Manual Control Systems 112

Manual for
EEE4511
Control Systems Lab
Version 4.2
B. D. Sweet
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Lawrence Technological University
April 24, 2005

EEE4511 Manual - Controls Lab Version 4.2
Copyright Notice
This material is the property of the authors. It is not to be reproduced without written
consent. Permission is hereby granted to print and copy material from this manual for the
purpose of completing lab exercises and submitting lab reports associated with this lab.
Table of Contents
Copyright Notice.................................................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents................................................................................................................... 1
Revision History .................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................ 2
References.............................................................................................................................. 3
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 4
Lab Exercise Schedule........................................................................................................... 5
Lab Report Format................................................................................................................. 6
Terminology......................................................................................................................... 10
Error Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 11
Lab Apparatus...................................................................................................................... 13
Servo Motor System ........................................................................................................ 16
Tachometer ...................................................................................................................... 17
Dual Attenuator................................................................................................................ 17
Position Indicator ............................................................................................................. 18
Operational Amplifier...................................................................................................... 19
Lab Exercise 1 – Parameter Determination ......................................................................... 20
Procedure: Balance Pre-Amp Output............................................................................... 31
Procedure: Measure Sine-Waveform Phase Delay Angle ............................................... 32
Procedure: Measure Time Constant of a Step Response ................................................. 34
Lab Exercise 2 – Closed-Loop Position Control System Design ........................................ 36
Procedure: Zero Op-Amp Output .................................................................................... 43
Procedure: Set Gain using an Attenuator......................................................................... 44
Procedure: Measure Characteristics of an Under-Damped Step Response ..................... 45
Lab Exercise 3 – Design for Steady-State Error and Marginal Stability............................. 47
Lab Exercise 4 – Design of Position Control System with Velocity Feedback................... 56
Lab Exercise 5 – System Stabilization Design by Velocity Feedback ................................ 61
Lab Exercise 6 – Phase Lead Compensator Design............................................................. 66
Lab Exercise 6 – Appendix – Design Pole, Zero, and Gain Values for Phase-Lead
Compensator .................................................................................................................... 75
Lab Exercise 7 – Control System Frequency Response Analysis ....................................... 80
Lab Exercise 7 – Appendix – The Lissajous Curve......................................................... 91
Appendix – TDS3012 Oscilloscope Specifications............................................................. 94
Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 1 of 115 April 24, 2005

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Revision History
1980 Prof. Richard Maslowski Version 1.0
June 1996 Dr. Laszlo Hideg Version 2.0
August 2001 Dr. Joseph R. Asik Version 3.0
December 29, 2003 Prof. Benjamin D. Sweet Version 4.0
January 7, 2004 Prof. Benjamin D. Sweet Version 4.1
April 24, 2005 Prof. Benjamin D. Sweet Version 4.2
Acknowledgements
Many and sincere thanks to all of those friends, students, colleagues, and faculty members
(all fall into the first category) who put up my ongoing requests for feedback on the
material in this manual. Many thanks to those who responded, whether verbally or in
writing.
This manual was not written from scratch; the previous version(s) of the manual provided a
solid foundation for me to work from. Thanks to all previous authors of this manual, and
those who supported them.
The material that I added was based on my experience over several years teaching the
Control Systems Lab. I tried to recall the places where students had difficulty
understanding the procedures, and where the lecture was slightly behind the information
need for the lab exercise. Thanks to all of my students from previous lab classes for
helping me to formulate this material by not being too shy to ask “What?”and “Why?”, and
to those who dug into the course material to figure it out when I didn’t have the answers.
Finally, thanks to my family for putting up with the late night and early morning editing
sessions, the stacks of Control Systems reference books, and assorted scatters of papers.
I was consumed to some extent with this project, but I am very satisfied with the results.
I hope that the “consumers” of this product are satisfied as well.
Benjamin D. Sweet
December 22, 2003

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References
[1] Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Feedback and Control Systems, 2/e,
DiStefano, Stubberud, Williams; McGraw-Hill, 1990: ISBN #0-07-017052-5
[2] Modern Control Systems, 9/e, Dorf, Bishop; Prentice-Hall, 2001: ISBN #0-13-030660-
6
[3] Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 4/e, Franklin, Powell, Emami-Naeini; Prentice-
Hall, 2002: ISBN #0-13-32393-4
[4] Control Systems Engineering, 4/e, Nise, Norman S.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2004:
ISBN #0-471-44577-0
[5] Modern Control Engineering, 4/e, Ogata, Katsuhiko; Prentice-Hall, 2002: ISBN #0-13-
060907-2

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Introduction
This laboratory manual describes the exercises to be performed in the laboratory of the
Control Systems Laboratory course, offered by the ECE Department at Lawrence
Technological University.
The laboratory exercises focus on a linearized DC servomotor that has a power rating
below one horsepower. The motor is linearized by using feedback concepts implemented
by amplifiers and the tachometer generator. This assembly is shown under “Servo Motor
System” in the “Lab Apparatus” section.
Associated equipment includes a potentiometer for angular position sensing and a DC

generator (tachometer) for angular velocity sensing. Other equipment includes a power
supply, operational amplifier, pre-amplifier, servo amplifier, and a dual attenuator
(potentiometer). This equipment is pictured and further described in the “Lab Apparatus”
section. The equipment is manufactured by Feedback, Inc. of the U.K.
Input signals to the subject systems are produced from either a function generator or a
variable DC voltage. Outputs from the systems are observed either on an oscilloscope or
from DC voltages measured on a volt-meter.
The primary data observation device is a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO). The data
may be captured by sending the image on the oscilloscope screen to a printer, or storing the
image on a disc. This permits recording data in the usual way by oscilloscope and then
obtaining a hard copy by a screen dump option. Instructions for the basic operation of the
oscilloscope for these labs are discussed in “Appendix – TDS3012 Oscilloscope
Specifications.”
The exercises normally performed for the course are listed in the next section. The
schedule includes the expected number of lab sessions necessary to complete the laboratory
classroom portion of the lab.
Students should utilize simulation programs such as MatLab/Simulink to assist in the

design and analysis of the exercises. The simulation programs will also provide an
additional tool to assist in understanding the concepts studied. MatLab/Simulink is
available in a student PC edition; MatLab is also available on the University computer
system. MathCad may be used in the algebraic computation of system parameters,
theoretical values, and expected results. Spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel,
may be used to tabulate and process data collected during the lab exercises.
Laboratory reports are required of all exercises performed in the course. Suggestions for
content and format are discussed in “Lab Report Format.”

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Lab Exercise Schedule
Session # Exercise # Exercise Title
1, 2 1 Parameter Determination
3, 4 2 Closed Loop Position Control System Design
5, 6 3 Design for Steady-State Error and Marginal Stability
7, 8 4 Design of Position Control System with Velocity Feedback
9 5 System Stabilization Design by Velocity Feedback
10, 11 6 Phase Lead Compensator Design
12, 13 7 Control System Frequency Response Analysis
14, 15 Additional Sessions-Instructor Option
*This schedule assumes accommodation for extra lab time (if needed) and for the
instructor’s option to have in-lab examinations.

