request has a different beginning and endpoint. Additionally, order gatherings
and whole applications likewise have various beginnings and endings points.
 Getting Started; Python Tips and
Tricks

We are going to look at some of the tips and tricks that will help you to get
started with Python, along with how we can work with web scraping and
debugging some of our programs as well.
Let’s get started with this one to help us get started and finalize how good our
codes can be.
Web Scraping
Imagine for a moment that we are going to pull up a large amount of data
from many websites, and we want to be able to do this at a very fast rate.
How would we be able to go through this without having to manually go
through each of the websites that we have and gathering the data in this
manner?
This is where the process of web scraping is going to come into play.
Web scraping is going to be used by companies in order to collect a large
amount of information from websites.
But why does someone want to go through and collect all of this data, in such
large amounts, from these websites in the first place?
There are a lot of reasons for this, and some of them are going to include the
following:
• Price comparison: Some of the different services that are out there, such as
ParseHub, will work with this process in order to collect data from websites
for online shopping and then can use this in order to compare prices of
similar products.
• Email address gathering: We can use the process of web scraping in order to
help with marketing.
This can help us to collect the email IDs that come with customers and then
send out bulk emails to these individuals as well.
• Research and development: Web scraping is going to be used to help a
company collect a lot of data from websites.
We can then analyze this and use it to finish our surveys and to help out with
research and development.
• Job listing: Details regarding openings of jobs, interviews, and more can be
collected from a variety of websites and then we can list them in one place in
order to make them easier for the user to access
Web scraping is going to be more of an automated method that we can use in
order to get a huge amount of data from any website that we choose.
The data that we are able to get out of these websites will be unstructured.
And this web scraping helps a company to collect all of this data and then
will ensure that they are able to store it in a structured form.
There are a variety of methods that we are able to use in order to scrape these
websites that we want, including online Services, writing out some of your
own codes, and APIs.
Talking about whether or not scraping of this kind is seen as legal or not, it
can depend on what the website says. Some websites are fine with this, and
some are not.
You can check with each website to figure out whether they are fine with it,
and if they are, you are able to continue on with your web scraping tools and
gather up the information that you need.
Since we are talking about Python here, we are going to take some time to
see how we are able to use Python to help out with web scraping. But this
brings up the reasons why we would want to work with Python to help out
with this process rather than working with some of the other coding
languages that are out there.
Some of the features that come with Python and can make it more suitable for
web scraping will include:
• It is easy to use: The code that you are able to use along with Python is
going to be simple. This ensures that any of the codes that you want to use
for web scraping will not be as messy to work with and can be easy to use.
• A large library collection: There are a lot of libraries that work with data
science and web scraping that are also compatible with what the Python
language is able to do.
These include options like Pandas, Matplotlib, and NumPy.
This is why you will find that the Python language is going to be suitable for
web scraping and even for some of the other manipulations that you want to
do with the extracted data.
• Dynamically typed: This is something in Python where you will not need to
go through and define all of the types of data that you are using with our
variables.
Instead, you are able just to use these variables wherever you would like.
This is going to save a lot of time when it comes to working on the codes and
can make your job faster than ever.
• The syntax of Python is going to be easy to understand the syntax that we
are able to see with Python is easy to understand, mainly because the
statements that come with this are going to be written in English. It is going
to be expressive and easy to read, and the indentations will make it easier for
us to figure out between the different parts of the code.
• A small line of code is able to handle some large tasks. Web scraping is a
process that we are going to use in order to save some time.
And with Python, you are able to write out a small amount of code in order to
get some of the big tasks that you would like to accomplish done.
This is going to save you time not only when it comes to figuring out the
important data that comes in that website, but can also help you to save time
when you would like to write out the codes.
• Community: At times, when you are a beginner, you are going to find that
there are parts of the code that are hard to work with and are not going to go
as smoothly as you had hoped in the process.
This is where you will find the Python language to be healthy.
If you get stuck while writing out some of your code, you will like that the
Python community is going to help you to answer your questions and get
things done on the code in no time.
Now that we know some of the benefits that come with Python, especially the
ones that are going to help us to handle some of the web scrapings that we
want to do, it is time for us to take things to the next step and look at how the
process of web scraping is going to work.
When you run out the code that you want to work within web scraping, you
will find that there is a request that is sent out to the URL.
Then there is going to be a response sent back from that request, and then the
server is able to send the data and allows you a chance to read the page,
whether it is XML or HTML at the time.
The code is then able to go through and parse the XML or HTML page, find
the data, and takes it out.
The location where you are going to find this data when it is extracted will
depend on what you told the code to do.
Often it is going to be moved over to a database so that you are able to search
through it later and learn more from it as well.
There are going to be a few simple steps that you are able to take to make
something to help us go through the process of extracting the data with the
help of web scraping in Python.
The steps that will help you to use Python to help with web scraping
include:
• Find the URL that you would like to scrape in the first place.
• Inspect the page that you are planning on using.
• Find the data that is on the page that you would like to extract.
• Write out the code that you would like to use with the help of Python in
order to complete this process.
• Run the code that you just wrote and then extract out the data that you
would like to use.
• Store the data in the format that would be the most helpful for you in the
process.
There are also a few options that you are able to use when it is time to work
on the process of web scraping.
As we know, Python is already able to be used for a lot of different types of
applications, and there are going to be a ton of libraries with Python that is
going to be used for different purposes.
There are a few libraries that work the best when it comes to working with
the process of data web scraping will include:

1. Selenium: This is going to be a web testing library.

It is going to be used to help automate some of the activities that are found on
your browser.

2. BeautifulSoup: This is going to be one of those packages that you

are able to use with Python to help us to parse HTML and XML
documents.
It is also able to create parse trees that can help us to extract the data in an
easy manner.

3. Pandas: This is one of the best libraries to rely on when it is time to

handle any kind of work that you would like in data analysis and
data science.
Pandas are often going to be used to help out with any of the data analysis
and the data manipulation that you would like.
When it comes to web scraping, you will find that Pandas is going to be used
in order to extract the data and then get it stored in the right format in the way
that you would like along the way.
There are many times when a company is going to try and gather up data
from other websites and from many other sources.
This is one of the first steps that is going to be found when we are working
with data analysis and using that information to improve a business through
their customers, the industry, or from the other competition out there.
But going through and gathering all of that data in a manual manner is going
to take too long, and can be really hard to work with as well.
And with the large amounts of data that are being used and generated on a
daily basis, it is no wonder that so many companies are working with
processes like web scraping to handle all of the work in a timely manner as
well.
When we work with web scraping and do some of the codings that are
necessary with the help of Python, we will find that we are able to get
through the information in a fast manner and get it stored in the right place
for our needs, without having to do all of the work manually.
This can make the process of data analysis much easier overall and will
ensure that we are able to see some of the results that we want with this as
well.
And with some of the right Python algorithms and codes, we can get data
scraping done in no time.
 Debugging

Debugging
Developers always discover themselves in situations in which the code they
have written is not functioning quite well. When this happens, a developer
adjusts their “codes” by run-time-instrumentation, examining and carrying
out “code” to create solutions to which part of the implementation does not
go along with the presumptions of the way the “code” must be accurately
working. And due to the fact that debugging is so simple. All developers
cherish it.
Debugging tools
There are several debugging implements, certain of which designed into IDEs
such as PyCharm and different alone applications. The below list always
involves nondependent implements that can be used in whatever development
area.
PDB is a debugger included within the Python Quality library and is the
one majority of developers initially use when making attempts to look
into their projects.
Web-PDB provides a network-based UI for PDB to enable it to be more
understandable what’s happening in the process of checking your
running code.
Wdb makes use of WebSockets to help you to eliminate running Python
code from a network browser.
Pdb Module
The singular thing we are to talk about here is PDB. In software development
language, the term debugging is usually made use to process positioning and
correcting the mistake in a program.
The PDB has a useful command-line associate. It is inserted at the period of
running of Python script by making use of –m switch.
In this initial instance, we will check at making use of PDB in its easy form.
Add the below code at the position where you want fragment into the
debugger:

At the stage when the above line runs, Python halts and holds on for you to
instruct it after. You will notice a (PDB) message. It described you are
currently halted in the instinctive debugger and can input a command.
Starting in Python 3.7, there is another method to gain entrance to the
debugger. PEP 553 gives meaning to the designed function breakpoint (),
which makes entering the debugger simple and steady:

In addition, breakdown() will bring in PDB and call PDB .set_trace () as

indicated above.
Nevertheless, making use of breakpoint () is adaptable and helps you to curb
debugging attitude through its API and make use of the environment variable
PYTHONBREAKPOINT. For instance, adjusting
PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0 in your surrounding will totally disable
breakpoint (), therefore stopping debugging. Are you using Python 3.7 or
another? If yes, I implore you to make use of breakpoint() in place of
PDB.set_trace().
You can as well break into the debugger, lest altering the origin and making
use of breakpoint() or PDB.set_trace, by executing Python directly from the
command-line and moving the alternative –m PDB. In case your application
gives room for command-line arguments, offer them as you often would after
the folder name.
For instance:
Shell:

To additionally find the way debugger works, let’s inscribe a Python module
(fact.py) as below:

Start debugging this module from the command line. In this example, the
running stops at the initial line in the code by displaying (->) to its left and
presenting a debugger prompt (PDB).

