Control Systems - Lecture Note

Introduction to Control
Engineering
Eeng 3182
CVN(X) FUTURE AIRCRAFT CARRIER
Hamdihun A. , March, 2014

Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction on Control System
1.2 Linear Time Invariant System, Impulse
response of LTI system
1.3 Transfer Function, Mathematical modeling of
physical systems, Block diagrams
1.4 Block diagram reduction and Signal flow
graphs,
2 Bahirdar University, Institute of Technology_IOT_SCEE 4/8/2014

1.1 Introduction on Control System
Study of Control System is essential for students of:
Electrical
Mechanical
Aerospace
Biomedical
Chemical Engineering
Control systems are found in a broad range of applications
with in these disciplines: from aircraft and space craft to robots
and process control systems.
These control systems are also exist in nature:
With in our bodies are numerous control systems:
Pancreases which regulates our blood sugar
In time of fight or flight our adrenal increases which regulates
our heart rate causing more oxygen to be delivered to our cells.
Hands grasping objects and place it precisely at a
predetermined location
Required backgrounds:
Differential equations
Laplace transforms
Linear algebra
Basics of electrical circuits and electromechanical
equipment i.e. motor/ generator, etc.
etc.

Control System Fundamentals:
A control system consists of sub systems and
processes or plants assembled for the purpose of
obtaining a desired output with the desired
performance, given a specified input.
System: mean different thing to different people,
it can be include from purely physical systems such as
the machine table of a computer numerically
controlled (CNC) machine tools to
the procedure necessary for the purchase of raw
material together with the control of inventory (stack
of an item) in a material requirement planning (MRP)
system.
Bahirdar University, Institute of Technology_IOT_SCEE
5 4/8/2014
However, all systems have certain things in common.
NB: A system may have any

number of inputs and
outputs
They all for example, requires inputs and outputs to be

specified. Incase of CNC machine tool machine table,
input might be the power to the driver motor, and the
output might be the position, velocity and acceleration of
the table.
For the MRP system:
input would include sales orders and sales forecasts, a
bill of materials for component parts and sub
assemblies, inventory records and information relating
to capacity requirement planning.
MRP system may generate various output reports that
are used in planning and managing factory operations
i.e. order releases, inventory status, overdue orders and
inventory forecasts.

In Engineering point of view:
System – An interconnection of elements and devices for
a desired purpose.
Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The input
and output relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship
of the process.
Control System – An
interconnection of components
forming a system configuration that
will provide a desired response with
the desired specification. Simple control systems
Control Engineering – a field of Engineering which

deals about control system and related areas.
In Control Engineering, the way in which the system
outputs responds in changes to the system inputs (i.e. the
system response) is very important.
The control system design engineer will attempt to evaluate
the system response by determining a mathematical model
for the system.
Fundamental to any control system is the ability to measure
the output of the system and to take correction if its value
deviates from some desired value.

Knowledge of the system inputs together with the
mathematical model, will allow the system outputs to be
calculated.
It is conventional to refer to the system being controlled as
the plant, and this as with other elements is represented by
a block diagram.
NB: Some inputs, the engineer will have direct control
over, and can be used to control the plant outputs.
These are known as control inputs.
There are other inputs over which the engineer has no
control, and these will tend to defect the plant outputs
from their desired values. These are called disturbance
inputs (noises).
For instance, in the case of the ship system shown
below:
The rudder (underwater valve used to steer a
vessel) and engines are the control inputs whose
values can be adjusted to control certain outputs
such as heading and forward velocity.
The wind, waves and current are disturbance
inputs and will induce errors in the outputs
In addition, the disturbance will introduce
increased ship motion (roll, pitch and heave)
which again is not desirable.
Figure: a ship as a dynamic system

Control System configuration:
There are two major configuration of control
systems (internal architecture of the total system)
Open loop
Closed loop (Feedback system)
Open loop control system:
System which has no any feedback from the output.

Characteristics of open loop control systems
Sensitive for disturbances and cannot compensate for these
disturbances added to the system
Simple for design
Examples of open loop system
(Open loop ) furnace, Air conditioners, etc…
Closed Loop (Feedback) Control System
System with feedback or Sensing device of the output for input correction
purpose

Characteristics of closed loop (feedback) control systems
Can compensate for disturbances
Have greater accuracy than open loop systems
Less sensitive to noise, disturbances and changes to the
environment.
Transient response and steady state error can be controlled more
conveniently and with greater flexibility.
More complex and expensive than open loop systems.
In summary:
System that perform the previously described measurement and
correction are called Closed loop (feedback) control systems.
Systems that don't have this property of measurement and
correction are called Open loop systems.
Advantage of Control Systems:
For example using control systems
We can move large equipments with precision that would other
wise impossible.
We can point huge antennas towards the farthest reaches of the
universe to pick up faint radio signals.
etc.
In general, we build control systems for four primary
reasons
a) Power amplifications
b) Remote control
c) Convenience of input form
d) Compensation for disturbances
Controller Performance
Two major measures of performance for control system
Transient response
Steady state error
Lets take an example of an elevator controller (position controller);
Input: the passenger pressing of fourth floor button
Output: the arrival of the passenger at the fourth floor
In this example passenger comfort and passenger patience are dependant
upon the transient response.
If this response is to fast passenger comfort is sacrificed; if too slow the
passenger patience is sacrificed.
The steady state error is an other performance specification since
passenger safety and convenience would sacrificed if the elevator didn't
properly level

Elevator response
Analysis and Design Objective

Analysis: the process by which a systems performance is determined.
We evaluate the transient response and steady state error to determine if
performance is created or changed.
Design: is the process by which a system performance is created or changed.
For example, if system transient response and steady state error are analyzed
and found not to meet the specifications then we change parameters or add
additional components to meet the specification.
A control system is dynamic which mean it responds to an
input by under going a transient response before reaching a
steady state response that generally resembles the input.
Other deign concerns:
Cost
Sensitivity of system performance to change in parameters
Transient Response:
[for the above example] slow transient response makes
passengers impatient where as an excessive rapid response makes
them uncomfortable. Too fast TR could cause permanent physical
damage.

If the elevator oscillates about the arrival floor for more than a second a
disconcerting feeling can result.
Hence we should analyze the system for its existing transient response
and we would adjust parameter or design components to yield a desired
transient response. This is our first analysis and design objective.
Steady state response
This response resembles the input and found after the transient
response decays to zero. For example, an elevator stopped near the
fourth floor.
We concerned more about the accuracy of steady state response.
Define steady state errors quantitatively, analyze a steady state error,
and design corrective action to reduce steady state error is our second
analysis and design objective.