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Lab Report Format

The lab instructor may have specific requirements regarding lab report content and format;
if so, these requirements should be clearly specified in the class syllabus or accompanying
introductory class material.
Where not specified by the instructor, use your own judgment as to the presentation of the
material. Here are a few suggestions:
General
Each student is responsible for submitting an individual laboratory report based on his or
her own work. A small team of 2-3 people can perform the exercises.
It is important that the student attach engineering units to key results throughout the report.
(e.g., use 3.0 Volt/rpm instead of just 3.0).
The laboratory report should contain enough information so that it can stand alone without
reference to the laboratory manual.
On Report “Completeness”
Write your lab report as if you were presenting it to somebody who was not involved in the
lab exercise; it is reasonable to assume that the reader is familiar with the lab equipment.
Consider whether they would be able to follow and understand your report without
referring to the lab manual.
Include supporting documentation (such as diagrams, tables, etc.) that is needed to

understand your report. Label all diagrams, tables, etc., and refer to them by their labels in
the body of the report.
Explain what you intend to do (background, lab set-up, schematics), what you expect to
observe (pre-lab, theoretical calculations), what you actually observed (actual measured
values, percent error analysis where appropriate), and your conclusions (did you observe
what you expected, and why or why not?)
Try to organize the report in a manner so as to minimize “flipping” back and forth between
the body of the report and the supporting documentation. If graphs, oscilloscope traces,
computations, etc. are included as appendices, summarize the results in the body of the
report, and then refer to the label of the supporting documentation.

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On Report Organization
Title Sheet:
This page should contain the exercise number and title, the name of all students in the
group, the date(s) that the exercise was conducted, and the date that the report was
submitted. The author’s name should be clearly identified. This section should also
include any pertinent equipment identification, such as motor serial number; the same
motor assembly should be used throughout the semester to minimize variability.
Purpose:
The next page should contain a short original paragraph of the student’s own interpretation
of the purpose of the laboratory exercise. Enough detail should be included so that the
laboratory report can stand on its own without reference to the laboratory manual.
Pre-Lab Work:
Specific preparations are necessary in order to make the laboratory class work progress
smoothly and efficiently. This section should briefly explain what theoretical values are
being designed or calculated. Design work often requires a large amount of algebraic
manipulation in order to determine component values and other system parameters needed
to satisfy the design criteria, or to predict the subject system’s behavior. These pre-lab
calculations should be included in the final lab report, even if they are in hand-written
form. They may be included within this section of the report, or included as an appendix
section and referred to in this section of the report along with a summary of the computed
values. CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) software may be used here; Matlab/Simulink
and MathCad are available on the University computer system. This section should be
completed in enough detail so that the student can carry out the exercise efficiently in the
laboratory; the instructor may ask to review the pre-lab material during the laboratory
period.
Lab Setup and Procedure:

This section contains a brief description of the lab equipment setup and procedure for
carrying out the lab exercise. It is not necessary to restate the entire procedure from the lab
manual, but a brief description that could be followed by someone familiar with the lab
equipment should be given. Reference included block diagrams, wiring diagrams,
schematics, etc. Also mention other lab equipment settings and connections.
For example:
Perform the Balance Pre-Amp Output Procedure and Zero Op-Amp Output
Procedure.
Note: It is not necessary to repeat the explanation of these procedures in EACH lab report, but a
brief summary of the procedure should be included in the report for the first exercise in which
the procedure is used. Then, in subsequent lab reports, it should be sufficient to just say
“Perform the xyz procedure.”
Connect the Op-Amp, Dual Attenuator, Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, Tachometer,

and Position Indicator as shown in Figure 1; the corresponding block diagram is
shown in Figure 2. The Op-Amp acts as the summing junction; the Dual Attenuator

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is used for the variable gain, Ka. Connect the signal generator to plug 1 of the Op-
Amp unit; this serves as the input voltage, Vin. Connect Channel 1 of the
Oscilloscope to monitor Vin, and Channel 2 to monitor Vposition.
Etc...
Results:
This section contains a summary of the key results and observations. The measured
(observed) results, comparison to the theoretical values or simulated results, and discussion
of the error analysis should be included here. If data is collected in an appendix section, it
should be referred to here. If error analysis computation is contained in an appendix
section, it should be referred to here along with a summary of the error values.
Conclusions and Comments:

This section contains closing remarks summarizing the key results and observations from
the lab exercise. The student should include a discussion of what was learned from the
exercise. Explanations of the results, good or bad, and the reasons for error are some
topics.
Answers to specific questions in the lab manual should be included; the questions
themselves should be included or implied in the statement of the answers. The answers to
the questions should be complete, coherent, and generally supported by the overall lab
report.
Any deviations from the procedures in the lab manual should be discussed here along with
the reasons for deviating from the procedure (perhaps lab equipment was not functioning
properly or was not available, etc.)
The student should discuss the results of the lab exercise and explain significant deviations
between the measured (observed) values versus theoretical values, based on the error
analysis. Do not use qualitative words like “close” or “good” or “successful” without some
supporting quantitative information. (Refer to Error Analysis section.)
For example:
All but two of the measured values were within 5% of the expected values, and all
were within 10% of expected values. It is therefore concluded that the theoretical
analysis accurately predicted the observed system behavior.
(Use your own original statement.)
Note: Errors between expected and observed values do not constitute “failure” to
successfully perform the lab exercise. There are many reasons for errors between expected
and observed values that are not attributable to “operator error.” Yes, double-check your
math in the derivation of expected values, but also consider the many other possible
sources of error. For example, the model for the D.C. motor that is used in the computation
of expected values ignores armature inductance, changes in armature resistance with
temperature of the motor, and the non-linear effects of motor speed saturation and gear
backlash.

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The following may be included as appendices to the report, or included at

the appropriate place(s) throughout the report. If they are included as
appendices, refer to the relevant labeled appendix section or result from
within the body of the report, and also include the final result (along with the
reference) in the body of the report.
Calculations:
This section provides the computational framework. This section should include the origin
and derivation of the key equations used in the analysis and design. In this section the
laboratory data should be reduced to the key parametric results required. The error analysis
should be included. Error analysis involves comparing the measured (observed) values or
results with the expected, or theoretical, values.
Diagrams and Schematics:

This section will include a block diagram representation of the system. The name and
transfer function of each block in the diagram should be included. Also, the signals that
connect the blocks should be identified (labeled). If discrete components are used, their
assembly should be shown in a separate sub-schematic in the block diagram. Overall lab
setup wiring diagrams may be included here as well.
Data:
This section should contain raw data obtained in the exercise, such as hard copies of time
response (“traces”) from the oscilloscope, data tables, and recorded measurements. Sample
calculations used in the data reduction should be included here, or refer to the relevant
information in the calculation section. All graphs should be clearly labeled. This means
the axes should have variable names and engineering units and that key parametric
features, such as rise time or overshoot, should be highlighted on each graph. This may
involve annotating the original raw data hard copy.
It is reasonable to use spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel, to

tabulate data and compute subsequent values. If formulas are used within
cells of a spreadsheet, include in the report a sample of the calculation
showing the formula and referring to the cells in the spreadsheet that use
the formula.