Debugging Commands
Fundamentally, a debugger implement gives you a technique to, an instance,
unlock the application in a particular place in order to be able to look at your
variables, call stack or not considering what it is necessary to see, set
limitation breakpoints, and move via the origin code a line at each time and
so on. It is similar to searching segment by segment to identify the problem.
There is a designed debugger in Python, named PDB. It is an important value
with a command-line combination that carries out the internal work. It
possesses every debugger property that you will need, nevertheless if you
wish to propel it a bit, you can expand it by making use of ipdb, which will
give the debugger with properties from IPython.

The very clear method to apply PDB is to call it the code you are running:
As soon as the translator gets to this line, you will receive a command prompt
on the end where you are executing the program. It is a normal Python
prompt, however with certain recent commands.
List(l)
On the uncertainty that it is necessary to check a different part of the code,
this command has arguments for the initial and the final lines to display. If
you give simply the figure of the original line, you will have the opportunity
to see the code around the line you have assigned.
Up(p) and down(d)
Up(p) and down(d) are the two commands needed to survey within the call
stack. With the help of the above commands, you can see, the person calling
the present function, for instance, or why the translator is heading a particular
way.
Step(s) and next(n)
More important couple of commands, step (s) and next (n) help you to keep
the running of the application step by step. The special distinction between
the two is that next(n) will simply move to the following line of the present
function, despite having a call for a different function, nevertheless, step (s)
will go further in a situation like this.
Break(b)
The command (b) helps you to structure several breakpoints without altering
the code. It requires additional explanations; therefore, I will go further
below.
In this image is a bright summary of other PDB commands:
 Understanding Machine Learning

We will explain additional machine learning models and algorithms in simple

terms – with a goal for the reader to be able to understand them at a high
level and know when to apply them given the nature of the data and their data
science use case.
At the highest level, machine learning models can be classified into three
categories:
1) Supervised Machine Learning Models
2) Unsupervised Machine Learning Models
3) Deep Learning Models

Supervised Machine Learning Models

In the case of supervised machine learning models, the model is provided
some direction in terms of how to classify the data and it uses those
instructions to learn before making its predictions. The house sales example
that we used in the previous chapter, was an example of supervised learning
as we told the model what the different types of houses were and even which
house features have an impact on the sales price. We then split the data set
into training and test sets that the model used to make its prediction.
Examples of supervised machine learning models include:
1) Regression analysis
2) Classification analysis
Regression analysis – In the case of regression analysis, given several
factors, the model is expected to predict a number. In the case of the house
sales price example, the model considered several house features to predict
the house sales price. Note that the above was an example of linear
regression where there is a straight-line correlation between the dependent
variable (e.g. house sales price) and independent variables (e.g. house type,
number of garages, etc.).
There are certain situations where that straight-line correlation does not exist
and typically in those situations, polynomial regression analysis is used – or
a curved line instead of a straight line.
In other words, all the machine learning model is doing when performing
regression analysis is trying to fit a line between scattered data points to find
a correlation between independent and dependent variables. That can be
illustrated visually as follows:

Linear Regression Polynomial Regression

Other real-world examples of where regression analysis is used in the finance

industry predicting stock price based on historical and market trends as well
as in the retail industry where certain product prices are often predictable
based on seasonality and time of the year e.g. clothing, outdoor patio, and
gardening products.
Classification analysis – In the case of classification analysis, the machine
learning model predicts the category for an object based on its features. So
the main difference between the classification model and regression model is
that the classification model is categorizing the objects and the regression
model is predicting a number associated with an object.
Like regression analysis, since classification analysis is a supervised model, it
will need to be provided labeled data with instructions to learn before it can
make its predictions. If house sales data example in the previous chapter were
a classification problem, the model would have been given house sales data
without the house type and the model would have been asked to predict the
house type (e.g. detached, semi-detached or townhome) based on the
different features included in the dataset.
Other real-world examples where classification algorithm can be used
include:
1) Classifying insurance applicant into different risk categories based
on their health data
2) Categorizing call center calls as potential escalations, based on
language and sentiment used
3) Categorizing incoming emails based on specific parameters

Unsupervised Machine Learning Models

Unsupervised models are basically like intelligent but unsupervised children
– who are given a whole bunch of data but without a lot of direction or
labeling of the data. The models then assess this data and draw conclusions.
These conclusions continue to be refined as more data is provided to the
model.
Examples of unsupervised machine learning models include:
 1) Clustering
2) Dimension Reduction
3) Association Learning
Clustering is, as the name suggests, like the classification model above
where it defines clusters of similar objects but the main difference being that
the model is not given any pre-defined categories to label the data with. It
comes up with them on its own. As an example, imagine the model being
asked to classify different kinds of unlabeled data – some data loosely fits in
the time category, some data fits in the geographical category and some data
is not fitting either of these dimensions and instead is grouped in the general
data cluster as illustrated below:

Real-world examples of clustering include detecting anomalies in cancer

research based on cancerous cell properties as well as fraud detection based
on irregular insurance claims or financial investment patterns in case of
money laundering.
K-means algorithm is a popular algorithm in Python that is an example of
clustering. Basically, the algorithm finds its nearest K neighbors that have
similar properties – with K defining the number of neighbors you are pre-
setting the model to find.
Dimension Reduction is another example of an unsupervised machine
learning model that takes a set of features of different objects and tries to
categorize them to a higher degree of categories. Think of the Netflix
algorithm to classify incoming movies and TV shows – it typically will roll
up the different types of content to several high-level categories automatically
like action, horror, or comedy. As new content gets added to the platform, the
algorithm will further refine itself to cluster the movies more accurately. In
certain cases, certain content on Netflix may fit multiple clusters. For
example, a vampire movie with a lot of action can likely be in both the action
and horror clusters.
Association Learning is a more sophisticated form of unsupervised machine
learning model that is learning from customer behavior and recommending
new products and services to you based on your prior purchasing habits.
These types of systems are often called recommender systems that associate
client profiles with the product clusters and based on that generate
recommendations. To extend the Netflix example, once the model has built
clusters of different online viewable content, it associates the content with
your prior viewing habits and recommends new movies and TV shows to you
that fit the categories you most often watch. The same logic applies to when
Amazon recommends new books or products to you each time you log in.
Deep Learning
If you have ever heard the terms machine learning and deep learning
interchangeably, I am here to tell you that they are not the same. Deep
learning is an advanced form of machine learning where you combine several
machine learning models in a network, often called a neural network, to
arrive at a final conclusion or decision.
The reason why it is called ‘deep learning’, is based on how deep the neural
network goes or how many nodes are part of the network – with each node
representing a decision point or recommendation from an interconnecting
model.
The neural network can be made more sophisticated by applying different
weighting to different decision points or nodes and this weighting gets
adjusted over time as the model becomes smarter by learning from more
experience, trial and error, and more data provided to it. One example of this
could be when you are looking for another job, when you are early in your
career, you may put a higher weight on salary. However, as you gain more
experience, you may start to add more weight to other aspects like work-life
balance, benefits, and career progression opportunities. A sample neural
network is illustrated below as an example:
Popular deep learning Python libraries include:
1) TensorFlow
2) Keras
3) PyTorch
TensorFlow is an open-source framework and API for programming deep
learning neural networks and can be imported as a library in Python. It is
capable of working with large data sets and is very efficient in data
processing – that is why it is gaining a lot of popularity in data science and
academic communities.
Keras can run on top of the TensorFlow framework but is more suitable for
smaller datasets and rapid prototyping. You will see it mostly in use when
you are experimenting with neural networks in development and traversing
the nodes of the neural networks as part of the trial and error process in
teaching the model.
PyTorch is most commonly used for natural language processing and was
developed by Facebook. What is Natural Language Processing (NLP) you
ask? It is a way for the machine learning models to interpret human language
and process that as input into their algorithm. For example, instead of
providing the model if-then-else conditions and code as in the previous
chapter, you can ask the model questions in a human language like, “What
would be my predicted house price based on the square footage?” and the
model returns the prediction after running the question through the algorithm.
Think of AI devices like Amazon’s Alexa and Google Home. Those are
examples of Natural Language Processing.
 Python Concepts at Intermediate Level
This is a remarkably simple method to get going with Python. You’ll love
how easy such scripting will be about how many various systems can
function. It’s there. Quick enough to read by the novice after mastering any
of the techniques, but also has the ability you want to function in the
language of programming. It has the best of all worlds and is also one of the
best computer languages—things to select from on the market.