Stability
In addition to the above control system performance criteria i.e.
producing the desired transient response and reducing steady state
error, achieving stability is also the final target of control system
designer.
Transient response and steady state response are nothing if the
system has no stability.
[for linear system] Total response = Natural response +Forced
response
(as differential eqn. has homogenous solution + particular solution)
Natural response: describes the way the system dissipates or
acquire energy. The form or nature of this response is dependent
only on the system, not on input.
Forced response: its form or nature is dependent on
the input.
For a control system to be useful the natural response
must:
i. Eventually approaches zero or
ii. Oscillate about a value
If the natural response grows without bound rather
than diminish to zero or oscillate eventually, the
natural response is so much greater than the forced
response. That system is no longer controlled. This
condition is called instability.

If the system is stable, proper transient and steady
state response can be designed, hence Stability is
our third analysis and design objective.
Other consideration:
Factors affecting hardware selection such as motor
sizing, choice of accurate sensors,….
Finance
Robust design

The Deign Process
Sequence for the design of feedback control system
Step1: determine a physical system and specification from
the requirement.
Step 2: draw a function block diagram
Step3: transform physical system into a schematic.
Step4: develop a mathematical model. use the schematic to
obtain a block diagram/ state space representation.
Step5: if multiple reduce the block.
Step6: Analyze, design, and test to see that requirements
and specifications are met.
Test wave forms in control System

Using Computer for Control System Analysis & Design
In the analysis and design stage of controller design
process, we will use computers as a computational tool.
And computers use an important role in modern control
systems.
We can use different software application for this
purpose.
Matlab:
Since computer is an integral part of modern control system design,
many computational tools are available. In our discussion we use
Matlab and Matlab control system tool box.
Lab View:
A programming environment presented as alternative to Matlab.
The course overview in general:

Example: Antenna Azimuth position control System

Schematic diagram

Block diagram

Exercise: A temperature control system operates by using
the difference between the thermostat setting and the
actual temperature for opening a fuel valve to the
amount proportional to this difference. Draw a
functional closed loop block diagram which indicates the
input and output transducers, the controller, and the
plant. Also identify the input and output signals of all
systems.

(Options in) Control System Analysis and Design
Step1: Modeling
By physical laws
By identification methods
Step2: Analysis
Stability, controllability and observability
Step3: Control law design
Classical, modern and post-modern control
Step4: Analysis
Time domain, frequency domain
Step5: Simulation
Matlab, Fortran, Simulink etc….
Step6: Implement
Brief history of automatic control
1868 First article of control ‘on governor’s’ –by Maxwell
1877 Routh stability criterion
1892 Liapunov stability condition
1895 Hurwitz stability condition
1932 Nyquist
1945 Bode
1947 Nichols
1948 Root locus
1949 Wiener optimal control research
1955 Kalman filter and controlbility observability analysis
1956 Artificial Intelligence
…
1957 Bellman optimal and adaptive control
1962 Pontryagin optimal control
1965 Fuzzy set
1972 Vidyasagar multi-variable optimal control and Robust
control
1981 Doyle Robust control theory
1990 Neuro-Fuzzy

Three eras of control
Classical control : 1950 before
Transfer function based methods
Time-domain design & analysis
Frequency-domain design & analysis
Modern control : 1950~1960
State-space-based methods
Optimal control
Adaptive control
Post modern control : 1980 after
H∞ control
Robust control (uncertain system)
1.2 Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems:
Input signals Output signals
LTI system
A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input

x(t) and the system output y(t) if it satisfies the following
two properties of superposition and homogeneity.
：
Superposition：
x1 (t ) y1 (t ) x2 (t ) y2 (t )
x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) y1 (t ) + y2 (t )

Homogeneity：：
x1 (t ) y1 (t ) ax1 (t ) ay1 (t )
Example:
x(t ) y (t )
y (t ) = x(t ) x(t − 1)
let x(t ) = x1 (t )
y1 (t ) = x1 (t ) x1 (t − 1)
let x(t ) = ax1 (t )
y (t ) = ax1 (t )ax1 (t − 1) = a x1 (t ) x1 (t − 1) = a y1 (t )
2 2
y (t ) ≠ ay1 (t )
Non linear system
Time Invariant:
A system is said to be time invariant if a time
delay or time advance of the input signal leads
to an identical time shift in the output signal.
x(t ) y (t )
Time invariant
system
x(t − t0 ) y (t − t0 )
t0 t0
Example: y (t )
x(t ) y (t ) =
x(t )
R (t )
x1 (t )
y1 (t ) =
R (t )
x2 (t ) = x1 (t − t0 )
x2 (t ) x1 (t − t0 )
⇒ y2 (t ) = =
R(t ) R(t )
x1 (t − t0 )
but y1 (t ) =
R (t − t0 )
y1 (t − t0 ) ≠ y2 (t ), for t0 ≠ 0
Time varying system

In general:
A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are
constants or functions only the independent variable.
Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time
invariant lumped parameter components may be
described by linear time invariant (constant coefficient)
differential equations.
Systems that are represented by differential equations
whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear
time varying (LTV) system. Example: spacecraft control
system(the mass of the space craft changes due to fuel
consumption)
A system is non-linear if principle of superposition
doesn’t apply.
Linear time invariant system representation:
Continuous-time LTI system
1.Order-N Ordinary Differential equation
2.Transfer function (Laplace transform)
3.State equation (Finite order-1 differential equations) )
Discrete-time LTI system
1.Ordinary Difference equation
2.Transfer function (Z transform)
3.State equation (Finite order-1 difference equations)

Example: Continuous-time LTI system
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
LC 2
+ RC + y (t ) = u (t )
dt dt
Order-2 ordinary differential equation
constants
LCs 2Y ( s) + RCsY ( s ) + Y ( s ) = U ( s ) Linear system initial rest
Y ( s) 1
= Transfer function
U ( s ) LCs 2 + RCs + 1
U (s ) 1 Y (s )
LCs 2 + RCs + 1
Block diagram
Impulse Response:
Output signals from the system due to Input signals and
initial conditions.
1. The point of view of Mathematic:
Homogenous solution yh (t ) ＋ Particular solution y p (t )
2. The point of view of Engineer:

Natural response y n (t )
＋
Forced response y f (t )
3. The point of view of control engineer:
Zero-input response y zi (t ) ＋ Zero-state responsey zs (t )
Transient response Steady state response

In control theory the impulse response is the
response of a system to a Dirac delta input. This
proves useful in the analysis of dynamic systems:
The Laplace transform of the delta function is 1,
so the impulse response is equivalent to the
inverse Laplace transform of the System's transfer
function.
A continuous-time LTI system is usually illustrated
like this:

The impulse that is referred to in the term impulse
response is generally a short-duration time-domain
signal.
For continuous-time systems, this is the Dirac delta
function δ(t), while for discrete-time systems, the
Kronecker delta function δ[n] is typically used.
A system's impulse response (often annotated as h(t)
for continuous-time systems or h[n] for discrete-time
systems) is defined as the output signal that results
when an impulse is applied to the system input.
y(t)=∫x(τ)h(t−τ)dτ
where, h(t) is the system's impulse response
Mathematical Modeling of Physical
Systems
We will use quantitative mathematical models of
physical systems to design and analyze control systems.
The dynamic behavior is generally described by
ordinary differential equations.
We will consider a wide range of systems, including
mechanical, electrical and electromechanical systems.
Even if most physical systems are nonlinear, we will
consider as they are linear or we will take linearization
approximations, which allow us to use Laplace
transform methods.
We will then proceed to obtain the input–output
relationship for components and subsystems in the
form of transfer functions.
The transfer function blocks can be organized into
block diagrams or signal-flow graphs to
graphically depict the interconnections.
Block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs) are very
convenient and natural tools for designing and
analyzing complicated control systems.

NB: We will notice that in every case the first step
in developing a mathematical model is to apply the
fundamental physical laws of science and
engineering. Apply physical laws of
science & engineering for
each sub system or for the
overall system as a whole

Transfer Function:
In control system differential equations can describe the
relation ship b/n the input and output of the system.
Generally;
Which relates the output C(t) to the input R(t) by taking

system parameters ai and bi
Using Laplace transform we transfer this differential
equation into transfer function of the system

Taking all initial conditions zero, the Laplace transform
becomes:
Then, the input output ratio becomes;
We call it this ratio of output signal to input signal, G(s),

as the Transfer Function of the system
It can be represented in Block diagram as:

Laplace Transform:
Where;
Where;
Laplace transform
of basic signals

Laplace transform theorems:

Example: Find the transfer function represented by
Solution
Taking the Laplace transform of the differential at
zero initial conditions
Then, the TF becomes;
R(s) C(s)
Block diagram
Using transfer function, we can analyze the system
response.
Taking the above example, calculate the System Response
C(t), if the input be unit step r(t)=U(t), which is step
response.
Laplace of r(t), R(s)=1/s, then
Expanding
Taking inverse Laplace

Approaches for solving dynamic system problem
Define the system and its components
Formulate the mathematical model and list the
necessary assumptions
Write the differential equations describing the
model
Solve the equations for the desired output
variables
Examine the solutions and the assumptions
If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system
After these steps we have to develop mathematical
models from these schematics of physical systems and we
have two methods:
1. Transfer function (in frequency domain)
2. State equation (in time domain)
Mathematical Modeling Electrical Networks
(a): circuits with passive elements:

Example: determine the mathematical modeling and the transfer
function for the following electrical system.
Solution:
Using KVL around the loop
Substituting current:
Voltage charge relation on the

capacitor

Taking the Laplace transform assuming all
initial conditions zero:
Solving the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s)-

Output/Input, we obtain:
Block diagram representation:

To simplify solving our problem, we can take the Laplace
transform equation of voltage-current relation for all the
three electrical elements as follows(assuming zero initial
conditions):
For the Capacitor:
For Resistor:
For Inductor:
In general for any impedance combination:

Hence, the above problem can be easily solved as:
Solving V/I
Calculating voltage across the capacitor in terms of loop

current I:
Then the mathematical modeling of the system in the

form of TF will be:

(b):Electrical circuits with active elements:
Operational Amplifiers:
It is an electronic amplifier used as a basic building block
for implementing transfer functions:
Circuit diagram for operational amplifier Ideal operational Amplifier

Characteristics of operational Amplifier:
Differential input : V2(t) – V1(t)
High input impedance : Zi = ∞ (ideal)
Low output impedance: Zo = 0 (ideal)
High constant gain amplification A= ∞ (ideal)
Hence, the output Vo(t) = A(V2(t) –V1(t))
Inverting Operational Amplifier
If V2(t) is grounded, the
amplifier is called an
inverting operational
amplifier, and

From the characteristics of operational amplifier, since
the input impedance is high Ia(s)=0 and from KCL:
I1(s) = -I2(s)
Considering the gain A is large VI(t)=0, thus
I1(s)=Vi(s)/Z1(s) and
I2(s) = Vo(s)/Z2(s)
Equating the above two equation the transfer function
for an inverting amplifier configured as above becomes:

Example: represent the following circuit with its
equivalent mathematical modeling in terms of transfer
function:
Solution
What will be the

mathematical
modeling in terms of
differential equation ?
Non- Inverting Operational Amplifier:
Using voltage division
Substituting the above equations:
General non inverting operational amplifier
For large gain A:

Example: Find the Transfer function for the network
below(determine the mathematical modeling in
frequency domain) Solution:

Tip: Transfer function & connection diagram for
integrator and differentiator operational amplifiers
V 2( s ) −1
V 1( s ) RCs
V 2( s )
−RCs
V 1( s )

Mathematical Modeling for Mechanical
Systems
Transitional Mechanical Systems:

Example: Determine the transfer function for the
mechanical system taking the force on the mass as an
input and the displacement as output.
In deferential equation form
Taking Laplace transform

•Free body diagram in time and
frequency domain
The transfer function becomes:

In Mechanical Systems, the number of equation s of
motion required is equal to the number of linearly
independent motion which implies a point of motion in a
system can still move if other points of motion are held
still or the vice versa. It is also called Degree of Freedom.
Exercise: Find the transfer function
Answer:

Rotational Mechanical Systems:

Example: Find the transfer function for the following
rotational mechanical system ϴ2(s)/T(s): Torques on J1
due only to the
motion of J1
Torques on J1
due only to the
motion of J2
Final free-body
diagram for J1