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Terminology
Mp Percent Overshoot (also referred to as %OS) – The amount that the peak value of an
under-damped step response overshoots the final value, expressed as a percentage
of the final value.
tp Peak-Time – The amount of time from the beginning of an under-damped step

response to the response peak value.
tr Rise-Time – In an under-damped step response, the amount of time between the

response first reaching 10% of the response final value and the response first
reaching 90% of the final value.
ts Settling-Time – In an under-damped step response, the amount of time from the

beginning of the step response until the response oscillation amplitude remains
within a specified range of the response final value. The settling range (“band”) is
typically expressed as a percentage of the final value. A 2% settling band has a
range of ± 1% around the final value.
tp
Overshoot
90%
tr 2% (+/- 1%)
Settling Band
Final Value
ts
10%

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Error Analysis
Accuracy, Precision & Resolution

Some values are exact:
• 1000 meters in one kilometer
• 60 seconds in one minute
• 12 eggs in one dozen
Other values (such as measurements or estimations) have some degree of uncertainty.
Accuracy is the measure of how True or Correct the scale of a measurement is.
Precision is the measure of Repeatability of a measurement (without the measurement
necessarily being correct.) Precision could be evaluated for the same person taking the
measurement several times, or for different people taking the same measurement.
Resolution is the level of Fineness of a measurement, or the ability to distinguish between
two measurement points.
For example, which would be a “better” measurement for 1 centimeter?

• Using a meter-stick that is EXACTLY 1 meter long (Perfect Accuracy!) that has NO
intermediate markings (Terrible Resolution!). How repeatable (Precise) would this
measurement be?
• Using a ruler that was the prize from a box of cereal (Questionable Accuracy) that is
marked off in centimeters (Perfect Resolution!). How repeatable (Precise) would this
measurement be?
Digital meters are ASSUMED to be Accurate; regular calibrations help to assure this.
Digital meters have a different number of digits after the decimal point (Resolution) based
on the scale or range of the measurement (up to 1 Volt, up to 10 Volts, etc.)
Evaluation of Measurement Error and Deviation
“The difference between theory and practice is that, in theory,

there is no difference between theory and practice,
and in practice there usually is.” – Author Unknown
When measurements are taken in the lab, the “actual” or “measured” values observed
almost never equal the “expected” or “theoretical” values predicted from the calculations.
This may be due to many factors:
• Tolerance in manufactured parts (5% resistors, etc.)
• Unanticipated or un-accounted for resistance, inductance, and capacitance in wires
and connectors
• Resistance or “loading” from the measurement equipment
• Errors in taking and/or reading the measurement (accuracy, precision, resolution)

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• “Round-Off” Error in the calculation of the theoretical value

• Inaccuracies in the model used to derive the theoretical value (model
simplifications, etc.)
• etc., etc., …
To quantify how closely reality (“measured”) comes to expectation (“theoretical”), a

percent error analysis is performed:
Theoretical − Measured Error

% Error = × 100% = × 100%
Theoretical Theoretical
It is necessary to divide the difference between the “theoretical” and “measured” values
(the error) by the “theoretical” value to normalize the error. For example, if a theoretical
value is 100V and the measured value is 90V, the error is 10V; if a theoretical value is 5V
and the measured value is 4V, the error is 1V. Which error is “worse?” Certainly the 10V
error has a larger magnitude, but it only deviates from the theoretical value by 10% while
the 1V error deviates from its theoretical value by 20%. Therefore, one could say that the
1V error is more severe than the 10V error.
Deviation Analysis
In cases where a parameter is measured more than once or by more than one method, it is
possible to analyze how closely the different measurements relate to one another. The term
“error analysis” is not applicable since no single measurement can really be considered as
the “True” value.
Several different methods may be used to evaluate the deviation of the different
measurements from one another:
• For two measurements – M1 & M2 :

o Difference:
M1 − M 2
% Difference = ×100%
Min( M 1 , M 2 )
• For a set of measurements – {M1 … Mn}:

o Deviation from the Mean for one of the measurements, Mi:
Mean{M 1...M n } − M i
% Mean Deviation = × 100%
Mean{M 1...M n }
o Range Deviation:
Max{M 1...M n } − Min{M 1...M n }
% Range Deviation = × 100%
Min{M 1...M n }

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Lab Apparatus
The Feedback, Inc. servo motor system modular components are:
• Power Supply
• Servo Amplifier
• Motor
• Tachometer/Generator (with Digital Volt Meter)
• Position Indicator (1 Input/ 1 Output)
• Pre-Amplifier
• Operational Amplifier
• Dual Attenuator
• Function Generator
Elements can be switched between lab stations except for the Motor Generator. The same
Motor Generator should used for all lab exercises, otherwise the Km and τm parameters
will be inconsistent, as motor properties are similar but not identical. Using the same
motor will reduce experimental error. RECORD THE MOTOR INVENTORY TAG
NUMBER, AND CHECK IT AT EVERY SESSION.
Certain “umbilical” connections are made between the Power Supply and Servo Amplifier
in the rear of the boxes and from the Servo Amplifier to the Motor.
- i - Power Supply and Servo Amplifier

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- ii - Motor, Tachometer, and Position Indicator
- iii - Dual Attenuator, Pre-Amp, and Op-Amp

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- iv - Position Indicator Face Plate

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Servo Motor System
Motor Linearization
The motor is a DC constant field, armature current controlled motor. Its properties are not
completely linear. To improve the linearity, the Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, and
Tachometer are used and modeled as ONE UNIT. This assembly forms the core of each
subject system, and must be assembled at the beginning of each lab session. The
connections are shown in Figure 1.
VTach
“Umbilical” Connection
(Given)
+15V GND -15V +15V GND -15V
Pre-Amp Servo-Amp Motor Tachometer

5 VTach
Zero 1 -
Defined τ
VMotor
1 3 1 Shaft
+
RPM/DC Volts
2 4 2
2
Shaft
Figure 1 - Motor Linearization Connections
The Pre-Amp has two controls on the faceplate: a three-position switch, which is set to
defined τ, and a Zero Set dial. Also, at the top of both the Pre-Amp and Tachometer units
are three power connections for +15V, -15V, and ground. This D.C. power can be
provided either from the Servo-Amp or the Power Supply. (Note that the Servo-Amp and
the Power Supply share the D.C. power sources by means of the rear “umbilical”
connection between them.)
At the start of every lab session, the Balance Pre-Amp Output Procedure (refer to
Procedure section, page 31) must be performed to balance the differential output signal of
the Pre-Amp unit.