Recursion in Python
A recursive function is a function that is described in self-referential words. It
implies that the method continues naming itself while repeating its actions
until those terms are fulfilled to produce a response. Both recursive functions
have a standard two-part framework: base case & recursive case. To display
this structure, let’s compose a recursive measurement function n! :
Disintegrate the current problem into simplified examples. That’s the
recursive case:
1. Decompose the initial query into simplified examples. That’s the corrective
situation:

2. Because the real issue is separated into progressively less complicated,

these sub-problems should gradually get so straightforward that they’re being
resolved with little differentiation. It is the fundamental situation:

Now, 1! It’s indeed our base case, so it is equivalent to 1. Recursive

approximation function n! By Python enacted:
Behind the curtains, a specific benchmark (usually contains the utilized
resources) is inserted in the request stack before the specific case is reached.
Therefore the stack continues to relax as every call yields its outcomes:

State management
Please remember when interacting with recursive functions, every other
recursive call will have its own implementation background, and you have to
hold a state throughout recursion:

Link every recursive call via the state such that the present
incarnation is in the operating context of the current call
Hold the global space
A presentation will explain things. Let us just estimate 1 + 2 + 3 +4...... 10 by
recursion. The condition we will hold is (current figure, which we have added
up until now).
That’s how to do so by using increasing recursive call (e.g., forwarding the
latest modified status as arguments to every recursive call):

So this is how you calm the situation in global scope:

Recursive Data Structures
If it can be represented in a miniature version of its own, a data structure is
recursive. A list is a resource management instance. Let us explain.
Presume that you can only get a blank list available, and you can only do this
procedure:

You may create any list using a blank list as well as the attached head
process. Let us just create [1, 46, -31, "hello"], for instance:
Starting with a null list, a certain list can be generated using the attach head
function iteratively, as well as the list structure can, therefore, be described
recursively as:

Recursion could also be seen as a structure of an auto-referential element. We

add a feature to an argument and afterward transfer the outcome on to further
use of this function, respectively. Formulating attach head amongst itself
frequently is just the same as calling attach head again and again.
Perhaps the only recidivist data set is Collection. Set, tree, dictionary, etc. are
other instances.
Recursive file systems and recursive functions fall hand in hand like milk and
butter. The recursive function structure will also be based on the feedback by
specifying the recursive database schema.
Let me show this by recurrently measuring the amount of each the
components of a list:
Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci numbers were initially conceived as the pattern of the
development of rabbit species by Italian mathematician Fibonacci in the 13th
century. Fibonacci assumed that the number of couples of rabbits raised in
each of the twice preceding years is equal to the number of couples of rabbits
raised through one pair in the first year.
He specified the recurrence ratio to track the number of rabbits raised in the
nth years

A recursive function to accumulate the Fibonacci number

Memoization in Python
Memoization is a concept coined in 1968 by Donald Michie from the Latin
phrase memorandum (recall). Memoization is a software engineering tool
used to accelerate equations by preserving (recollecting) previous equations.
If repetitive function calls are made with much the same parameters, the prior
values will be stored rather than redundant functions being replicated. We
must use Memoization in this section to locate terms in the series of
Fibonacci.
As a reference, the Fibonacci series is described to be the number of a total of
two numbers.

Below are the simple examples that state if the amount of the input is equal to
1 or 2, returning 1. If the source input is higher than 2, enable recursive calls
with the two previous amounts of Fibonacci.
Let us just display the very first 10 points now:

All appears to be okay. Let’s really aim to demonstrate the very first 200
phrases:
Let’s really take the necessary actions to introduce the Memoization process.
Let’s create a dictionary to proceed:

First, our Memoization feature will be specified. Next, we test if the entry is
in the dictionary that is the dictionary key. If the key is available, we retrieve
the input/output worth:

Next, we describe the base situations that suit the very first two possible
values. If the sum of the inputs is 1 or 2, the output is set to 1:
First, we take the recursive situations into account. When the input is higher
than 2, we determine the amount equivalent to the total of the two preceding
contexts:

At the conclusion, we save the context and returns the results in our
dictionary:

The entire function is:

Namespaces in Python
A namespace is a set of symbolic names traditionally understood and details
about the entity referred by every initial. You should consider a namespace as
a lexicon where the keys are entity initials, and the values themselves are the
artifacts. Almost every pair of key values charts a title towards its entity.
Namespaces are not just awesome, as Tim Peters says. It’s fun to squeal, and
Python does it pretty thoroughly. There will be four kinds of namespaces in a
python script:

Assembled-in
Local
Containment
Global
These have different lives. Just like Python runs a package, it generates and
erases namespaces once they’re no longer required. Usually, there will be
several namespaces at any particular time.
The Terms Built-in
The built-in namespace includes all of the built-in artifacts in Python. These
are always obtainable as Python starts running. With the following command
you may list the items in the constructed-in namespace:
The Global Namespace
The global namespace includes all initials specified at the stage of the main
script. Python generates the global namespace whenever the program code
brain begins, and it persists in operation until the translator closes.
The translator also creates a global namespace for any subsystem, which the
software helps with the import statement.
Local Namespace
This namespace contains a regular expression of local names. A namespace is
provided by Python for each function named in a script. It keeps working
until the function comes back.

Scope of Python objects

Scope refers to the coding region that is available from a single Python item.
Therefore, from somewhere in the script, you cannot reach any single entity;
the accessibility must be permitted by the context of the object. Let us take
the example to grasp in-depth the very same:

Deep vs. Shallow Copy of Python Objects

Assignment statements in Python may not build object clones; they attach
only object names. It generally might not create a change with immutable
things.
But you could be looking for some way to make “real clones” or “copycats”
of such objects for practice with declarative artifacts or sets of declarative
items. Basically, you also want backups that you can alter while changing the
actual concurrently. We will give you a description of how to duplicate or
“copy” artifacts in Python 3 and even some of the notifications included in
this post.
When it comes to copying objects, there is no variation between python 2 and
3. We should find them out in the document where there are variations.
Let us continue with how to copy the built-in collections of Python. Pythons
implemented mutable objects such as lists, discs, and sets can be transferred
to an existing collection by naming their factory functions:

This approach, nevertheless, does not work for custom objects and could only
render shallow copies. There seems to be an interesting point amongst
shallow and deep duplication for composite items including lists, dict, and
sets:

A shallow copy is a new set object, instead of a relation to the

child items contained in the first. A shallow copy is effectively
only one step profound. The duplication phase doesn’t really
resurface and will not produce clones of the child’s objects.
The copying cycle is repeated by a deep copy. This involves
first creating a new set object and then complementing this
iteratively with clones of the child’s objects found in the initial.
That ensures the entire entity tree moves to construct an
individual replica of the object surface and all of its children.
How to Make Shallow Copy
For the given description we must make a new nesting list and then copy it
using the factory function list ():

Ys also retains links to initial objects contained in xs since we created only a

shallow copy of the actual set. Such children have not been copied. We have
just been referenced in the replicated list afterward.
The adjustment would also represent the change in ys whenever you change
one of the child items in xs since the two lists contain the very same child
artifacts. The copy is a shallow, deep one-level version:

How to Make Deep Copies?

Let us revisit the earlier case of list replication, albeit with one major change.
In this turn, we will construct a deep copy that uses the copy framework
deepcopy () function:

Nevertheless, if you render an adjustment to one of the child artifacts (xs), the
deep copy (zs) will not be influenced by this alteration.
All the initial and the replica artifacts are periods completely different. xs has
been recurrently copied, along with all its artifacts for children:

The thing to keep in Mind

Having an object shallow does not replicate child objects. The

copy is, therefore, not entirely different from the source.
A deep copy of an item recurrently copies objects for children.
The replica is completely separate from the source, although it
is sluggish to build a deep duplicate.
You could copy random objects with the copy feature (such as
customizable classes).
 Decision Making and Flow Control

Decision Making
Decision making structures are required whenever you want a program to
implement a course of action each time a test condition is satisfied.
A decision-making block starts with a Boolean expression. The program will
proceed depending on whether the response is True or False.
Python supports the following decision-making structures
if statements
if else statements
if…elif…else statements

if statements
syntax:
if expression:
statement(s)

Example:
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
if age >= 18:
print("Welcome to Wise Adults Forum!")
print("We accept members from age 18 and above.")

When a user responds with ‘19’ to the prompt string, here’s the onscreen
output:
Enter your age: 19
Welcome to Wise Adults Forum!
We accept members from age 18 and above.
When a user’s responds with ‘12’:
Enter your age: 12
We accept members from age 18 and above.

if…else statements
In an if…else structure, Python executes the ‘if block’ if the test condition
yields True and the ‘else block’ if the condition is False.
syntax:

if test condition:
statement(s)
else: statement(s)

Example:
#this program checks if a food order is available
items = ['French Fries', 'Nuggets', 'Pizza', 'Pho', 'Ramen']

order = input("Please enter an order: ")

if order in items:
print("You order of " + order + " will be served in 5 minutes.")
else:
print("Sorry, " + order + " is not available at this time.")
If the user responds with ‘Pizza’, the output would be:
Please enter an order: Pizza
Your order of Pizza will be served in 5 minutes.
If the user enters ‘Burger’
Please enter an order: Burger
Sorry, Burger is not available at this time.
if…elif…if statements
An if…elif…if structure facilitates the evaluation of multiple expressions. If
the ‘if test expression’ is True, it executes the ‘if block.’ If False, it evaluates
the elif (else if) block. If the ‘elif text condition’ is True, it executes the elif
block. If False, it executes the else block.

syntax:

if test condition:
if block
elif test condition:
elif block
else:
else block
Example:
#this program checks if an order is available
#if not available, it will check if the ordered item is on the pending list and
prints an appropriate remark
#if the order is neither available nor pending, the program prints an
appropriate remark

available = ['French Fries', 'Nuggets', 'Pizza', 'Pho', 'Ramen']

pending = ['Barbeque', 'Cheeseburger', 'Tacos']

order = input("Please enter an order: ")

if order in available:
 print("You order of " + order + " will be served in 5 minutes.")
elif order in pending:
print("Your order of " + order + " will be served in 15 minutes.")
else:
print("Sorry, " + order + " is not available at this time.")

If the user enters Ramen, an item on the available list:

Please enter an order: Ramen

Your order of Ramen will be served in 5 minutes.

If the user enters ‘Tacos’, an item on the pending list

Please enter an order: Tacos
Your order of Tacos will be served in 15 minutes.
If the user enters Noodles which is not on the available or pending list:
Please enter an order: Noodles
Sorry, Noodles is not available at this time.

Flow Control
A loop is a program control structure that facilitates complicated execution
paths and repetitive execution of a statement or block of statements.

For Loop
A ‘for loop’ is used to iterate over elements of ordered data types such as
lists, tuples, or strings.
Syntax:
for val in sequence:
statement(s)
In a ‘for loop, the variable holds the value of each item on the sequence with
every iteration. The loop runs until all items are processed.