For the second momentum,
Torques on J2 due only to
the motion of J2
Torques on J2 due only

to the motion ofJ1
Final free-body diagram for J 2

From the above two free body diagram:
Hence the required Transfer function:
Where;
And the block diagram becomes:

Mechanical Systems with Gears:
Most of the systems which are driven by motors are
associated with gear trains for driving the load.
Which provides mechanical advantage for rotational
systems. An input gear with radius r1 and N1
teeth is rotated through angle ϴ1(t) due to
a torque, T1(t). An output gear with radius
r2 and N2 teeth responds by rotating
through angle ϴ2(t) and delivering a
torque, T2(t)- Let us now find the
relation-ship between the rotation of
Gear1,ϴ1(t) and Gear2,ϴ2(t)
The distance traveled along each gear circumstance is
equal:
The number of teeth along the circumstance is
proportional with the radius:
Torque relation for input and output gear:
From the above equations we get:

We can represent
this relation using
block diagrams

Mechanical impedances (spring, damper, inertia)
which are driven by gears:
a. Equivalent system at the output

Rotational system after reflection of input torque
driven by gears
b. Equivalent system at the input

after reflection of impedances
Hence the equation of motion for the first case:
Substituting ϴ2 with ϴ1
After simplification
Which gives
representation in
the form of part b
Example: Find the transfer function for the following
system taking the angular displacement of the second
inertia as an output when we apply an input torque on the
first inertia:
Then the equation of motion

can be written as:
Solution:
First reflect impedances(D1 and
Where
J1) and the torque T1 from the
input side to the output side.
Hence, the transfer function and the block diagram
becomes:
a. System transfer function
b. Block diagram representation

NB: if we have gear
trains like this one, the
angular displacement
can be related:

Mathematical Modeling for
Electromechanical Systems:
Most systems in Mechatronics are of the mixed type,
e.g., electromechanical, hydromechanical, etc
Electromechanical systems are systems which have
both electrical and mechanical variable.
It has different application areas: Robot control, Trackers
(ex. Sun & star tracking), Computer tape & Disk drives,
different servo applications.
Motor is one of the electromechanical system which
yields a displacement output taking voltage as an input:
Example: Mathematical modeling for DC motor
(Electromechanical system)
Ra La
Dm Input:Voltage u
ia
ea eb dc
J Output: Angular velocity ω
ωm
or angular position ϴ
Electrical Sub system
di a
e a = Ra i a + La + e b , e b = back - emf voltage
dt
Mechanical Sub system
Tm = J ω& m + Dω m
Mechanical torque=Electrical torque
Equivalent diagram for
Tm=Te the mechanical system
Power Transformation:
Torque-Current: Tm = K t ia
Voltage-Speed: e b = K bω m
where Kt: torque constant, Kb: velocity constant For an
ideal motor.
Combing previous equations results in the following
mathematical model:
 di a
La + Ra i a + K bω m = ea
 dt
J ω& m + Dωm - K t ia = 0
Taking Laplace transform of the system’s differential
equations with zero initial conditions gives:
... Ra La
(La s + Ra )I a ( s ) + K b Ω m ( s ) = Ea ( s ) B
 ia
(Js + D )Ω m (s) - K t I a ( s ) = 0
Kt
ea
ω
Eliminating Ia yields the input-output transfer

function Most of the time Ra
Ωm (s) Kt >>La for Dc motors.
=
Ea (s) La Js 2 + (JRa + DLa ) + DRa + Kt Kb Hence, we can take
La=0
Assuming small inductance, La ≈0
Ωm (s)
=
(Kt Ra )
Kt/Ra
Ea (s) Js + (D + Kt Kb Ra )
Js + ( D + KtKb / Ra)
a. DC motor TF
b. DC motor block diagram
Example: Find the mathematical modeling in terms of
transfer function taking the angular rotation of the
inertia ϴL(t) as an output while applying an input
voltage ea(t) to the motor. (use torque speed curve to
determine motor constants)
b. Torque speed curve

a. DC motor and load
Solution: Reflecting mechanical constants to the motor
armature side:
Calculating the electrical constants
Then; System block diagram
What will be TF for ωL(s)/Ea(s) ?

Circuit Analogy between Electrical
and Mechanical Systems:
Reading Assignment-1

Mathematical Modeling for Fluid Systems
As the most versatile medium for transmitting signals and
power fluids(gas or liquid) has wide usage in industry
Hydraulic describes fluid systems that uses liquids (eg.
Oil or water)
Pneumatic applies to those using air or other gases

Example of fluid circuits application:

There are three basic elements in fluid systems:
1. Fluid Capacitor
2. Inertor (Long pipe)
3. Fluid Resistor
Fluid Capacitor
It is an energy storage element, analogues to capacitor in
electrical system
chang in stored fluid volume
Fluid capacitanc e, C =
change in fluid pressure(h ead)
∆Vc
C= NB: capacitance(m^2) and
∆Pc
capacity (m^3) are different
And;
Liquid Tank
Flow rate = Rate of change of volume
Or equivalently in terms of pressure

Fluid Inertance
Fluid inertance is due to fluid inertia such as that
in a long pipe. It is defined as
Pressure differenti al
I =
Rateofchan geofflowra te

Fluid Resistance:
It is a dissipative fluid element representing a valve
or other flow resisting connection.
chang in Pressure (head)
Fluid Resistance , R =
change in flow rate
Laminar Flow:
(Linear)
Turbulent Flow:
(Non-linear)

Two Cascaded Tanks:

Example: Find the Mathematical Modeling which relates
the output flow rate qo to the input flow rate qi:
If pipe is short we can

consider hc=ho

Taking the Laplace transform of the differential
equation
q = 1 o
q ICs + RCs + 1 2
i
a. System transfer function
Input flow rate 1 Output flow rate

ICs 2 + RCs + 1 qo
qi
b. System block diagram
Mathematical Modeling for Thermal System

(if u are interested, read about it !!!)
Block diagram Reduction
Many systems are composed of multiple subsystems
and may have more than one input.
Systems may be single input single output, SISO or
multiple input multiple output, MIMO.
In our discussion the systems are SISO type.
System with two inputs and two outputs

Interconnected system block diagram
Summing Junction and Pickoff Points
Pickoff Point

Cascaded or series blocks
Cascaded systems: one or more subsystem directly
followed by an other subsystem.
Considering that the interconnected subsystem has no
loading effect on the adjacent subsystem, we can combine
cascaded systems as:

Parallel Blocks:
Blocks with their input signals has the same takeoff point
and their output signal sinks at the same summing junction.