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Tachometer
The Tachometer unit contains a tachometer/generator, a 1/30 gear reduction, a digital read-
out of RPM, and a digital volt meter read-out. The Tachometer unit requires +15V, -15V,
and ground connections from either the Servo-Amp or the Power Supply.
The tachometer is a D.C. generator connected to the high RPM (motor) side of the gear.
The negative potential (plug 1) is used as the velocity feedback to the system; the positive
potential (plug 2) should be connected to ground.
The Tachometer unit contains two digital read-outs that share a common display; a two-
position switch selects which quantity is displayed.
• For a digital read-out (in RPM) of a frequency input on “tacho rpm” (plug 3), slide
the two-way selector switch to the left (toward plug 3) and connect the signal to me
measured to plug 3. Attaching plug 1 to plug 3 gives the motor speed in RPM.
• For a digital read-out of a D.C. Voltage (± 20V MAX) on “dc volts” (plug 4), slide
the two-way selector switch to the right (toward plug 4) and connect the signal to
me measured to plug 4.
Dual Attenuator
The Dual Attenuator unit consists of two 10KΩ potentiometers.
3 6
10 kΩ
10 kΩ
2 5
0 10 0 10
1 4
Black Black
Plug Plug
The marks around the dials are only meant as a guide to the true setting. It is best to
determine the actual voltage ratio by implementing a voltage divider with the potentiometer
using the +15V and –15V sources and wiper.
For the dial marks to coordinate with the potentiometer wiper motion (i.e.: turning the dial
toward increasing numbers results in smaller resistance between the higher potential
terminal and the wiper, and therefore a higher voltage out of the voltage divider at the
wiper terminal), ALWAYS connect the black plug to the lowest potential, ground or -15V,
depending on the application.

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Position Indicator
The Position Indicator unit consists of a 10KΩ potentiometer and a visual angular
indicator on the front plate. The output Position Indicator is coupled directly to the
Tachometer unit through a shaft. The top connection plate and the rotating front dial are
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 - Output Position Indicator Faceplate and Front Dial
The faceplate shows the connections to the 10KΩ potentiometer. The faceplate will be
used for determining the coefficients of the Position Indicator, and the non-dynamic
coefficients of the motor and generator.
The ends of the potentiometer are typically connected to +15V (plug 1) and -15V (plug 2).
The potentiometer wiper (plug 3) is the output signal for indication of angular position, and
is also used as a position feedback signal to the system.
The front plate has three sets of marks. The outermost indicates angular rotation in 10°
increments. The inner two are used to synchronize angular velocity to either 50Hz
(Europe) or 60Hz (USA) lighting systems.
The 60Hz ring has marks as seen on phonograph turntables. Room lighting provides an
appropriate strobe effect, which is faster than the human eye can detect. The motor, by a
gear reduction turns the output front plate. As the angular velocity is increased, the strobe
effect is seen since the 60Hz portion of the plate appears to be stationary even though the
plate is actually rotating. At the first appearance of this effect, the front plate is rotating at
one revolution per second. Increasing the motor speed will bring a second strobe effect at
two revolutions per second.
The Tachometer unit has a built-in digital display on the high-speed shaft section; the shaft
speed can be directly read from the Tachometer unit.

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Operational Amplifier
The operational amplifier is well known in Circuits courses and will only be briefly
described here. The faceplate connections are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 - Operational Amplifier Faceplate
At the top of the Op-Amp unit are three power connections for +15V, -15V, and ground.
This D.C. power can be provided either from the Servo-Amp or the Power Supply.
As with the Pre-Amp, the Op-Amp has a Zero set dial, which must separately adjusted
from the Pre-Amp. At the start of every lab session the uses the Op-Amp unit, the Zero
Op-Amp Output Procedure (refer to Procedure section, page 43) must be performed to
zero the output signal of the Op-Amp unit.
The Feedback Network Selector is a three-position rotary switch to select the feedback
circuit for the Op-Amp. The bottom (counter-clockwise) switch selection has a 100KΩ
resistor so that the Op-Amp unit, as shown in Figure 3, is a signal summer with a unity
gain. The middle switch selection turns the Op-Amp circuit into a first order lag with
τ = RC = 100KΩ•1µF = 0.1 sec. The top (clockwise) switch selection allows for the
insertion of any desired feedback network.

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Lab Exercise 1 – Parameter Determination

Purpose:
In this lab exercise, the student will become familiar with the laboratory equipment and
will also determine the various servo system parameters that will be used for the remainder
of the lab exercises. Since the various components will be tested separately, the order of
investigation is not critical. The suggested order for report presentation and lab
investigation is:
1. Motor Generator Assembly:
a. Motor Linearity
b. Motor Dynamics
2. Position Indicator
3. Operational Amplifier Performance
Figure 4 - "Core" System Plant Block Diagram
VTach
Dual Attenuator
(½) +15V GND -15V (Given) +15V GND -15V

+15V
VTach
ωHS
5
3 Zero 1
-
VMotor Defined τ
Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
2 2
2 4 2
1 Shaft
ωLS
-15V
Units: RPM
Figure 5 - “Core” System Plant Wiring Diagram

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Objectives:
After completing this exercise, you will be able to:
• Setup the “core” subject system plant: Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, and
Tachometer
• Perform the Balance Pre-Amp Output Procedure
• Measure RPM and D.C. voltages using the digital read-out on the Tachometer unit
• Measure the Phase Delay Angle between two sinusoidal wave-forms
• Measure the Time Constant of a first-order system step response
Also, the following system parameters will be measured:

• Maximum VMotor input for linear motor operation: VMAX
• Motor Gain Constant: Km (RPM/Volt)
• Motor Time Constant: τm (seconds)
• Tachometer Gain Constant: Kt (Volt/RPM)
• Position Indicator Gain Constant: Kp (Volt/degree)
• Op-Amp Lag Feedback Time Constant: τ1 (seconds)
Reference Reading:
Model of a D.C. Motor – the derivation of the model of a D.C. motor is included in many
Control Systems textbooks:
[1] Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Feedback and Control Systems, 2/e,
Chapter 6, p 143
[2] Modern Control Systems, 9/e, Chapter 2, pp 52-55
[3] Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 4/e, Chapter 2, pp 54-55
[4] Control Systems Engineering, 4/e, Chapter 2, pp 87-94
[5] Modern Control Engineering, 4/e, Chapter 3, pp139-141
Equipment List:
The following pieces of lab equipment will be required to complete this exercise:
• Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, and Tachometer “core”
• Position Indicator
• Dual Attenuator
• Signal Generator
• Oscilloscope
• Printer
• Three coaxial cables with BNC to clip (alligator or microprobe)
• Various interconnect wires
Background Information:
The “plant” (object of control system) to be used in the lab exercises is a D.C., constant
field, armature-current controlled motor. A second order differential equation describes the
motor dynamics relating applied voltage to angular velocity. One system dynamic is due to
the electrical effects of the armature coil inductance and resistance. The other dynamic
system is due to the mechanical effects of the armature and load inertia and the bearing

