LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

Module 3:
AC Power Analysis

3.1 Instantaneous and Average Power

Instantaneous power, 𝒑(𝒕)

- the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element and the
instantaneous current i(t) through it
𝑝(𝑡 ) = 𝑣 (𝑡 )𝑖(𝑡) (3.1)
The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of time. It is the rate
at which an element absorbs energy.

Consider the general case of instantaneous

power absorbed by an arbitrary combination of
circuit elements under sinusoidal excitation, as
shown in Fig. 3.1. Let the voltage and current at
the terminals of the circuit be
Fig. 3.1
Sinusoidal source and passive linear circuit

𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) (3.2a)
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 ) (3.2b)
where 𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑚 are the amplitudes (or peak values), and 𝜃𝑣 and 𝜃𝑖 are the phase angles of
the voltage and current, respectively. The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is

𝑝(𝑡 ) = 𝑣 (𝑡 )𝑖(𝑡 ) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 ) (3.3)

we apply trigonometric identity

1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 + 𝐵 )] (3.4)
2

and express Eq. (3.3) as

1 1
𝑝(𝑡 ) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) + 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖 ) (3.5)
2 2

This shows that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part is constant or time
independent. Its value depends on the phase difference between the voltage and the current.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 60
 LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

The second part is a sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2𝜔, which is twice the angular
frequency of the voltage or current.

A sketch of 𝑝(𝑡) in Eq. (3.5) is shown in Fig. 3.2, where 𝑇 = 2𝜋⁄𝜔 is the period of
voltage or current. We observe that 𝑝(𝑡) is periodic, 𝑝(𝑡 ) = 𝑝(𝑡 + 𝑇𝑜 ), and has a period of
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇⁄2 since its frequency is twice that of voltage or current. We also observe that 𝑝(𝑡)
is positive for some part of each cycle and negative for the rest of the cycle. When 𝑝(𝑡) is
positive, power is absorbed by the circuit. When 𝑝(𝑡) is negative, power is absorbed by the
source; that is, power is transferred from the circuit to the source. This is possible because
of the storage elements (capacitors and inductors) in the circuit.

Fig. 3.2
The instantaneous power 𝑝(𝑡) entering the circuit.

Average power
- the average of the instantaneous power over one period

Thus, the average power is given by

1 𝑇
𝑃 = ∫0 𝑝(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (3.6)
𝑇

Substituting 𝑝(𝑡) in Eq. (3.5) into Eq. (3.6) gives

1 𝑇1 1 𝑇1
𝑃 = ∫0 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑉 𝐼 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2 𝑇 0 2 𝑚 𝑚
1 1 𝑇 1 1 𝑇
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) ∫0 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ∫0 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 + 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑡 (3.7)
2 𝑇 2 𝑇

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 61
 LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same constant. The
second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the average of a sinusoid over its period
is zero because the area under the sinusoid during a positive half-cycle is canceled by
the area under it during the following negative half-cycle. Thus, the second term in Eq.
(3.7) vanishes and the average power becomes

1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) (3.8)
2

Note that 𝑝(𝑡) is time-varying while 𝑃 does not depend on time. To find the
instantaneous power, we must necessarily have 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) in the time domain. But
we can find the average power when voltage and current are expressed in the time
domain, as in Eq. (3.8), or when they are expressed in the frequency domain. The
phasor forms of 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) in Eq. (3.2) are 𝐕 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣 and 𝐈 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 , respectively.
To use phasors, we notice that
1 1
𝐕𝐈 ∗ = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣 -𝜃𝑖
2 2
1
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) + 𝑗 sin(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )] (3.9)
2

According to Eq. (3.8), the real part of Eq. (3.9) is the average power 𝑃. Thus,
1 1
𝑃 = Re[𝐕𝐈∗ ] = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 ) (3.10)
2 2

Consider two special case of Eq. (3.10). When 𝜃𝑣 = 𝜃𝑖 , the voltage and current are in
phase. This implies a purely resistive circuit or resistive load 𝑅, and
1 2 1 1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 = |𝐈|2 𝑅 (3.11)
2 2 2

where |𝐈|2 = 𝐈 × 𝐈 ∗ . Equation (3.11) shows that a purely resistive circuit absorbs power
at all times. When 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = ±90°, we have a purely reactive circuit, and
1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 90° = 0 (3.12)
2

showing that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power. In summary,

A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C) absorbs
zero average power.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 62
 LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

Example:
1. Given that
𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 120 cos(377𝑡 + 45°) V and 𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 10 cos(377𝑡 − 10°) A
find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the passive linear
network in Fig. 3.1.

Solution:
The instantaneous power is given by

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 1200 cos(377𝑡 + 45°) cos(377𝑡 − 10°)

Applying the trigonometric identity

1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
gives

𝑝 = 600[cos(745𝑡 + 35°) + cos 55°]

or

𝑝(𝑡 ) = 344.2 + 600 cos(745𝑡 + 35°) W Ans.

The average power is

1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
2
1
= 120(10)cos[45 − (−10°)]
2
= 600 cos 55°
𝑃 = 344.2 W Ans.

2. Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance 𝐙 = 30 − 𝑗70 Ω when a

voltage 𝐕 = 120∠0° is applied across it.