Feedback Blocks Negative feedback and
Positive feedback systems
Open Loop Transfer

Function or Loop Gain
Closed Loop
Transfer Function

Moving Blocks:
Moving blocks before and after a summing points, pickoff
points.
•Moving block before a summing point
•Moving block ahead a summing point

• Moving block before a pickoff point
•Moving block ahead a pickoff point

Summary table for Block diagram reduction rules
(Input output relation)

Example 1:
Calculate the transfer function for the following system in
terms of subsystems transfer functions.

Solution:
Moving takeoff point beyond a block
Cascading + positive feedback
Cascading + negative feedback

Cascading + negative feedback

Example 2: Find the transfer function G(s)= C(s)/R(s)
Solution:
s3 +1
Cascade/Series: S² S4 + S2 + S
S3 +1
Parallel: s3 +1
s3 +1
s
Feedback: S3 + S +1
2S 3 + S + 2
R(s) − +1 C (s)
Cascade/Series
−
3
S 1
S S +
Parallel
S
R(s ) +1 1 C (s )
−
3
S
S 3
+ S +1 S
Feedback
S
R (s ) S 3 +1 C (s)
− S 4 + S 2 + s
Cascade/series
S
R(s) C (s )
S3 +1
2S 3 + S + 2
Feedback
Hence; s3 +1
G (s) = 3
2S + S + 2

Signals Flow Graphs:
Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams.
Unlike block diagrams, which consist of blocks, signals,
summing junctions, and pickoff points,
A signal-flow graph consists only of branches which
represent systems, and nodes which represent signals.
A system is represented by a line with an arrow
showing the direction of signal flow
A signal is a node with the signal's name written adjacent
to the node.
R(s) R (s ) C (s)
C(s) G (s)

Terminologies on Signal flow graphs
Node: It is a point representing a variable. Ex. X1 & X2
Branch : A line joining two nodes.
X1 G branch X2
node
Input Node : Node which has only outgoing branches.
X1 is input node.
Output node/ sink node: Only incoming branches, X2.
Mixed nodes: Has both incoming and outgoing
branches.
Transmittance : It is the gain between two nodes. It is
generally written on the branch near the arrow i.e. G.
Signal flow graph for Interconnected system
R1(s) Y1(s) Y1(s ) G11(s )⋅ R1(s ) + G12(s )⋅ R2(s )
Y2(s ) G21(s )⋅ R1(s ) + G22(s )⋅ R2(s )

R2(s) Y2(s)
NB:
All variables, summing points and takeoff points are also
represented by nodes.
The negative & positive sign on the summing junction is
assigned on the system transfer function.
Block diagrams Signal flow graphs

Block diagrams can be directly converted to signal
flow graphs.
If a summing point is placed before a take off
point in the direction of signal flow, in such a case
the summing point and take off point shall be
represented by a single node.
If a summing point is placed after a take off point
in the direction of signal flow, in such a case the
summing point and take off point shall be
represented by separate nodes connected by a
branch having transmittance unity.
Converting complicated Block diagram to signal flow graph
a. Block diagram
b. Signal flow graph

Signal flow graph reduction
It is a technique for reducing signal-flow graphs to single
transfer functions that relate the output of a system to its
input.
To reduce signal flow graphs we will follow Mason’s Rule.
Mason’s Rule:
First let’s define terminologies which helps to evaluate
Mason’s Rule.
Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the
direction of branch arrows, such that no node is traversed
more than once.
Forward path : A path which originates from the input
node and terminates at the output node and along which
no node is traversed more than once.
Forward Path gain : It is the product of branch
transmittances of a forward path.
Loop : Path that originates and terminates at the same
node and along which no other node is traversed more
than once.
Self loop: Path that originates and terminates at the same
node.
Loop gain: it is the product of branch transmittances of a
loop.
Non-touching loops: Loops that don’t have any
common node or branch.
Example 1: Loops
L 1 = G2 H2 L 2 = H3
L3= G7 H7
Non-touching loops are
L1 & L2, L1 & L3, L2 &L3
Signal flow graph
Self loop: L2H3
Forward Path: direct path from R(s) to C(s)
Forward path gain 1: G1G2G3G4
Forward path gain 2: G5G6G7G8
Example 2:
It has four loop gain
Forward Path Gain:

For the above flow graph: we have two forward paths and
their corresponding gain becomes:

Non touching loops:
Non touching loop gain:

The product of loop gains from non-touching loops taken
two, three, four, or more at a time
All three of the non-touching-loop gains taken two at a
time are
In our example there are no non-touching-loop gains taken

three at a time since three non-touching loops do not exist
At this point we can drive Mason’s Equation:
Mason’s rule:
The Transfer function C(s)/R(s):
Where;
k= number of forward paths
Tk= the kth forward-path gain

∆ = 1 – (Σ loop gains) + (Σ non-touching loop gains
taken two at a time) – (Σ non-touching loop gains
taken three at a time)+ so on .
∆ k = 1 – (loop-gain which does not touch the Kth forward
path)
Example: Find the transfer function C(s)/R(s) from the

signal flow graph

Solution:
•It has only one forward path gain:
T1 =
•Identifying loop gains: there are fours

•Identifying non-touching loop and calculating gains:
Taken two at a time:
Taken three at a time:
Calculating

Since we have only one forward path:
Substituting the above equation in to the Mason’s rule:

Do you have any
question on the
chapter ?
Chapter 2:
Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems
After the engineer obtains a mathematical
representation of a system, the system is analyzed for
its transient and steady-state responses to see if these
characteristics yield the desired behavior.
The chapter will cover:-
Transient Response and Characteristics Equation
Performance Characteristics of Feedback
(closed loop) Control Systems
Effect of Derivative and Integral term on
Transient Response
Steady State Errors
The concept of poles and zeros are fundamental to the
analysis and design of control systems which simplifies the
evaluation of a system's response.
Pole, Zeros and System Response
Pole of a Transfer Function:
The values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the
transfer function to become infinite
Zeros of a Transfer Function:
The values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause
the transfer function to become zero,
Example: G(S) = Pole? -5
Zero? -2
System Response:
The commonly used test input signals are step functions,
ramp functions, acceleration function, impulse functions
and sinusoidal functions.
With these test signal mathematical and experimental
analysis of control system can be carried out easily since
the signals are very simple functions of time.
Which of these typical input signals to use for analyzing
system characteristics may be determined by the form of
the input that the system will be subjected to most
frequently under normal condition.
Example: If we apply step input to the above transfer function
System pole zero plot

on complex plane
Where;
Thus;