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friction. The electrical dynamics are much faster than mechanical dynamics. Thus, the
motor can be modeled simply as a first order differential equation. The Servo-Amp and the
Pre Amp are used to linearize the motor performance. The generator is physically much
smaller than the motor and its dynamics do not influence the motor operation. The Motor
Generator Assembly is represented by the block diagram in Figure 4, and its wiring
diagram is shown in Figure 5.
Pre-Lab:
There is no pre-lab for this exercise.
Procedure:
Preliminary Preparation
Step 1 – Perform the Balance Pre-Amp Output Procedure (refer to Procedure section,
page 31)
Maximum VMotor Input: VMAX

Note that the change in motor speed due to changes in VMotor is not
instantaneous. Therefore, allow several seconds between changing
VMotor and observing the corresponding motor speed.
Step 1 – Connect the Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, and Tachometer as shown in Figure 5:
• The Dual-Attenuator provides a variable D.C. voltage, VMotor, to control motor
speed. The motor speed should be zero near dial setting 5. The speed should
increase in one direction as the dial is turned toward 10, and in the other direction
as the dial is turned toward 0.
• On the Tachometer unit, connect the negative output from the Tachometer (plug 1)
to the “tacho rpm” input (plug 3), and set the selector switch to read-out RPM.
Step 2 – Find the saturation VMotor input – the point at which increasing VMotor input no
longer results in increasing motor speed. (Note: saturation is one of the non-linear
behaviors that our model for the D.C. motor is ignoring.)
• Increase the VMotor input by turning the dial from 5 toward 10 until the motor speed
no longer increases (i.e.: the motor speed “saturates”).
• Slowly reduce VMotor until the motor speed begins to decrease; this is the threshold
VMotor input for unsaturated motor operation – VSAT.
• Measure the voltage at the wiper of the Dual-Attenuator, VMotor, using the volt
meter read-out on the Tachometer unit.
• Record this value in the table below.
Step 3 – Compute the maximum VMotor input for linear motor operation, VMAX:
• Compute VMAX: round 90% of VSAT to the nearest 1/10 volt.
• Record this value in the table below.
• Note that ±VMAX should be the limits of VMotor inputs in this lab exercise to avoid
the nonlinear effects of motor speed saturation.

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VSAT Volts
VMAX Volts
Motor Linearity: Km and Kt

The coefficients Km and Kt will be determined by two methods.
Method 1 – Steady-State Operation

Step 1 – With the Dual Attenuator providing the D.C. VMotor input as shown in Figure 5
(setup in the previous procedure), adjust VMotor to fill in the following data table -
VMotor vs. VTach:
• Use the volt meter read-out on the Tachometer unit to measure both VMotor and
VTach.
• Use the RPM read-out on the Tachometer unit to measure the motor speed, ωHS.
Note: when setting inputs or other adjustable parameters to specified

values, set the value as close as reasonably possible to the desired
value (Input, [Approx.]), and then record the actual value (Set, [Actual])
rather than trying to get the adjustable value to be exact.
Input: Set: Measure: CW = Clockwise
CCW = Counter –
Clockwise
VMotor VMotor [Actual] VTach Motor Speed Direction
[Approx.] (ωHS)
VMAX CW
Volts Volts RPM CCW
VMAX/2 CW
Volts Volts RPM CCW
-VMAX CW
Volts Volts RPM CCW
-VMAX/2 CW
Volts Volts RPM CCW
Table 1 - VMotor vs. VTach
Step 2 – Compute Km and Kt:

Since the motor-tachometer assembly is assumed to be linear, the following ratios
should be identical for all four table entries:
Ω ( s ) RPM V ( s ) Volt
K m = HS Volt ; K t = Tach RPM
VMotor ( s ) Ω HS ( s )
Note: The upper-case variable for motor speed, ΩHS, in the equations above indicates
that the equations are Transfer Functions in the Laplace domain. This is further
indicated by the Laplace variable, (s). The lower-case variable, ωHS, indicates a time-
domain representation.

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Compute: Analyze:
VMotor Km Kt |Km| [Mean |Kt| [Mean
Deviation of Deviation of
Absolute Value] Absolute Value]
VMAX RPM/Volt Volt/RPM % %
VMAX/2 RPM/Volt Volt/RPM % %
-VMAX RPM/Volt Volt/RPM % %
-VMAX/2 RPM/Volt Volt/RPM % %
Mean of
Absolute
Values RPM/Volt Volt/RPM
Table 2 - Km and Kt
Method 2 – Ramp Input

Step 1 – Configure the system as shown in Figure 5 (setup in the previous procedure):
• For the VMotor input to the Pre-Amp, replace the Dual Attenuator output with the
function generator output.
• Set the function generator for Triangle-wave, 0.01 Hz, 3Vpp (limit to ±VMAX Vpp)
Step 2 – Oscilloscope setup:

• Set the display mode to X-Y.
• Ground both Channel 1 (CH1) and Channel 2 (CH2) inputs.
• Center the beam dot vertically with the CH1 offset adjustment, and center it
horizontally with either the CH2 offset adjustment or the time base offset
adjustment (depending on the oscilloscope).
• Connect the oscilloscope CH1 input to VMotor.
Set CH1 (vertical displacement, Y-axis) scale to 0.5V/division.
• Connect the oscilloscope CH2 input to VTach.
Set CH2 (horizontal displacement, X-axis) scale to 5V/division and Invert CH2.
• Set horizontal sweep to 10 seconds/div.
• Activate the Store feature of the oscilloscope and/or adjust the display persistence.
The motor will turn; the speed will slowly increase, then slow, and reverse direction.
This cycle will repeat due to the periodic Triangle-wave input. The trace on the scope
will appear as a comet with an increasing tail. Eventually, the trace will look like a
diagonal line on the screen.
Step 3 – Measure VMotor and VTach:

• Use the HOLD or RUN/STOP feature on the oscilloscope to capture the trace.
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain a print-out of the trace.
• Measure the vertical extent of the diagonal line; this is VMotor. Refer to CH1
setting for V/division scale.