Solution:
The current through the impedance is

𝐕 120∠0°
𝐈= = = 1.576∠66.8° A
𝐙 76.16∠−66.8°

The average power is

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 63
 LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

1
𝑃= 𝑉 𝐼 cos(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
2 𝑚 𝑚

1
𝑃= (120)(1.576) cos(0 − 66.8°)
2
𝑃 = 37.24 W Ans.

3. For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.3, find the

average power supplied by the source and
the average power absorbed by the
resistor.

Solution:
The current I is given by Fig. 3.3

5∠30° 5∠30°
𝐈= = = 1.118∠56.57° A
4−𝑗2 4.472∠−26.57°

The average power supplied by the voltage source is

1
𝑃 = (5)(1.118) cos(30° − 56.57°) = 2.5 W
2

The current through the resistor is

𝐈𝑅 = 𝐈 = 1.118∠56.57° A

and the voltage across it is

𝐕𝑅 = 4𝐈𝑅 = 4.472∠56.57° V

The average power absorbed by the resistor is

1
𝑃 = (4.472)(1.118) = 2.5 W
2
𝑃 = 2.5 W Ans.

4. Determine the average power generated by each source and the average power
absorbed by each passive element in the circuit of Fig. 3.4.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 64
LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

Fig. 3.4

Solution:
We apply mesh analysis as shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5

For mesh 1,
𝐈1 = 4 A

For mesh 2,
(𝑗10 − 𝑗5)𝐈2 − 𝑗10𝐈1 + 60∠30° = 0

or
𝑗5𝐈2 = −60∠30° + 𝑗10𝐈1
𝑗5𝐈2 = −60∠30° + (𝑗10)(4)
𝑗5𝐈2 = −60∠30° + 𝑗40
−60∠30°+𝑗40
𝐈2 =
𝑗5
𝐈2 = 10.58∠79.1° A

For the voltage source, the current flowing from it is 𝐈2 = 10.58∠79.1° , the
average power is
1
𝑃5 = (60)(10.58) cos(30° − 79.1°)
2
𝑃5 = 207.8 W Ans.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 65
LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

For the current source, the voltage across it is

𝐕1 = 20𝐈1 + 𝑗10(𝐈1 − 𝐈2 ) = 80 + 𝑗10(4 − 2 − 𝑗10.39)

= 183.9 + 𝑗20
𝐕1 = 184.984∠6.21° V

The average power supplied by the current source is

1
𝑃1 = − (184.984)(4) cos(6.21° − 0)
2
𝑃1 = −367.8 W Ans.

It is negative according to the passive sign convention, meaning that the

current source is supplying power to the circuit.

For the resistor, the current through it is 𝐈1 = 4∠0° and the voltage across
it is
𝐕2 = 20𝐈1 = 80∠0°

The power absorbed by the resistor is

1
𝑃2 = (80)(4)
2
𝑃2 = 160 W Ans.

For the capacitor, the current through it is 𝐈2 = 10.58∠79.1° and the

voltage across it is

𝐕4 = −𝑗5𝐈2 = (5∠ − 90° )(10.58∠79.1° )

𝐕4 = 52.9∠79.1° − 90°

The average power absorbed by the capacitor is

1
𝑃4 = (52.9)(10.58) cos(−90)
2
𝑃4 = 0 Ans.

For the inductor, the current through it is

𝐈3 = 𝐈1 − 𝐈2
𝐈3 = 4∠0° − 10.58∠79.1°
𝐈3 = 2 − 𝑗10.39 = 10.58∠ − 79.1°

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 66
 LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

The voltage across it is

𝐕3 = 𝑗10𝐈3 = 𝑗10(10.58∠ − 79.1° )

𝐕3 = 10.58∠ − 79.1° + 90°

Hence, the average power absorbed by the inductor is

1
𝑃3 = (10.58)(10.58) cos 90°
2
𝑃3 = 0 Ans.

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by the passive linear
network of Fig. 3.1 if
𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 330 cos(10𝑡 + 20°) V and 𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 33 sin(10𝑡 + 60°) A
Answer: 3.5 + 5.445 cos(20𝑡 − 10°) kW, 3.5 kW .

2. A current 𝐈 = 33∠30° A flows through an impedance 𝐙 = 40∠ − 22° Ω. Find the

average power delivered to the impedance.
Answer: 20.19 kW.

3. In the circuit of Fig. 3.6, calculate the

average power absorbed by the resistor
and inductor. Find the average power
supplied by the voltage source.

Fig. 3.6

Answer: 15.361 kW. 0 W, 15.361 kW

4. Calculate the average power absorbed by each of the five elements in the circuit of
Fig. 3.7.

Fig. 3.7

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 67
 LECTURE MODULE IN CIRCUITS II MODULE 3

Answer: 40-V Voltage source: -60 W; j20-V Voltage source: resistor: -40 W;
resistor: 100 W; others: 0 W.

PROBLEMS
1. Given the circuit in Fig. 3.8, find the
average power supplied or absorbed by
each element.

Fig. 3.8

2. Assuming that 𝑣𝑠 = 8 cos(2𝑡 − 40°) V

in the circuit of Fig. 3.9, find the average
power delivered to each of the passive
elements.

Fig. 3.9

3. For the circuit in Fig. 3.10, 𝑖𝑠 =

6 cos 103 𝑡 A. Find the average power
absorbed by the 50 − Ω resistor.

Fig. 3.10

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 68