Examples
For Loop over a string:
for letter in 'Finance':
print('<**', letter, '**>')

If you run the loop, this would be the output:

<** F **>
<** i **>
<** n **>
<** a **>
<** n **>
<** c **>
<** e **>

For loop over a list:

#iterate over a list

animals = ['dog', 'cheetah', 'leopard', 'kangaroo', 'leopard']

For x in animals:
print('A ' + x + ' is a cool animal')
print('These animals are great!'
If you run the loop, this will be your output:
A dog is a cool animal
A cheetah is a cool animal
A leopard is a cool animal
A kangaroo is a cool animal
A leopard is a cool animal
These animals are great!
Notice that after all the animal names in the list have been processed by the
loop, control passes to the unindented print statement.
The While Loop

The ‘while loop’ is used when you want to repeatedly execute a statement or
group of statements while the test condition is True. When it’s no longer
True, control passes to the line after the loop
syntax
while condition
statement(s)

Example:
#program adds number up to an entered number
#total = 1+2+3…+number

x = int(input("Enter a number: "))

#initialize sum and counter
total = 0
ctr = 1
while ctr <= x:
total = total + ctr
ctr = ctr + 1
#print the sum
print("The sum is: ", total)
If you run the program and enter 1, 6, and 10, you will get these results
Enter a number: 1
The sum is: 1
Enter a number: 6
The sum is: 21 #1+2+3+4+5+6

Enter a number: 10 #1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+10

The sum is: 55

Break Statement
A break statement ends the loop and passes control to the statement
immediately after the loop. It allows the termination of the current iteration or
the loop regardless of the test condition and effectively prevents the
execution of the ‘else’ statement. It is used when an external condition
requires immediate exit from the loop.

Example:
#loop ends once it reaches a given number
contestants = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
for num in contestants:
if num == 5:
break
print('In :', num)
print("Congratulations!")
Once it reaches number 5, the loop ends and control passes to the next
unindented line:
In : 1
In : 2
In : 3
In : 4
Congratulations!

Continue Statement
The continue statement directs the program to proceed to the next iteration
after reaching a specified item in the list.
To illustrate, you can use the above example and replace the break statement
with the continue statement:
contestants = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
for num in contestants:
if num == 5:
continue
print('In :', num)
print("Congratulations!")
When you run the program, it skips iteration for number 5 and proceeds to
the other numbers on the list:
In : 1
In : 2
In : 3
In : 4
In : 6
In : 7
In : 8
In : 9
Congratulations!

Pass Statement
Pass is a null operation in which the interpreter reads the statement but does
nothing. It is typically used as a place holder for a statement required by
syntax but is not available when a program has to be run. Programmers use
the pass statement in place of unwritten codes to allow them to test other
parts of the program.

Syntax:
pass

Example:
#pass statement in an empty function block
def adder(a):
pass
Try and Except Statements
Python’s built-in exceptions cause a program to return an error whenever a
problem occurs. When an error or exception occurs, the current process
terminates and control passes to the calling process and so on until it is
handled. Failure to handle the error or exception will cause the program to
crash.
Try and except statements are used to handle program errors in Python. A
critical area of a program is placed within the ‘try clause’ while the
statement/s that will handle the exception is given within the ‘except clause’.
Example:
try:
x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
print("You entered %d." % x)
except ValueError:
print("You entered an invalid character. Please try again.")
Python will attempt to execute the statement/s within the ‘try block.’ In this
part of the program, there is a possibility that a value other than a number
will be entered by a user. Hence, this block was placed under the try clause.
Whenever a ValueError is encountered, control passes to the ‘except block’
which handles the error.
If you test the program using an integer and a letter input, here’s what you
would get:
Please enter a number: 5
You entered 5.
Please enter a number: You entered an invalid character. Please try again.

Exercise
Password Verification

You are given the following details from a company’s database:

Users Password
Marie 201624
Mark MARKbest
Mandy Man5254
Fred 9595
Instructions:
Prepare a program that will ask for the user’s name. If the user’s name does
not match any of the names in the database, print ‘Sorry, you don’t have
access to this system.’ If the user’s name matches one of the user names in
the above database, ask the user to enter a password. If the given password
matches the password under the user’s name, print ‘Thank you.’ If the given
password doesn’t match the user’s password, print ‘You entered an invalid
password.’
 Input and Output
So far, we’ve only been writing programs that only use data we have
explicitly defined in the script. However, your programs can also take in
input from the user and utilize it. Python lets us solicit inputs from the user
with a very intuitively named function—the input () function. Writing out the
code input () enables us to prompt the user for information, which we can
further manipulate. We can take the user input and save it as a variable, print
it straight to the terminal, or do anything else we might like.
When we use the input function, we can pass in a string. The user will see
this string as a prompt, and their response to the prompt will be saved as the
input value. For instance, if we wanted to query the user for their favorite
food, we could write the following:
favorite_food = input ("What is your favorite food? ")
If you ran this code example, you would be prompted for your favorite food.
You could save multiple variables this way and print them all at once using
the print () function along with print formatting, as we covered earlier. To be
clear, the text that you write in the input function is what the user will see as a
prompt; it isn’t what you are inputting into the system as a value.
When you run the code above, you’ll be prompted for input. After you type
in some text and hit the return key, the text you wrote will be stored as the
variable favorite_food. The input command can be used along with string
formatting to inject variable values into the text that the user will see. For
instance, if we had a variable called user_name that stored the name of the
user, we could structure the input statement like this:
favorite_food = input (" What is ()’s favorite food? "). format (" user name
here")

Printing and Formatting Outputs

We’ve already dealt with the print () function quite a bit, but let’s take some
time to address it again here and learn a bit more about some of the more
advanced things you can do with it.
By now, you’ve gathered that it prints whatever is in the parentheses to the
terminal. Besides, you’ve learned that you can format the printing of
statements with either the modulus operator (%) or the format function (.
format ()). However, what should we do if we are in the process of printing a
very long message?
In order to prevent a long string from running across the screen, we can use
triple quotes that surround our string. Printing with triple quotes allows us to
separate our print statements onto multiple lines. For example, we could print
like this:

print (''' By using triple quotes we can

divide our print statement into multiple
lines, making it easier to read. ''')
Formatting the print statement like that will give us:

By using triple quotes, we can

divide our print statement into multiple
lines, making it easier to read.
What if we need to print characters that are equivalent to string formatting
instructions? For example, if we ever needed to print out the characters “%s
“or “%d, “we would run into trouble. If you recall, these are string formatting
commands, and if we try to print these out, the interpreter will interpret them
as formatting commands.
Here’s a practical example. As mentioned, typing “/t” in our string will put a
tab in the middle of our string. Assume we type the following:

print (“We want a \t here, not a tab.”)

We’d get back this:
We want a here, not a tab.
By using an escape character, we can tell Python to include the characters
that come next as part of the string’s value. The escape character we want to
use is the “raw string” character, an “r” before the first quote in a string, like
this:

print (r"We want a \t here, not a tab.")

So, if we used the raw string, we’d get the format we want back:
We want a \t here, not a tab.
The “raw string” formatter enables you to put any combination of characters
you’d like within the string and have it to be considered part of the string’s
value.
However, what if we did want the tab in the middle of our string? In that
case, using special formatting characters in our string is referred to as using
“escape characters.” “Escaping” a string is a method of reducing the
ambiguity in how characters are interpreted. When we use an escape
character, we escape the typical method that Python uses to interpret certain
characters, and the characters we type are understood to be part of the string’s
value. The escape primarily used in Python is the backslash (\). The
backslash prompts Python to listen for a unique character to follow that will
translate to a specific string formatting command.
We already saw that using the “\t” escape character puts a tab in the middle
of our string, but there are other escape characters we can use as well.
\n - Starts a new line
\\ - Prints a backslash itself
\” - Prints out a double quote instead of a double quote marking the end of a
string
\’ - Like above but prints out a single quote

Exercise
Let’s do another exercise that applies what we’ve covered in this section.
You should try to write a program that does the following:
• Prompts the user for answers to several different questions.
• Prints out the answers on different lines using a single print statement.
Give this a shot before you look below for an answer to this exercise prompt.