Transient Response Analysis
First Order System:
First order system without zero
Pole zero plot
If unit step input is applied to this first order system
Taking the inverse transform
Transient Response Performance Specification:

Time Constant:
a - is the only parameter needed to describe the transient response
We call 1 the time constant of the response.
a
The time constant can be described as the time for
exp(-at) to decay to 37% of its initial value. Alternately,
the time constant is the time it takes for the step response
to rise to 63% of its final value
It is related to the speed at which the system responds
to a step input.
Since the pole of the transfer function is at -a, we can
say the pole is located at the reciprocal of the time
constant, and
The farther the pole from the imaginary axis, the faster
the transient response.
Rise Time, Tr
Rise time is defined as the time for the waveform to go
from 0% or 10% to 90% or 100% of its final value.
•Rise time calculated by solving for the difference in time at
c(t) = 0.9 and c(t) = 0.1. Hence,
Settling Time, Ts
Settling time is defined as the time for the response to
reach, and stay within, 2% of its final value.
Letting c(t) = 0.98 and solving for time, t, we find the
settling time to be

Transient Response Performance Specification:

Example: a system has a transfer function
Find the time constant, Tc, settling time, Ts, and rise time, Tr ?
Solution:
a=50
Tc= 1/a=0.02sec
Tr = 2.2/a = 0.044sec
Ts= 4/a = 0.08sec
What will be the total time step response and show the natural and
forced responses ?
1-exp(-50t)- Total response
1- forced response
exp(-50t)- Natural response

Second Order Systems:
Let’s take numerical examples of the second-order system
responses which has two finite poles and no zeros.

NB: Varying a first-order system's parameter simply
changes the speed of the response, changes in the
parameters of a second-order system can change the form
of the response.
Therefore;
Overdamped responses
Poles:Two real at
Natural response: Two exponentials with time constants
equal to the reciprocal of the pole locations,

Underdamped responses
Poles: Two complex at
Natural response: Damped sinusoid with an exponential
envelope whose time constant is equal to the reciprocal of
the pole's real part. The radian frequency of the sinusoid,
the damped frequency of oscillation, is equal to the
imaginary part of the poles,
Undamped responses
Poles:Two imaginary at
Natural response: Undamped sinusoid with radian
frequency equal to the imaginary part of the poles,

Critically damped responses
Poles:Two real at
Natural response: One term is an exponential whose time
constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole location.
Another term is the product of time, t and an exponential
with time constant equal to the reciprocal of the pole
location,
Step response for
second order system for
different damping case

General Second Order System
Two physically meaningful specifications for second-order
systems transient response like that of time constant for
first order response.
Natural Frequency, ωn
The natural frequency of a second-order system is the frequency of
oscillation of the system without damping.
For example, the frequency of oscillation of a series RLC circuit
with the resistance shorted would be the natural frequency
Damping Ratio,
It is the ratio of exponential decay frequency of the envelope to the
natural frequency. This ratio is constant regardless of the time scale
of the response.
Undamped oscillation of the sinusoid
Damped oscillation of the sinusoid

Mathematically;
Expressing second order system in terms of natural

frequency and damping ratio
Let,
Without damping, the poles would be on the jω-axis, and the
response would be an undamped sinusoid. For the poles to be
purely imaginary, a = 0. Hence,
By definition, the natural frequency, ω, is the frequency of
oscillation of this system. Since the poles of this system are on the
jω-axis at ,
Then,
For the above general second order system transfer
function, assuming under damped system, the complex
poles have a real part = –a/2 and the magnitude of this
value is the exponential decay frequency.
and,
Then, the second order system can be written as:

A general second-order system is characterized by the
following transfer function and feedback block diagram
representation.
C(s) ω n2
= 2
R( s ) s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
ωn un-damped natural frequency of the second order system, which
is the frequency of oscillation of the system without damping.
ζ damping ratio of the second order system, which is a measure of
the degree of resistance to change in the system output.

Second order time response of sinusoidal and exponential
parts.
 ζ 
c(t ) = 1 − e −ζωn t cos ω d t + sin ω d t 
 1 − ζ 2 
 
− ω nζ ± ω n ζ 2 − 1
1
T =
ζω n Real Part Imaginary Part

Example: For a system with a transfer function given
below calculate the damping ratio and the natural
frequency of the system.
Solution:
From the TF then,
Also substituting the value of damping ratio
NB: The damping ratio and the natural frequency of a system can be
related with the pole location of the system : which means if the
information about these two parameter is known we can calculate
the poles of the system.

Example: The natural frequency of closed loop poles of
2nd order system is 2 rad/sec and damping ratio is 0.5.
Determine the location of closed loop poles. What will
be the pole location so that the damping ratio remains
same but the natural undamped frequency is doubled. Pole-Zero Map
3
Solution:
0.5 0.38 0.28 0.17 0.08 2.5
0.64
2
2
C( s ) ω n2 4 0.8
1.5
= 2 = 2 1
R( s ) s + 2ζω n s + ω n
1
2
s + 2s + 4 0.94 0.5
The poles are at: 0
0.94 0.5
− ωnζ + ωn ζ 2 − 1 = −1 + j1.73 -1
0.8
1
1.5
− ωnζ − ωn ζ 2 − 1 = −1 − j1.73
-2
2
0.64
0.5 0.38 0.28 0.17 0.08 2.5
-3
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 30
Second order response as a function of damping ratio

Under damped Second Order System
The underdamped second-order system is a common
model for physical problems which displays unique
behavior that have to be itemized;
Hence, a detailed description of the underdamped
response is necessary for both analysis and design.
The step response for the general second-order system is:
For underdamped case,