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• Measure the horizontal extent of the diagonal line; this is VTach. Refer to CH2
setting for V/division scale.
• Record the values of VMotor and VTach in the table below.
• Indicate these measured ranges of VMotor and VTach on the hard copy/print-out of the
trace.
VMotor Volts
VTach Volts
Step 4 – Compare VMotor and VTach with Km and Kt:

• The following ratio should hold:
VTach ( s )
= K m ⋅ Kt
VMotor ( s )
Compute: Analyze:
VTach / VMotor Km ⋅Kt % Difference
%
• On the hard copy/print-out of the trace, indicate the location of the four data points
(VMotor , VTach) from Table 1.
Motor Dynamics: τm
To determine the motor time constant, τm, a faster time varying signal will be used as the
input. Two methods will be used. The first method is a sinusoidal steady-state analysis,
and the second method is a step-input response.
Method 1 – Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

Step 1 – Configure the system as shown in Figure 5, and with the function generator
supplying the VMotor input to the Pre-Amp (setup in the previous procedure).
• Set the function generator for Sine-wave, 1 Hz, 2Vpp (limit to ±VMAX Vpp)

Change from previous procedure setup:
• Release the HOLD or RUN/STOP feature on the oscilloscope.
• Deactivate the Store feature and/or reduce the display.
• Set the display mode back to time-base (turn off X-Y display mode).
Step 3 – Measure Input/Output Waveform Phase Delay Angle:

• Measure the Phase Delay Angle, Θ - Perform the Measure Sine-Waveform Phase
Delay Angle Procedure (refer to Procedure section, page 32).
Note: the value of Θ should be negative since the motor transfer function has only
Poles and no Zeroes (i.e.: complex values only in the denominator) – and since the
Output waveform (VTach) “Lags” the Input waveform (VMotor).
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain a print-out of the traces.
• Record the values of t1, t2, and Θ in the table below.

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• On the hard copy/print-out of the traces, indicate t1 and t2.

t1 seconds
t2 seconds
Θ degrees
Step 4 – Compute τm:

Discussion:
In general, the phase delay (phase shift) angle of a complex function is:
 Im{G ( jω )} 
Phase Delay (degrees) = ∠G ( jω ) = tan −1   degrees
 Re{G ( jω )} 
For complex functions with numerators and denominators, the overall phase delay
is computed as:
Phase Delay = ( Phase Delay of Numerator) − ( Phase Delay of Denominator ) degrees
For the D.C. motor under investigation, the overall phase delay is computed as:
 K ⋅K 
∠ m t  = ∠( Num ) - ∠(Den )
 τ m s + 1  s = jω
 Im{K m ⋅ K t }   Im{τ m ⋅ jω + 1} 
= tan −1   - tan −1   degrees
 Re{K m ⋅ K t }   Re{τ m ⋅ jω + 1} 
 τ ⋅ω 
= (0 ) - tan −1  m  degrees
 1 
• Compute the value of τm using the Phase Delay Angle, Θ, measured in Step 3, and
the relationship given above:
t 
Phase Delay Angle, Θ = -  2  ⋅ 360° = - tan −1 (τ m ⋅ ω ) degrees
 t1 
1 1
Noting that ω = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ f = 2 ⋅π ⋅ = 2 ⋅π ⋅ , the only unknown in the equation
T t1
above is τm, which can be solved for using algebraic manipulation.
• Record the value of τm below:
τm seconds
Method 2 – System Step-Input Response

Step 1 – Configure the system as shown in Figure 5, and with the function generator
supplying the VMotor input to the Pre-Amp (setup in the previous procedure):
• Set the function generator for Square-wave, 0.2 Hz, 3Vpp (limit to ±VMAX Vpp).
The input waveform period must be slow enough to allow the system response from
each step-input (i.e.: each edge of the Square-wave) to achieve a steady-state
angular velocity before the next step-input occurs.

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Change from previous procedure setup:
• Release the HOLD or RUN/STOP feature on the oscilloscope.
Step 3 – Measure the Time Constant of the Motor, τm:

• Perform the Measure Time Constant of a Step Response Procedure (refer to
Procedure section, page 34).
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain a print-out of the step
response.
• Record the measured value of τm below:
τm seconds
• On the hard copy/print-out of step response, indicate τm.
Step 4 – Analyze/Compare the two values of τm from Method 1 – Sinusoidal Steady-State

Analysis – and from Method 2 – System Step-Input Response:
Summary: Analyze:
τm τm [Mean τm
Deviation] [% Difference]
τm - Method 1 seconds %
τm - Method 2 seconds %
Mean seconds %
Position Indicator: Kp
The Position Indicator is the potentiometer assembly that is connected to the motor via the
gearbox. Its transfer function is described by a constant, Kp, that relates angular
displacement to voltage.
Step 1 – Disconnect the motor by removing the pair of connections between the Pre-Amp
and the Servo-Amp (refer to Figure 5).
This will allow for free motion of the motor by hand.
Step 2 – Setup for the Position Indicator:

• Connect +15V and –15V sources to the Position Indicator as shown in Figure 2,
with +15V on plug 1 and -15V on plug 2.
• Connect the potentiometer wiper (plug 3), Vposition, to the digital volt meter read-out
on the Tachometer unit.
Step 3 – Measure and record voltages, VPosition, at various angular positions:

• Manually rotate the motor high-speed shaft (ωHS in Figure 5) – do NOT rotate
the potentiometer face-plate – and measure and record the values in Table 3. For

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a sign convention, consider Clockwise angles as positive and Counter-Clockwise

angles as negative.
(The actual sign is not important; the overall change in voltage per change in angle
is being measured.)
• For each pair of angle and voltage measurements, compute the change in voltage
with respect to angular position, ∆Volts/∆degrees. (Consider only the absolute
value; disregard any sign.)
• Compute the mean value of ∆Volts/∆degrees.
Set: Measure: Compute: Analyze:
ΘMotor VPosition ∆Volts / Volt/degree Volt/degree
[Approx.] ∆degrees [Mean [Range
Deviation] Deviation]
[Absolute Value]
-60° Volts
-50° Volts Volt/degree %
0° Volts Volt/degree %
Mean: Kp Volt/degree %
Table 3 - Position Indicator Angular Position and Voltage
Operational Amplifier Performance: Gain Verification and τ1

The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) unit will be used in later lab exercises as a summing
junction, and to add dynamics (i.e.: poles) to the overall system.
Step 1 – Setup for the Op-Amp:

• Connect the three power connections (+15V, 15V, and ground) on the Op-Amp.
• Connect one of the three Op-Amp input plugs (1, 2, or 3) to ground.
• Set the three-position Feedback Network Selector rotary switch to the 100KΩ
resistor.
• Use the volt meter read-out on the Tachometer unit to measure the output voltage of
the Op-Amp.