If you’ve given this a shot, your answer might look something like this:
favorite_food = input ("What's your favorite food? :")
favorite_animal = input ("What about your favorite animal? :")
favorite_movie = input ("What's the best movie? :")
print ("Favorite food is: " + favorite_food + "\n" +
"Favorite animal is: " + favorite_animal + "\n" +
"Favorite movies is: " + favorite_movie)
We’ve covered a lot of ground in the first quarter of this book. We’ll begin
covering some more complex topics and concepts. However, before we move
on, let’s be sure that we’ve got the basics down. You won’t learn the new
concepts unless you are familiar with what we’ve covered so far, so for that
reason, let's do a quick review of what we’ve learned so far:
• Variables: Variables are representations of values. They contain the value
and allow the value to be manipulated without having to write it out every
time. Variables must contain only letters, numbers, or underscores. Besides,
the first character in a variable cannot be a number, and the variable name
must not be one of Python’s reserved keywords.
• Operators: Operators are symbols, which are used to manipulate data. The
assignment operator (=) is used to store values in variables. Other operators
in Python include: the addition operator (+), the subtraction operator (-), the
multiplication operator (*), the division operator (/), the floor division
operator (//), the modulus operator (%), and the exponent operator (**). The
mathematical operators can be combined with the assignment operator. (Ex.
+=, -=, *=).
• Strings: Strings are text data, declared by wrapping text in single or double-
quotes. There are two methods of formatting strings; with the modulus
operator or the. format () command. The “s,” “d,” and “f” modifiers are used
to specify the placement of strings, integers, and floats.
•Integers: Integers are whole numbers, numbers that possess no decimal
points or fractions. Integers can be stored in variables simply by using the
assignment operator.
• Floats: Floats are numbers that possess decimal parts. The method of
creating a float in Python is the same as declaring an integer, just choose a
name for the variable and then use the assignment operator.
• Type Casting: Type casting allows you to convert one data type to another
if the conversion is feasible (non-numerical strings cannot be converted into
integers or floats). You can use the following functions to convert data types:
int (), float (), and str ().
• Lists: Lists are just collections of data, and they can be declared with
brackets and commas separating the values within the brackets. Empty lists
can also be created. List items can be accessed by specifying the position of
the desired item. The append () function is used to add an item to a list, while
the del command and remove () function can be used to remove items from a
list.
• List Slicing: List slicing is a method of selecting values from a list. The
item at the first index is included, but the item at the second index isn’t. A
third value, a stepper value, can also be used to slice the list, skipping through
the array at a rate specified by the value. (Ex. - numbers [0:9:2])
• Tuples: Tuples are like lists, but they are immutable; unlike lists, their
contents cannot be modified once they are created. When a list is created,
parentheses are used instead of brackets.
• Dictionaries: Dictionaries stored data in key/value pairs. When a dictionary
is declared, the data and the key that will point to the data must be specified,
and the key-value pairs must be unique. The syntax for creating a key in
Python is curly braces containing the key on the left side and the value on the
right side, separated by a colon.
• Inputs: The input () function gets an input from the user. A string is passed
into the parenthesis, which the user will see when they are prompted to enter
a string or numerical value.
• Formatting Printing: Triple quotes allows us to separate our print statement
onto multiple lines. Escape characters are used to specify that certain
formatting characters, like “\n” and “\t,” should be included in a string’s
value. Meanwhile, the “raw string” command, “r,” can be used to include all
the characters within the quotes.
 Learning About Functions

Understanding the Concept of Function

Take a moment or two here and engage your mind a little. Think about it and
try to come up with some vague idea of what functions truly are.
Functions are either user-defined or pre-defined. In either case, their job is to
organize codes within a recallable function name. There are tons of pre-
defined functions available within Python. We have already been using some
of these again and again.
We already have a decent idea about functions that are built-in and pre-
defined. These include and are not limited to input(), print(), and so many
more. However, let’s now look at how to create our function.
Let’s begin with a traditional approach and write a block of code that
welcomes the user with a friendly greeting. We will store this as a function
named “welcome_message” so that we can call on this function later on.
def welcome_message():
print("Hello and welcome")
print("Hope you have a great time")
print("Begin")
welcome_message()
print("End")

Let’s begin learning and see what is happening in the block of code above.
Firstly, for us to create our function, we need to define it first. The ‘def’ is a
keyword that Python will look at and immediately understand that you are
about to ‘define’ a new function. Next, we will need to name the function.
While you can always name the function as you please, it is highly
recommended and encouraged that you use names that are easy to understand
and have a descriptive name. If we were to name this function anything other
than welcome_message, we may know what it is as we wrote it, but for any
other programmer out there, they may not understand.
Whenever you create a function, you need to use parentheses. You do not
have to pass any information through it so leave them as they are. Now, we
need to add the colon mark.
What happens when you use a colon at the end of a statement? Your cursor
gets indented in the following line. That means your cursor will be slightly
far from the actual starting point. This is to denote to the programmer that
he/she is about to type something that would hold value for a command or a
statement above it. In this case, we are trying to define the function.
Let’s then use two print commands and place our greeting messages. That is
it! You have now created your very first function. You can now recall it as
many times as you like. However, should you try to call on this function a
line or two before the ‘def’ command, Python will have no idea what you’re
talking about. Why? That has everything to do with the fact that Python reads
a program line by line. By the time it arrives on the line where you called a
function, it would check with the previous lines and not find anything
relatable as the actual ‘def’ step was carried out in a step following this.
After this, let’s now use our function and see how it works. Remember, the
function holds two printable messages for our users. For our reference, we
will now create a ‘begin’ and an ‘end’ message. This would allow us and the
programmer to know where the regular messages are and where the function
lies. Use your function with empty parentheses between the two print
commands as shown above. If you like, you can remove these print
commands and just type in your function number to see the results.
A quick tip for all! If you come across the annoying wiggly lines, simply
hover your mouse over it and you will find out what the expected or
suggested solution is. In this case, if you remove the two-line spaces, you
should see a suggestion saying this:
Whenever you define a function, you will always be required to leave at least
two blank lines before proceeding on with the codes.

Using Various Functions

Python was created with simplicity in mind. It was also created to minimize
the work and maximize the output. If you use the codes and the functions
wisely, you will surely be making the most out of this programming
language. It is also noticeable that most of the things you learn about Python
and its functions, parameters, methods, and such will help you learn other
languages quicker, so do pay attention.

Parameters
Our eagle-eyed readers may have noticed something about the function we
just created a few minutes ago. Unlike most of the functions, we did not pass
any information through the parentheses at all. Why that happens is
something we will come to know about once we understand exactly what
parameters are in Python.
Parameters are used as place-holders for receiving information. These are
what we, as well as users, provide to the program in order for it to work more
accurately. There are some cases and functions where arguments are not
required for them to do their basic operation. However, if you provide an
argument to these functions, they will provide you with a more specific
output. Of course, it does depend on the availability of the said parameter.
You cannot force a function to do something it is not designed to do.
Now, let’s look at our function. It is certainly missing something. If you
currently print the welcome_user function, it would say everything but will
not contain the name of the user at all. Surely, it would look a lot nicer for us
if we could somehow use this function to use the name of the user and add it
to the greeting.
Luckily, we can do just that! For that, we first need to add the ‘name’
parameter in the first line, where we began defining our function. Simple type
name between the parentheses and you will see the text turn grey. This
confirms that the word has been added as a parameter. Now, we wish to print
the name of this user along with the greetings we have defined within the
function. For this example, let’s assume that the user is named Fred.
def welcome_message(name):
print("Begin")
print("Hello and welcome {name}!")
print("Hope you have a great time")
print("End")
welcome_message('Fred')
Begin
Hello and welcome Fred!
Hope you have a great time
End

Finally! We have a name to add to our greetings. You can add another line of
code by using our function and passing a different name now. See what
happens then.
When we set a parameter for a function and then call upon the function
without providing it with an argument or the bit of information that goes
between the parentheses, it will provide us with an error, except for a few.
Now, let’s make our function a little more dynamic and add another
parameter. Let’s add a parameter that allows the program to print out the last
name of the user. Now, our code should look something like this:
def welcome_message(name, last_name):
print("Hello and welcome {name} {last_name}!")
print("Hope you have a great time")

print("Begin")
welcome_message('Fred', 'William')
print("End")

The point to learn here, apart from being able to add parameters, is the fact
that ‘Fred’ and ‘William’ are being used in a specific order. Should you type
it the other way around, Python will print these as they are. This is because of
their position concerning the defined parameters. The first value Python reads
here, it will automatically link it with the first parameter. This can cause a
little confusion, especially if the last name becomes the first name.
These arguments are called as positional arguments. To further show their
importance, let’s remove the last name from the argument above.
print("Begin")
welcome_message('Fred')
print("End")
Traceback (most recent call last):
Begin
File "C:/Users/Smith/PycharmProjects/MyFirstGo/PosArg.py", line 7, in
<module>
welcome_message('Fred')
TypeError: welcome_message() missing 1 required positional argument:
'last_name'

So, the system does not allow us to continue as we have removed an element.
This time, type in the last name first followed by the first name and see if it
makes any difference. When you run the program now, you should be able to
see this:
print("Begin")
welcome_message('Fred', 'William')
print("End")
Begin
Hello and welcome William Fred!
Hope you have a great time
End

Now, the sequence kind of work. The only issue is that it has gotten the name
wrong. Now, the last name is being portrayed and printed as the first name.
That is rather embarrassing, isn’t it?
The above errors either state that we are missing one required positional
argument or show that we placed the wrong name in the wrong place.
Positional arguments are such arguments whose position matters a lot. If you
miss out on the position altogether, you will end up with an error. If you type
in something else, as we did in our last example, you will produce incorrect
results. To correct it, simply provide the last name after the first name.
There is one more way you can have these dealt with by using what is termed
as ‘keyword arguments.’ These are the kind of arguments whose position
does not matter at all and Python will still continue to function properly
regardless of their position in the parentheses. To pass a keyword argument,
you will need to do the following:
print("Begin")
welcome_message(last_name='William', name='Fred')
print("End")
Begin
Hello and welcome Fred William!
Hope you have a great time
End

Now that’s more like it. Things are looking right at how we want them.
Notice how, even though we wrote in the wrong order, Python picked up and
sorted the order for us. That is because we made our entries or arguments into
keyword arguments using the name= or last_name= parameter and combining
it with arguments. This allows Python to draw information and understand
which of these two comes first in order as defined originally in our function.
Factually speaking, you will not be using these quite a lot, but it is always an
advantage to know the ways to overcome certain issues. Normally, you or
any other programmer would be able to see the data and read it easily if you
simply follow the rules and type the first name followed by the last name.
Make the code as easy as you can for everyone to read and understand.