C( s ) ω n2 Step Response ω n2
= 2 C( s ) =
R( s ) s + 2ζω n s + ω n2 (
s s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2 )
The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as:
1 s + 2ζω n
C( s ) = − 2
s s + 2ζω n s + ω n2 (
ω n2 1 − ζ 2 )
1 s + 2ζω n
C( s ) = − 2
(s + 2ζω n )2 s s + 2ζω n s + ζ 2ω n2 + ω n2 − ζ 2ω n2
1 s + 2ζω n
C( s ) = −
s (s + ζω n )2 + ω n2 1 − ζ 2 ( )
1 s + 2ζω n
C( s ) = −
s (s + ζω n )2 + ω d2
Where ωd=ωn√(1-ζ), is the frequency of transient oscillations and is called
damped natural frequency.
1 s + ζω n ζω n
C( s ) = − −
s (s + ζω n ) + ω d (s + ζω n )2 + ω d2
2 2
1 s + ζω n ζω n
C( s ) = − −
s (s + ζω n ) + ω d (s + ζω n )2 + ω d2
2 2
ζ
ωn 1 − ζ 2
1 s + ζω n 1−ζ 2
C( s ) = − −
s (s + ζω n ) + ω d
2 2
(s + ζω n )2 + ω d2
1 s + ζω n ζ ωd
C( s ) = − −
s (s + ζω n ) + ω d
2 2
1−ζ 2 (s + ζω )2 + ω 2
n d
−ζω n t ζ
c(t ) = 1 − e cos ω d t − e −ζωn t sin ω d t
1−ζ 2
−ζωn t ζ
c(t ) = 1 − e cos ω d t − e −ζωnt sin ω d t
1−ζ 2
 ζ 
 1 − ζ 2 
 
When ζ = 0 Under damped system

ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
= ωn Undamped system
c(t ) = 1 − cos ω n t
Home Work
Step Response of overdamped and critically
damped Systems ?
We can also rewrite the above relation in terms of
exponential and single sinusoid function.
where;
If the time response of this system is plotted for various

damping ratio value for the normalized value of natural
frequency.
Example:
Effect of varying damping ratio with constant natural
frequency for under damped systems.
 ζ 
 1 − ζ 2 
 
if ζ =0.1 andωn =3 rad/sec if ζ = 0.5 and ω = 3 rad/sec
n if ζ =0.9 andωn =3 rad/sec
1.8 1.4 1.4
1.6
1.2 1.2
1.4
1 1
1.2
1 0.8 0.8
0.8 0.6
0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.4
0.2 0.2
0.2
0 0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

2
b=0
1.8 b=0.2
b=0.4
1.6
b=0.6
b=0.9
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
We can see the relationship between the value of ϛ and the type of
time response obtained: The lower the value of ϛ, the more
oscillatory the response.
The natural frequency is a time-axis scale factor and does not
affect the nature of the response other than to scale it in time.
Time response for underdamped response for different
natural frequency.
1.4
1.2
0.8
wn=0.5
0.6 wn=1
wn=1.5
wn=2
0.4 wn=2.5
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Other parameters associated with the
underdamped response
Rise time, Tr: The time required for the waveform to go from
0% or 10% of the final value to 90% or 100% of the final value.
Peak time, Tp: The time required to reach the first the
maximum, peak.
Percent overshoot, %OS: The amount that the
waveform overshoots the steady-state, or final value at the
peak time, expressed as a percentage of the steady-state
value.
Settling time, Ts: The time required for the transient's
damped oscillations to reach and stay within ±2% ( ± 5%)
of the steady-state value.
For 0< ζ <1 and ωn > 0, the 2nd order system’s response due to a unit step
The delay (td) time is the time required

for the response to reach half the final value
the very first time.
NB: All definitions are also valid for systems of order higher than 2,
however analytical expressions for these parameters cannot be
found unless the response of the higher-order system can be
approximated as a second-order system,
Rise time, peak time, and settling time yield information
about the speed of the transient response.
This information can help a designer to determine
whether the speed and the nature of the response do or do
not degrade the performance of the system.
Evaluating Peak time Tp, Percent overshoot %OS

and Settling time Ts in terms of natural frequency
and damping ratio
Peak time Tp:
Tp is found by differentiating the time response c(t) and
finding the first zero crossing after t=0
Assuming all initial
conditions are zero
Rearranging the denominator:
Therefore:
Equating the derivative to zero:
Hence;
The primary peak occurs at n=1;
Maximum Percent overshoot,%OS

Mathematically;
Cmax is calculated by evaluating C(t) at Tp which is C(Tp)
How ϛ calculated
For a unit step input, from %OS ?
Then;
Settling time, Ts
The time for which C(t) in reaches and stays within
±2% of the steady-state value, Cfinal.
Using this definition, the settling time is the time it takes
for the amplitude of the decaying sinusoid reaches 0.02.
Taking conservative estimate cos( )=1 at the

settling time.
Taking approximations, for ϛ varies from 0 to 0.9:

Similarly what will be the relationship b/n rise time
and damping ratio ?
A precise analytical relationship b/n rise time and damping
ratio cannot be found. But using computers as a tool, we
can found;

Example: calculate Tp, Ts, %OS and Tr for a system with
a transfer function;
Solution:
From the TF,ωn and ϛ can be calculated as 10 and
0.75 respectively
Then,
= 0.475secs
= 2.838%
= 0.533secs
The normalized rise time (Trωn) for 0.75 damping ratio is
around 2.3 seconds.
Tr=2.3/ωn=0.23secs
Relationship b/n %OS, Tp and Ts to the location of
the poles of the system
The pole plot for a general, underdamped second-order
system, From the Pythagorean theorem
that the radial distance from the
origin to the pole is the natural
frequency, ωn, and the cosine of
the angle formed b/n this line &
the real axis be the damping ratio.
σd
ς = cosθ =
ωn
Pole plot for second order underdamped system

From the previous peak time and settling time equation
for second order step response. Comparing the values to
the pole locations;
Where;
ωd is the imaginary part of the pole and is
called the damped frequency of oscillation,
σd is the magnitude of the real part of the pole
and is the exponential damping frequency.
From the equations, Tp is inversely proportional to the
imaginary part of the pole. Since horizontal lines on the s-
plane are lines of constant imaginary value, they are also
lines of constant peak time.
The settling time is inversely proportional to the real
part of the pole.
Since vertical lines on the s-plane are lines of constant
real value, they are also lines of constant settling time.
Finally, since ϛ = cosѳ, radial lines are lines of constant
ϛ.
Since percent overshoot is only a function of ϛ, radial
lines are thus lines of constant percent overshoot, %OS.
Lines of constant peak time, Tp, settling time, Ts, and
percent overshoot, %OS.
Note:TS2 < TSl; TP2 < Tp1;

%OS1<%OS2.