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• Adjust the Zero Set dial on the Op-Amp unit until the output voltage (plug 6)
shows 0 Volts.
• Remove the ground input to the Op-Amp.
Step 2 – Check the Op-Amp Gain and Summing function:

• Use both potentiometers on the Dual-Attenuator unit as voltage dividers. Set one of
them to provide +3V at the wiper terminal, and set the other to provide -5V at the
wiper terminal. (Get the values as close as reasonably possible and then record the
actual values.)
• Connect the +3V source to one input of the Op-Amp (plug 1, 2, or 3), and the -5V
source to one of the other inputs.
• The Op-Amp configuration is an inverting summer. Therefore, the output voltage
should be:
− (V1 + V2 ) = −(3V + − 5V ) = 2V
Measure the actual Op-Amp output voltage and compare it with the expected value
(using your measured input voltages to determine the expected value).
Input: Set: Compute: Measure: Analyze:
V1 V2 V1 [Actual] V2 [Actual] VOut [Expected] VOut [Actual] % Error
3V -5V Volts Volts Volts Volts %
Step 3 – Measure the Op-Amp Resistor/Capacitor Feedback Network Time Constant, τ1:
• Remove the +3V and -5V inputs to the Op-Amp.
• Set the three-position Feedback Network Selector rotary switch to the 1 µF
capacitor in parallel with the 100KΩ resistor.
• Set the function generator for Square-wave, 0.2 Hz, 5Vpp.
• Connect the output of the function generator to one of the Op-Amp inputs.
• Connect the Op-Amp output to one of the oscilloscope input channels.
• Perform the Measure Time Constant of a Step Response Procedure (refer to
Procedure section, page 34). Measure and record the time constant, τ1.
response.
• On the hard copy/print-out of step response, indicate τ1.
Expected: Measured: Analyze:
τ1 [Expected] τ1 [Actual] % Error
0.1 seconds seconds %
• In the Lab Report, derive the transfer function of the Op-Amp with the R-C
feedback network, and verify that the expected characteristic behavior is indeed a
first-order exponential with a time constant of 0.1 seconds.

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Summary:
Lab Exercise Checklist – Be sure that the following have been obtained in the Lab to
complete the lab exercise:
Collected data supporting the measurements of VMAX, Km, τm, Kt, Kp, and τ1
Annotated hardcopies of traces from Motor Linearity, from both methods of
measuring τm, and from measuring τ1
Lab Report Checklist – The Lab Report should contain the following supporting
documentation:
All collected data and hardcopies of scope traces
Parameter values (to be used in the remainder of lab exercises). [Where the value
was measured by more than one method, or was taken more than one time, use the
mean value.]
Error or appropriate deviation analysis of the measured data
Derivation of Op-Amp transfer function with R-C feedback network
Summary of Measured Parameter Values – to be used in the remainder of the lab exercises:
VMAX Volts
Km RPM/Volt
τm seconds
Kt Volt/RPM
Kp Volt/degree
τ1 seconds
The following should be considered as reference values of the system parameters for
“sanity check” purposes only. They should NOT be considered as “correct” or
“theoretical” values for error analysis.
• Motor Gain Constant – Km: 1800-2600 RPM/Volt
• Motor Time Constant – τm: 0.20-0.26 seconds
• Tachometer Gain Constant – Kt: 0.0023-0.0027 Volt/RPM
• Position Indicator Gain Constant – Kp: 0.07-0.12 Volt/Degree
• Op-Amp Lag Feedback Time Constant – τ1: 0.09-0.11 seconds
Review Questions – Answers must be included in the lab report:

• Is it justifiable to model the motor as a first-order system, considering only the
mechanical pole and ignoring the electrical pole from the inductance of the
armature (as well as ignoring nonlinear effects of motor saturation and gear
backlash, and armature resistance changes with temperature)? Why or why not?
(Consider your deviation and difference analyses of the motor parameters Km and
τm.)

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Procedure: Balance Pre-Amp Output
Purpose:
This procedure must be performed before each lab exercise to balance the differential
output signal of the Pre-Amp unit.
VTach
(Given)
+15V GND -15V +15V GND -15V

5 VTach
Zero
ωHS 1 -
Defined τ
VMotor
1 3 1 Shaft
+
RPM/DC Volts
2 4 2
2
Shaft
ωLS = 0
Figure 6 - Pre-Amplifier Differential Output Balancing
Procedure:
Step 1 – Connect the Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, and Tachometer as shown in Figure 6.
• Connect the three power connections (+15V, 15V, and ground) on both the Pre-
Amp and Tachometer units from either the Servo-Amp or the Power Supply.
• On the Pre-Amp unit, set the three-position switch to “defined τ.”
Step 2 – Ground the “V-Motor” input (plug 1) on the Pre-Amp unit. This provides a
“command” input for Zero speed from the motor.
Step 3 – Adjust the Zero Set dial on the Pre-Amp unit until the motor does not turn.

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Procedure: Measure Sine-Waveform Phase Delay Angle
Purpose:
This procedure is used to measure the Phase Delay Angle (in degrees) between two
sinusoidal wave-forms.
CH1
VMotor
t1
(Period) CH2
t2 VTach
(Delay)
Figure 7 – CH1 and CH2 Period and Phase Delay Time
Procedure:
• Connect the oscilloscope CH1 input to the system “input” signal (e.g.: VMotor).
• Connect the oscilloscope CH2 input to system “output” signal (e.g.: VTach).
Invert CH2.
• Adjust the CH1 and CH2 vertical sensitivities (Volt/division) so that both Sine-
waves have about the same amplitude.
• Adjust horizontal sweep (seconds/division) until a complete Sine-wave (from Peak
to Peak) is displayed on the screen from both CH1 and CH2.

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Step 2 – Measure Waveform Period and Phase Delay Time:

• Use the HOLD or RUN/STOP feature on the oscilloscope to capture the trace.
• Use the Cursor or Measure feature on the oscilloscope to measure the Period of the
CH1 signal – the time between one peak and the next peak of the waveform;
this is t1. (Refer to Figure 7.)
• Use the Cursor or Measure feature on the oscilloscope to measure the Phase Delay
Time between the CH1 and CH2 signals – the time between the peak of the leading
waveform and the corresponding peak of the lagging waveform; this is t2. (Refer to
Figure 7.)
Step 3 – Compute the Waveform Phase Delay Angle:

• In general, the phase delay (phase shift) angle between two sinusoidal function is
the ratio of the time delay between the two functions (t2) and the period (t1)
expressed as a fraction of one complete cycle (360°). This is computed as:
t 
Phase Delay (degrees), Θ =  2  ⋅ 360°
 t1 
• For complex functions with complex numerators and denominators, the overall
phase delay computed as:
Phase Delay (degrees), Θ =

( Phase Delay of Numerator) − ( Phase Delay of Denominator ) degrees
• The two phase delay calculations should be equal. Example: for the D.C. motor
under investigation, the overall phase delay is computed as:
 K ⋅K  t 
∠ m t  = ∠( Num ) - ∠(Den ) = (0 ) -  2  ⋅ 360°
 τ m s + 1  s = jω  t1 

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Procedure: Measure Time Constant of a Step Response
Purpose:
This procedure is used to measure the Time Constant from a first-order exponential system
step response.
Figure 8 – Measuring the Time Constant from a First-Order Exponential Step Response
Procedure:
• Connect one oscilloscope input channel to the signal being evaluated (e.g.: VTach).
• Adjust the vertical sensitivity (Volt/division) so that the entire amplitude of the step
response fits on the screen.
• Adjust horizontal sweep (seconds/division) so that a single step response (from the
beginning of the step until the final value is reached) is displayed on the screen.
Step 2 – Measure the Exponential Time Constant:

• Use the HOLD or RUN/STOP feature on the oscilloscope to capture a positive
going step response.
• Use the Cursor or Measure feature on the oscilloscope to measure the overall
vertical displacement of the step response (from the beginning of the step to the
final value – Refer to Figure 7.) Call this 100%.
The Time Constant of an exponential decay curve is the time required to reach 37%
(e-1) of the initial value.