Exercise
Here is the updated version of a program we designed to check insurance
prices a person would have to pay if he/she was above or below a certain age.
Your objective is to convert this into a function. Your function should have
three fields set to receive input from the user.
1. Name
2. Age
3. Actual insurance cost

Updated code:
Insurance = 1000
age = int(input('Your age: '))
is_old = age > 40
is_young = age <= 28
has_license = input('Do you have a license? ')
if has_license.lower() == 'Yes':
has_license = True
elif has_license.lower() != 'Yes':
has_license = False
if is_old and has_license:
Insurance = Insurance / 2
print("Your insurance cost is ${Insurance}")
elif is_young and has_license:
Insurance = Insurance // 1.50
print("You will need to pay ${Insurance}")
else:
print('You are not eligible for insurance at this time')
 Dictionary
When the key is known dictionaries will retrieve values.

Creating a Dictionary
A dictionary is generated by having items in curly braces demarcated by a
comma. A dictionary element has a key and a matching value. The key and
value in Python are captured as a pair. Normally, key: value. Keys have to be
immutable and unique.
Example:
Start IDLE.
Type the following:
dict_mine= {} #Empty dictionary
# dictionary with integer keys
dict_mine= {2: 'pawpaw', 4: 'rectangle'} #dictionary with integer keys
dict_mine = {'student': 'Brenda',2:[12, 14, 13]}#dictionary with integer keys
dict_mine = dict({2:'student': 'Brenda' })
dict_mine = dict([(2, 'pawpaw'), (4, 'rectangle')])

Accessing Elements from a Dictionary

Dictionary uses keys instead of indexing to access values. The keys can be
within the square brackets or with the get() method.
Example:
Start IDLE.
Navigate to the File menu and click New Window.
Type the following:
dict_mine = {'name':'James', 'age': 62}
print(dict_mine['name'])
print(dict_mine.get('age'))

Add or Modify Dictionary Elements

For dictionaries, they are mutable implying that we can modify the value of
current items using the assignment operator. The value will get updated if the
key is already existing else we will have to add a new key: the dictionary
value couple.
Start IDLE.
Navigate to the File menu and click New Window.
Type the following:
dict_mine={‘student’:’James’,’age’:62}
dict_mine['age'] = 37
print(dict_mine)
dict_mine['address'] = ‘New York’
print(dict_mine)

Removing/Deleting Elements from a Dictionary

Example:
Start IDLE.
Navigate to the File menu and click New Window.
Type the following:
my_squares={10:100,8:64,12:224}
print(my_squares.pop(2))
print(my_squares)
print(my_squares.popitem())
print(my_squares)
del my_squares[4]
print(my_squares)
my_squares.clear()
print(squares)
del my_squares

Dictionary Methods in Python

Example:
Start IDLE.
Navigate to the File menu and click New Window.
Type the following:
scores ={}.fromkeys(['Chemistry','Spanish','Pyschology'], 0)
print(scores)
for item in marks.items():
print(item)
Start IDLE.

Navigate to the File menu and click New Window

Type the following:
list(sorted(scores.keys()))
Dictionary Comprehension in Python
my_squares = {y: y*y for y in range(5)}
print(my_squares)
Alternatively, the program can be written as:
my_power = {}
for y in range(5):
power[y] = y*y
Odd Items Only Dictionary
Example:
Start IDLE.
Navigate to the File menu and click New Window.
Type the following:
squares_odd={y:y*y for y in range(10) if y%2==1}
print(squares_odd)

Membership Test in a Dictionary

Using the keyword in, we can evaluate if a key is in a particular dictionary.
The membership tests should be used for dictionary keys and not for
dictionary values.
Example:
Start IDLE.
Navigate to the File menu and click New Window.
Type the following:
my_squares = {10: 100, 6: 36, 8: 64, 11: 121}
print(11 in my_squares)
print(36 in squares)
Practice Exercise
Given:
square_dict={2:4,6:36,8:64}
Use membership to test if 6 exist in the dictionary.
Use membership, test if 36 exist in the dictionary.

Iteration in a Dictionary
We use the for loop to iterate through each key in a particular dictionary.
Inbuilt Functions
Example:
Start IDLE.
Navigate to the File menu and click New Window.
Type the following:
your_squares = {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36, 8: 64, 10: 100}
print(len(your_squares))
print(sorted(your_squares))
for i in squares:
print(your_squares[i])

ùExercise
Give the following set, setm=set([“Blue”,”Yellow”])
Write a working program to copy the set elements.
Display the new set.
Clear the set.
Print the latest status of the set.
Given the setr=set([“Knock”,”Up”])
Write a simple program to copy the set elements.
Write a working program to display the latest status of the set.
Write a simple program clears the elements of the set.
Display the latest status of the set.
Delete the entire set using del.
Given m=frozenset([11,12,13,14,15]) and n=([13,14,15,16,17])
Use the isdisjoint() to test if the sets have no shared elements.
Write a program to return a new set with items in the set that are not in the
others.
Write a union of sets m and n.
Write an intersection of sets n and m.
Write a program to pop an item in set n.
Write a program that appends element 21 to the set m.
Check to see if set m has element 14 using a built-in keyword.
Use discard() to drop all items in the set m.
Given this set second_set = {"berry", "pineaple", "melon"}
Write a Python program to update the set with these elements at a go
“mango,” ”guava,” “plum”
Find the length of this set using the len().
Use remove() to clear the set.
Given {(, 17, 19, 21)
Use set constructor set() to construct a set named third_set in Python.
Use the add() method to add “Kim” to the set.
Pop an element from the set using pop().
Update the set using update() to include {43,41,40}
Given setq=([13,2,17,8,19])
Find the minimum value in the set using inbuilt features of Python.
Find the maximum value in the set using inbuilt features of Python.
Given setb=([5,”K”, 8, 1])
Use the for a statement to write a Python program that iterates through the set
elements.
Given
diction1={11:12,12:27}
diction2={13:52,13:57}
Create a python program to concatenate the dictionaries in one.
 Using Files

We’ll now look at how we can work with external files.

We've seen how to we can get input from the user using input(). But,
sometimes, if we need to work with a lot of data, it's more common to use
files instead of manual inputs.
This chapter will teach you how!
Reading Files
In this first example, we are going to read from a plain text file. Let's start:
create a file with the following text.
Learn Python and Learn It Well
Save this file as myfile.txt in your desktop. Then, open IDLE and write the
code below. Save this file as fileOperation.py, again on your desktop.
f = open (‘myfile.txt’, 'r')
firstline = f.readline()
secondline = f.readline()
print (firstline)
print (secondline) f.close()

The first line has a specific function: open the file.

Before reading from any file, we must open it. The open() function does
exactly that.
The 1st parameter is simply the file path.
In case you didn't keep fileOperation.py and myfile.txt in the same directory,
you'll need to add, before ‘myfile.txt’, the full path where you stored the text
file. For example, if you saved it in a folder named ‘PythonFiles’ in your C
drive, you need to code ‘C:\\PythonFiles\\myfile.txt.’
The other parameter is the file open mode. Commonly used modes are:

'r' mode: For reading only.

'w' mode: For writing only.
If the desired file doesn't exist, it'll be now created.
If the specified file already exists, existing data on the file will be erased and
you'll start with a plain one.

'a' mode: To append.

If the desired file doesn't exist, it'll be now created.
If the specified file already exists, existing data on the file will be kept and
you'll start writing at the bottom of the file.

'r+' mode: For reading and writing.

After you open the file, the following code

firstline = f.readline() Is useful to read the first line in the file and
assign it to the variable.
Every time the readline() function is called, it reads a new line from the file.
In our program, readline() was called two times. So the first two lines will be
read.
You’ll find that a line break is inserted after every line you write in the file.
This is caused by the readline() function: it automatically adds the ‘\n’
characters to the end of each line. In case you don’t want that double line
between each line of text, you can execute

print (firstline, end = ‘’). This will remove the new line characters for
the following output.
After reading and printing the two lines, the last line, f.close(), simply closes
the file.
You should always close the file once you're done accessing it, so the system
can free up some system resources.
Read files with a loop
The readline() function we described above to read a text file, is not enough
to read a file with an undefined row number.
The solution is a loop: here's how you can do that.
f = open ("myfile.txt",'r')
for line in f:
print (line, end = ‘’)
f.close()
As you can guess, the loop cycles through the text file, line by line.

Writing to a File
Now that we’ve discovered how to open and read a file, let’s move on and
start writing into it.
To do so, we’ll use the append mode, identified with 'a.'
It's also possible to use the ‘w’ mode that will erase and replace all the
content of the file.
f = open (‘myfile.txt’, 'a')
f.write(‘\nAny new row will be appended.’)
f.write(‘\nHere is it!’)
f.close()
Now we use the write() function to append the two sentences to the file, each
starting on a new line entirely because we used the escape characters ‘\n.’

Exercise 1
In the program that we’ve coded so far, I’ve avoided using the division
operator. Can you modify the program so that it will create questions with the
division sign too? How would you check the user’s answer against the correct
answer?
Hint: Check out the round() function.
Exercise 2
Sometimes, the question generated may result in an answer that is very large
or very small. For example, question 6*[8^9/1]^3 will give the answer
1450710985375550096474112.
It is very uncomfortable for users to calculate and put in such a large number.
Hence, we want to avoid answers that are too big or small. Can you edit the
program to prevent questions that brings out answers greater than 50 000 or
smaller than -50000?