• Step responses of second-
order underdamped systems
as poles move with constant
real part.
• Step responses of second-

imaginary part.
• Stepresponses of second-
damping ratio.
Example:
For the system shown in the Figure, determine the values
of gain K and velocity-feedback constant Kh so that the
maximum overshoot in the unit-step response is 0.2 and
the peak time is 1 sec. With these values of K and Kh,
obtain the rise time and settling time. Assume that J=1 kg-
m2 and B=1 N-m/rad/sec.

Solution:
Reducing the block diagram
Since J = 1 kgm 2 and B = 1 Nm/rad/sec

C( s ) K
= 2
R( s ) s + (1 + KK h )s + K
Comparing above T.F with general 2nd order T.F
C( s ) ω n2 (1 + KK h )
= 2 ωn = K ζ =
R( s ) s + 2ζω n s + ω n
2 2 K
Maximum overshoot is 0.2. The peak time is 1 sec
π
tp =
ωd
πζ 3.141
− 1=
) = ln(0.2 ) ωn 1 − ζ 2
1−ζ 2
ln( e
3.141
ωn =
1 − 0.456 2
ω n = 3.53

Hence; Then the rise and settling
ωn = K time can be calculated as:
3.53 = K
π
tr =
ωn 1 − ζ 2
3.532 = K
t r = 0.65s
K = 12.
12.5 4
ts =
(1 + KK h ) ζω n
ζ =
2 K
0.456 × 2 12.5 = (1 + 12.5 K h ) t s = 2.48s

K h = 0.178

Example:
For the system shown below, find J and D to yield 20%
overshoot and a settling time of 2 seconds for a step input
of torque T(t).
Solution: system transfer function
Then;
From ϛ & %OS relation:

Therefore;
Hence;

Exercise: for a mechanical vibratory system shown in
figure (a), if 2 lb of force (step input) is applied to the
system, the mass oscillates, as shown in Figure (b).
Determine the system parameters m, b, and k of the system
from this response curve.

Effect of Adding Pole and Zero on the Transient
Response of Second Order System
Adding pole for second order system:
If a system has more than two poles or has zeros, we
cannot use the formulas to calculate the performance
specifications that we derived.
However, under certain conditions, a system with more
than two poles or with zeros can be approximated as a
second-order system that has just two complex dominant
poles.
Then, the formulas for percent overshoot, settling time,
and peak time can be applied to these higher-order systems
by using the location of the dominant poles.
Considering a three-pole system with complex poles and
a third pole on the real axis.
Assuming that the complex poles are at
and the real pole is at -αr, the step response of the system
can be determined from a partial-fraction expansion.
•And the system response become;
•Now lets assume different cases for αr:

i. αr not much larger than
ii. αr much larger than
iii. αr = ∞
If (Case II), the pure exponential will die out
much more rapidly than the second-order underdamped
step response.
If the pure exponential term decays to an insignificant
value at the time of the first overshoot, such parameters as
percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time will be
generated by the second-order underdamped step response
component.
Thus, the total response will approach that of a pure
second order system (Case III).

NB: If αr is not much greater than (Case I), the real
pole's transient response will not decay to insignificance at
the peak time or settling time generated by the second-
order pair.
In this case, the exponential decay is significant, and the
system cannot be represented as a second-order system.
How much should further the additional real pole from
the dominant pole depends on the accuracy for which we
are looking. But most of the time five time constants.
Hence, the real pole should five times farther to the left
than the dominant poles, to represent the system by its
dominant second-order pair of poles.
We have to also consider also the effect of the residue on
the magnitude of the exponential magnitude.
Example:Comparing the effect of adding real pole on step
response for the following three system
Solution:

Adding Zeros on the system:
The zeros of a response affect the residue, or amplitude,
of a response component but do not affect the nature of
the response, exponential, damped sinusoid, and so on.
Let’s add a real-axis zero to a two-pole system. We can
add a zero either in the left half plane or in the right half
plane.
1
Example: T ( s) = If we consecutively add zeros at -3, -5, -10
s+3
s 2 + 2s + 9
T (s) = s+3
s2 + 2s + 9 C ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 2 s + 9)
s+5 s+5
T (s) = C ( s) =
s 2 + 2s + 9 s ( s 2 + 2 s + 9)
s + 10 s + 10
T (s) = C (s) =
s 2 + 2s + 9 s ( s 2 + 2 s + 9)
Normalized step response for a
second order system with
added zeros
The closer the zero is to the dominant poles, the greater

its effect on the transient response. As the zero moves away
from the dominant poles, the response approaches that of
the two-pole system.
Steady State Response:
Control systems analysis and design focus on three
specifications:
(1) Transient response
(2) Steady-state errors
(3) Stability
Steady State Error
Steady-state error is the difference between the input and
the output for a prescribed test input as t ∞.
E(s) = C(s) – R(s)
General error representation for control system

Error representation for feedback control system
Steady state error for unity feedback system
It can be calculated from a system's closed-loop transfer
function, T(s), or the open-loop transfer function, G(s), for
unity feedback systems.
Steady-State Error in Terms of T(s)
The error signal
In control application we are interested in e(∞)

Example:
Find the steady state error for the system, applying step input
R(s) 5 C(s)
s 2 + 7 s + 10
Solution:
1 5
R(s) = s and T(s)= s 2 + 7 s + 10

Steady-State Error in Terms of G(s)
Assuming the closed loop system is stable, the steady state

error will be calculated as:

Example:

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Introduction to Control

CVN(X) FUTURE AIRCRAFT CARRIER

Hamdihun A. , March, 2014

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NB: A system may have any

They all for example, requires inputs and outputs to be

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Control Engineering – a field of Engineering which

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Analysis and Design Objective

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A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input

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Time varying system

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2. The point of view of Engineer:

3. The point of view of control engineer:

Zero-input response y zi (t ) ＋ Zero-state responsey zs (t )

Transient response Steady state response

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Which relates the output C(t) to the input R(t) by taking

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Then, the input output ratio becomes;

We call it this ratio of output signal to input signal, G(s),

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Then, the TF becomes;

Taking inverse Laplace

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Voltage charge relation on the

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Solving the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s)-

Block diagram representation:

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In general for any impedance combination:

Calculating voltage across the capacitor in terms of loop

Then the mathematical modeling of the system in the

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Circuit diagram for operational amplifier Ideal operational Amplifier

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What will be the

Using voltage division

Substituting the above equations:

General non inverting operational amplifier

For large gain A:

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Taking Laplace transform

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