Exercise 3
The last challenge exercise is the most difficult.
So far, brackets are missing in the questions generated. Can you modify the
program so that the questions use brackets too? An example of a question
will be 2 + (3*7 -1) + 5.
Have fun with these exercises.
 Testing Your Code
When creating a program, you do not just write code. You have to test it.
At this point, your only methods of testing your code are to run the script,
wait for errors (if any) and test it using the interpreter.
Be that as it may, there is another method to test your code. And that is by
using the unit test module. Inside the module, there are multiple functions
you can use to test your code.
By the way, you may ask - why the need for a “unittest” if you can test your
code by running it or checking it one by one inside the interpreter?
First, using a unit test is ideal for messy code. If other people cannot read
your code, then unit test to see things that might go wrong. A unit test is
much easier than manually testing one line of spaghetti code.
Second, a unit test is much faster to do. It is easy to test using the interpreter
and running the script, but if you have hundreds of statements, a unit test is
the best way to go.
Testing a function
It is advisable to perform the unit test when the code is nearly finished. The
biggest problem with unit testing is that it can waste time when performed at
the wrong time repeatedly. This is debatable, however.
Anyway, create a unit test in a module. You can do it with an interpreter, but
it can be inconvenient since running the test will automatically close the
window.
The first step in creating a unit test code is to import the unittest framework.
Then you need to define a unit test subclass with TestCase from unittest.
For example:
import unittest
class Test1(unittest.TestCase):
To perform the testing, you need to create methods for the cases that you
want to test.
Note that most methods that you will inherit from the TestCase super class
are assert methods (e.g., assertEqual(), assertNotEqual(), assertIs(), etcetera).
These methods often have two parameters with assertTrue(), assertFalse(),
assertIsNone(), and assertIsNotNone() having one parameter only.
These two parameters of most assert methods are tested according to the
assert method used.
For example, assertEqual() checks if parameter a is equal to parameter b. If it
is equal, it will return a passing mark. If it is not, it will return a failing mark.
For example:
import unittest
class Test(unittest.TestCase):
def test1(self):
self.assertEqual(1, 1)
unittest.main()
To run the test, you must execute the main() callable of the unittest
framework. Once executed, it will execute all the tests that you created. After
that, it will print information about the test on the console. This information
includes an error, score, and time consumed.
To have a little bit control in the test execution, add an input() function in the
beginning of the script. For example:
import unittest
input("Press enter to start the test.")
class Test(unittest.TestCase):
def test1(self):
self.assertEqual(1, 1)
unittest.main()
If you run this test, it will display this information.
Press enter to start the test.
.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 1 test in 0.000s
OK
The information tells the developer that it ran the single test method in the
script and it took less than 0.0001 seconds to finish it. Since it immediately
displayed the test result and OK line, that means it found no error.
The test1() method passed since 1 is equal to 1.
Here is an example that will result to an error:
import unittest
input("Press enter to start the test.")
class Test(unittest.TestCase):
def test1(self):
self.assertEqual(1, 0)
unittest.main()
Press enter to start the test.
F
================================================================
FAIL: test1 (__main__.test)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:\P37\test.py", line 6, in test1
self.assertEqual(1, 0)
AssertionError: 1 != 0
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 1 test in 0.000s
FAILED (failures=1)
The method to use when testing a function depends on the purpose of a
function. But generally, all you need to do is to include one of the methods
inside your TestCase’s class. For example:
import unittest
input("Press enter to start the test.")
def onlyReturn1():
return 1
def onlyReturn2():
return "2"
class Test(unittest.TestCase):
def test1(self):
self.assertIsInstance(onlyReturn1(), int)
self.assertIsInstance(onlyReturn2(), int)
unittest.main()
Press enter to start the test.
F
================================================================
FAIL: test1 (__main__.test)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:\P37\test.py", line 11 in test1
self.assertIsInstance(onlyReturn2(), 0)
AssertionError: '2' is not an instance of <class 'int'>
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 1 test in 0.000s
FAILED (failures=1)
By checking the context of the program, it is expected that the functions
onlyReturn1() and onlyReturn2() should only return int class objects. To
check that, the example use assertIsInstance() method.
Since onlyReturn2() returns a string value ('2'), the test failed. You may have
noticed that there was more than one assert method in the test method, but it
only returned an error for one line and the result said it only ran 1 test.
One test method equates to one test. Also, when a test encounters a failure, it
stops processing the rest of the method since it basically received an
exception.

Exercise
Your practice exercise is to create at least ten test methods and check the
programs you made. Remember that the practice exercise chapter that told
you to create the eight programs you listed? Yes. Those are the programs that
you should use your unit tests on.
If you have not created those programs yet, you should try and do so now.
You are more than ready to program with Python, and surely, you can make a
decent version of the programs you wanted.
 Conditional and Iterative Programming

Code indentation
Python uses indents. The concept of code indentation plays a major role in
Python. Remember, we have not used indenting in any part of the code in
previous examples. This is because if we do, the Python interpreter will think
of it as a part of a code block which is a part of a condition, function, or loop
(We will understand each of them shortly).
Your code must follow a consistent indentation such as four whitespaces or
tabs. The amount of indentation is your choice, but you must use the same
indents throughout that code block. If you try to indent any line of the code
separately, the Python interpreter will throw an error message saying
“unexpected indent” and the entire code will not work. If you want to execute
a sequence of code, place the code right before the line starts. The indentation
is only done in a block of code that is followed by a condition, function, or
loop. Below is an example of writing Python code in the wrong way:

Conditional statements
In the earlier examples, we have been programming in a sequential manner,
which means that statements were being performed one after another and
followed a sequential pattern. The conditional statements modify the
sequential approach and are basically used to specify which block of code is
to be executed first depending on some condition. These statements are
supposed to return one of the Boolean values (true or false). They identify the
current value of various variables used in code. These statements are called
“conditional” because they work according to the current state of the
program.
How it works
We have already studied comparison operators and their types in the Day 2
section. Comparison operators are a part of the conditional statement. If a
conditional statement returns true then the block of code that is affiliated with
it will be executed. If it returns false, then the entire block of code affiliated
with it will be ignored by the Python interpreter.
Here is an example for a better understanding of how a conditional statement
works. This is just a basic syntax of conditional statements.

Remember that similar code indentation is used after every condition to

denote that it is a part of a similar code block.
The interpreter will check condition 1 because it comes first before condition
2. If condition 1 is met or simply expression 1 returns true then its block of
code will be executed. Thus, the lines print (“hello”), print (“from”), print
(“the code inside”), and print (“condition 1”) will be executed. Then the
interpreter will check condition 2, if the condition does not meet i.e. the
expression 2 does not return true, then the lines print(“hello”) print(“from”),
print(“the code inside”), and print(“condition 2”) will be completely ignored
because they are in the block of condition 2.
Usage and working of if, elif, and else statements
The ‘if’ statement takes the result of the expression (a condition) and tells the
interpreter to execute its block of code if the result of the expression is true. It
is written in this way:
if <condition>:
Line 1
Line 2
…
However, the “if” statement is not bound to take an expression as a condition.
You can directly pass Boolean values, numeric values, or strings to it as a
condition.
Remember that for Numeric values, the empty values (0, 0.00, …) will be
considered as false, and all the values except empty values (even
0.00000000001) will be considered as true. For strings, the empty string (“”)
will be considered as false and all the strings except empty strings will have
some value in programming languages so they will be considered as true.
The ‘elif’ statement also works exactly as if statement. The ‘elif’ statement
does not work if there is no if statement placed before it. It consists of “else”
and “if.” The difference is that the ‘elif’ statement checks the condition only
when the return type of if statement that is placed before it, is false.
Let’s have a better understanding of it:
if <condition>:
line 1 inside if
line 2 inside if
elif <condition>
line 1 inside elif
line 2 inside elif
If the condition of ‘if’ statement is true, then the interpreter will execute both
of the lines inside the ‘if’ statement and it will ignore the ‘elif’ statement
because the first ‘if’ statement has been executed.
If the condition of the ‘if’ statement is false, then the interpreter will ignore
the lines written in the ‘if’ block and jump to the ‘elif’ statement and see if
the condition of the elif statement is met. If it is, then the block of ‘elif’
statement will be executed otherwise ignored (just like if statement). You can
place as many ‘elif’ statements (one after another) like:
if <condition>:
// some code
// some code
elif <condition>: (1)
line 1
line 2
elif <condition>: (2)
line 1
line 2
elif <condition>: (3)
line 1
line 2
…
elif <condition>: (n)
line 1
line 2
Each ‘elif’ statement will only get the interpreter’s attention when all of the
conditional statements before it, return false. Let’s say the first ‘elif’ gets
true, then the interpreter will ignore all upcoming ‘elif’ statements.
The ‘else’ is a statement that also contains a block of code to be executed.
However, the ‘else’ statement does not contain any condition. It is placed
after ‘elif’ statement or ‘if’ statement if there is no ‘elif’ statement. Its block
of code runs only when all the conditions placed before it is identified as
false.
In other words, the code block of an else statement runs when none of the
code blocks are executed before the else statement.
Let’s have a better understanding of it:
if <condition>:
line 1
line 2
elif <coniditon>:
line 1
line 2
else:
line 1
line 2
If both the ‘if’ and ‘elif’ statements are false then regardless of any condition,
the code block of the ‘else’ statement will be executed.
Code example
Enough of the theory! Let’s consider a scenario where a variable of numeric
type is checked whether it belongs to the range 1 – 10 or 11 – 20. If it belongs
to one of the ranges, display the range as output. If it doesn’t belong to any
range, then show that it is out of range.

Exercises
1) Write a program that calculates the percentage based on total marks and
marks obtained and checks:
a. If the percentage is above or equal to 90, display “A grade.”
b. If the percentage is below 90 but above or equal to 80, display “B grade.”
c. Else, display “F grade.”
Consider total marks = 500 and marks obtained = 450.
2) Write a program that checks if the string has a value:
a. “Ball”, display “Let’s play ball.”
b. “Basketball”, display “I love Michael Jordan.”
c. If it is not equal to any of the strings specified, display “I don’t know it.”
Consider the string “Volleyball” for comparing.
 Variables and Constants in Python
Why Variables Are needed?
For any programming language, the basic part is to store the data in memory
and process it. No matter what kind of operation we are going to perform, we
must have the object of operation. It is difficult for a skillful woman to cook
without rice. In Python language, constants and variables are the main ones.
In fact, both of them are identification codes used by program designers to
access data contents in memory.
The biggest difference between the two is that the contents of variables will
change with the execution of the program, while the contents of constants are
fixed forever. In the process of program execution, it is often necessary to
store or use some data. For example, if you want to write a program to
calculate the mid-term exam results, you must first input the students' results,
and then output the total score, average score, and ranking after calculation.
This chapter describes how to store and access this data.
Variable Naming and Assignment
In a program, program statements or instructions tell the computer which
Data to access and execute step by step according to the instructions in the
program statements. These data may be words or numbers. What we call
variable is the most basic role in a programming language, that is, a named
memory unit allocated by the compiler in programming to store changeable
data contents.
The computer will store it in "memory" and take it out for use when
necessary. In order to facilitate identification, it must be given a name. We
call such an object "variable."
For example:
> > firstsample = 3
>>>second sample= 5
> > > result = firstsample+secondsample
In the above program statement, firstsample, secondsample, result are
variables, and number 3 is the variable value of firstsample. Since the
capacity of memory is limited, in order to avoid wasting memory space, each
variable will allocate memory space of different sizes according to
requirements, so "Data Type" is used to regulate it.

Variable declaration and assignment

Python is an object-oriented language, all data are regarded as objects, and
the method of an Object reference is also used in variable processing. The
type of variable is determined when the initial value is given, so there is no
need to declare the data type in advance. The value of a variable is assigned
with "=" and beginners easily confuse the function of the assignment operator
(=) with the function of "equal" in mathematics. In programming languages,
the "=" sign is mainly used for assignment.
The syntax for declaring a variable is as follows:
variable name = variable value
e.g.
number = 10.
The above expression indicates that the value 10 is assigned to the variable
number. In short, in Python language, the data type does not need to be
declared in advance when using a variable, which is different from that in C
language, which must be declared in advance before using a variable. Python
interpretation and operation system will automatically determine the data
type of the variable according to the value of the variable given or set.
For example, the data type of the above variable number is an integer. If the
content of the variable is a string, the data type of the variable is a string.

Constant
Constant refers to the value that the program cannot be changed during the
whole execution process. For example, integer constants: 45, -36, 10005, 0,
etc., or floating-point constants: 0.56, -0.003, 1.234E2, etc. Constants have
fixed data types and values.
The biggest difference between variable and constant is that the content of the
variable changes with the execution of the program, while the constant is
fixed. Python's constant refers to the literal constant, which is the literal
meaning of the constant. For example, 12 represents the integer 12. The
literal constant is the value written directly into the Python program.
If literal constants are distinguished by data type, there will be different
classifications, for example, 1234, 65, 963, and 0 are integer literal constants.
The decimal value is the literal constant of the floating-point types, such as
3.14, 0.8467, and 744.084. As for the characters enclosed by single quotation
marks (') or double quotation marks ("), they are all string literal constants.
For example," Hello World "and" 0932545212 "are all string literal constants.
Formatting Input and Output Function
In the early stage of learning Python, the program execution results are
usually output from the control panel, or the data input by the user is obtained
from the console. Before, we often use the print () function to output the
program's execution results. This section will look at how to call the print ()
function for print format and how to call the input () function to input data.
The print format
The print () function supports the print format. There are two formatting
methods that can be used, one is the print format in the form of “%” and the
other is the print format in the form function. “%” print format formatted text
can use “%s” to represent a string, “%d” to represent an integer, and “%f” to
represent a floating-point number.
The syntax is as follows:
PRINT (formatted text (parameter 1, parameter 2, ..., parameter n))
For example:
score = 66
Print ("History Score: %d"% score")
Output
Result: History Score: 66
%d is formatted, representing the output integer format.
The print format can be used to control the position of the printout so that the
output data can be arranged in order.
For example:
print("%5s history result: %5.2f"% ("Ram,”95))
The output results of the sample program
print("%5s history results: %5.2f"% ("Raj,”80.2))
The formatted text in the above example has two parameters, so the
parameters must be enclosed in brackets, where %5s indicates the position of
5 characters when outputting, and when the actual output is less than 5
characters, a space character will be added to the left of the string.
%5.2f represents a floating-point number with 5 digits output, and the
decimal point occupies 2 digits. The following example program outputs the
number 100 in floating-point number, octal number, hexadecimal number and
binary number format using the print function, respectively.
You can practice with this example program:
[Example Procedure: print_%.py]
Integer Output
visual = 100 in Different Decimal Numbers
print ("floating point number of number %s: %5.1f"% (visual,visual))
print ("octal of number %s: %o"% (visual,visual))
print ("hex of number %s: %x"% (visual,visual))
The execution result of the print ("binary of number %s: %s"%
(visual,bin(visual))) will be displayed.

Exercise
-The pocket money bookkeeping butler designed a Python program that can
input the pocket money spent seven days a week and output the pocket
money spent every day. The sample program illustrates that this program
requires the user name to be entered, and then the sum of spending for each
day of the week can be entered continuously, and the pocket money spent for
each day can be output.
Program code shows that the following is the complete program code of this
example program.
[example program: money.py]
pocket money bookkeeping assistant
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
"""
You can enter pocket money spent 7 days a week and output the pocket
money spent every day.
"""
name = value ("Give name:")
working1 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the first
working:")
working2 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the next
working:")
working3 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the third
working:")
working4 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the fourth
working:")
working5 = value ("Give the total spending of pocket money for the fifth
working:")
working6 = value ("Give the total spending of pocket money for the sixth
working:")
working7 = input ("Give the total allowance for the seventh working:")
print("{0:<8}{1:^5}{2:^5}{3:^5}{4:^5}{5:^5}{6:^5}{7:^5}.” \
format("name,”"working1,”"working2,”"working3,” \
"working4,”"working5,”"working6,” \
"working7"))
print("{0:<8}{1:^5}{2:^5}{3:^5}{4:^5}{5:^5}{6:^5}{7:^5}.” \
format(name,working1,working2,working3,working4,working5,working6,working7))
ave=total/7
print("total cost: {0:<8} average daily cost {1: 5}.” format (total, ave))
With this, we have completed a brief explanation regarding python and its
basic concepts that are necessary for understanding traditional programming
methodology. In the next chapter, we will discuss in detail about Operators
and other moderate level topics that are necessary for a clear understanding of
programming.
 Conclusion
Sometimes, as a coder, it can be fun just making a program that looks nice. A
lot of people fail to realize that quality is a large aspect of an algorithm. It can
also be that people just don't have the skill set of a coder, so we haven't said
to tell them how to write bad code yet.
There are also people who want to do things such as 'Hello, World!', through
their code. This in itself is quite fun, but it's not particularly useful. For this
reason, we're going to say that you should not do things like this. If you insist
on writing this, then you might as well use a high-level programming
language, or use a library to do it.
If you just wanted to write 'Hello, World!' then you should write a better
'Hello, World' in your own language. We do not want to hear how there is a
'Hello, World' or 'Fibonacci numbers' kata for every language. Unless you're
writing something nice, there's no point in doing it
Instead, we're going to try something new. We're going to write in a way that
will be useful in everyday programming. Python is a programming language
that has a lot to offer, so we're going to try to re-purpose a lot of Python into
'real' code. That is, many of the things that we've learned in Makefiles won't
be applicable to the code that we're going to write. The code will still be
Python, so you'll have to know when to use stuff, however, we're going to try
to make it more than just a Makefile. Instead, we're going to try to get more
useful code out of it. This is the first version of this article. If you notice any
mistakes then please let me know.
The first thing we're going to do is create a 'small' project. In this project,
we're going to have just two functions, mine, and print. We're going to make
these functions run as a single module so that they can be unit tested. We're
going to use a library called requests to make our functions more interactive,
and useful.
First of all, we're going to import it. We're going to use a library called
'requests' so that we can use it to get data from the web. This is going to be
used to get data from the online cryptocurrency exchange, Poloniex. We need
to use a library so we can write code that is a lot shorter and easier to read.
We're going to use a library called 'requests' to make getting data from the
Poloniex API very easy and break down some of the hard parts of doing
things.
We're going to ask the Poloniex web API to give us a list of the online
wallets. We will be using the 'requests' library again to make life a lot easier
as well as bigger. We're also going to need to be able to see how much each
one has so that we will use the json() function from the 'requests' module to
make this easy to read. We're going to be looking at the amount of money
each wallet has, and the Poloniex API is going to give us that.
We will also assume that we have a website that comes from https: We
assume that we have a script which deals with 'Hello World' by using 'print.'
We also assume that we have a module which deals with 'printing' data. We
need a 'print' function that we can use. We also need a function to handle our
data. We need something that we can run, display the data, and then get
feedback. This is a simple project that is good for testing
Finally, we'll need to write a description for the project. This is just
something that we can do to help us when writing our code. We will also
need to describe what is our 'output' and 'input' to the project. We will also
need to talk about 'safety.' We will also need to prove our 'correctness.'
Correctness means that we only work when we have the right input.
Correctness helps us to write code that is easier to write and work with. We
will also compare our code from today to what a plain text file would look
like.