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The Time Constant of an exponential rise curve is the time required to reach 63%
(1-e-1) of the final value.
• Compute 63% of the overall vertical displacement of the rising step response.
The horizontal cursor will be used to measure the time from the beginning of the step
response to the 63% point, however vertical cursor indicating the 63% vertical location
will be lost when the cursor mode is switched from vertical to horizontal.
• Use the horizontal offset adjustment on the oscilloscope to align the intersection of
the trace of the step response and the 63% cursor indication with one of the solid
vertical lines on the oscilloscope display. (Refer to the “Triple Intersection” in
Figure 8.)
• Switch the cursor measurement mode from vertical to horizontal, and measure the
time from the beginning of the step response to the 63% point (the intersection of
the trace of the step response with the solid vertical line on the oscilloscope
display).
• This time measurement is the time constant, τ, of the exponential curve.

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Lab Exercise 2 – Closed-Loop Position Control System

Design
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab exercise is to design and evaluate a closed-loop position control
system, predict its behavior, and control its behavior. The component parameters measured
in Lab Exercise #1 will be used to model the system components.
Figure 9 - Position Control Loop Block Diagram
+15V GND -15V
Op-Amp VTach
100 kΩ Zero
Dual Attenuator
VIn 1 100 kΩ Pre-Amp Servo-Amp Motor Tachometer

Ka
VTach
ωHS
5
VPosition 6 3
Zero 1
-
2
100 kΩ Defined τ
VMotor Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
3
100 kΩ 2
2 4 2 2
1
Shaft
ωLS
Units: RPM
Unit Conversion:
6 ⋅ ( revolution
minute
)⋅ ( degree
second
)
Units: Shaft
degree/sec
ω,θ
+15V -15V
1 2
VPosition
Position Indicator
VPosition
Figure 10 - Position Control Loop Wiring Diagram

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Objectives:
• Perform the Zero Op-Amp Output Procedure
• Predict second-order system response to a step-input
• Design basic second-order system step response by adjusting gain
• Measure the Percent Overshoot, Peak-Time, and Settling-Time of an under-damped
second-order step response
Reference Reading:
[1] Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Feedback and Control Systems, 2/e
Block-Diagram Simplification:
o Chapter 7, pp 154-207
[2] Modern Control Systems, 9/e
Second-Order Dynamic Response Design Procedure & Equations:
o Summary on inside back cover
[3] Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 4/e
o Summary on p. 180 and inside back cover.
[4] Control Systems Engineering, 4/e
o Summary on inside back cover.
[5] Modern Control Engineering, 4/e
Equipment List:
• Dual Attenuator
• Oscilloscope
• Printer

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Lab Exercise #1 examined the open-loop motor. The transfer function for the motor that
relates applied voltage to motor speed is a first-order function; the motor’s changes in
speed due to a square-wave input exhibited the characteristic exponential step response of a
first-order system. The new system transfer function introduces a 1/s term (discussed
later), which results in an over-damped second-order system. However, as the system gain,
Ka, is adjusted, the closed-loop system poles move from their open-loop positions; the
system becomes critically-damped at some value of Ka, and is under-damped for Ka greater
than that value. The objectives of this lab exercise include predicting the characteristics of
the under-damped step response with a given value of Ka, and specifying the value of Ka to
achieve the specified under-damped step response characteristics.
The Closed-Loop Position Control system is represented by the block diagram in Figure 9,
and its wiring diagram is shown in Figure 10.
The new components that are introduced in the block diagram are the summing junction,
the variable gain, Ka, the gear reduction factor, 1/30, the unit conversion factor, 6, and the
integrator, 1/s.
The summing junction is implemented with the Op-Amp using the resistor feedback
network for a unity gain (gain factor of 1). (Note that the reversal of direction from the
gear coupling provides the negative sign on the summing junction’s feedback input.)
The variable gain, Ka, is implemented with one of the attenuators (potentiometers)
configured as a voltage divider. Since the gain is implemented with an attenuator, the
attainable gain is limited to values between zero and one.
The gear reduction factor is just the transfer function of the gear-train:
Output ( s ) # revolutions on Output shaft 1
= =
Input ( s ) # revolutions on Input shaft 30
Note that this transfer function ignores friction, the mass of the gears, gear backlash, etc. It
would also be possible, if desired, to derive transfer functions for the gear-train that relate
other input-output relationships such as input torque vs. output torque.
The unit conversion factor, 6, appears in the block diagram but is not a physical element in
the system. Since the digital read-out on the Tachometer unit displays motor angular speed
as RPM (Revolutions-per-minute), and the position indicator produces a voltage relative to
degrees (rather than revolutions), a conversion factor is necessary for consistency of units:
revolutions  1 minute 360°  degrees
⋅  ⋅  =
minute  60 seconds 1 revolution  second
 minute ⋅ degree 
Conversion Factor : 6 
 second ⋅ revolution 

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The Integrator (1/s), like the unit conversion factor, is not a physical element in the system.
Some transfer function derivations for the D.C. motor include the 1/s term, and relate
applied voltage to angular position (recall that the motor transfer function used here relates
applied voltage to angular velocity). By definition of the motor transfer function, the
quantities on the High-Speed and Low-Speed shafts are velocities, ωHS and ωLS. Since the
output of the Position Indicator is a voltage related to position, VPosition, then conceptually
integration (1/s) is occurring based only on our definitions of the quantities, and not though
a physical element performing an integration function.
Pre-Lab:
Step 1 – Derive the Closed-Loop Transfer Function:
• Derive the closed-loop transfer function, T(s) = VP(s)/VIn(s), for the system shown
in Figure 9. The transfer function should be derived with the symbols in the block
diagram (Ka, Km, τm, Kp), and then the values measured in Lab Exercise #1 should
be substituted in. Note that the gain, Ka, is still a variable.
Additionally, it may be convenient to algebraically manipulate the transfer function

so that the coefficient of the s2 term in the denominator is 1.
Step 2 – Predict Transient Response for Ka = 1:

• Predict the percent overshoot, Mp, peak time, tp, and settling time, ts, for the system
when Ka = 1. Set Ka = 1 in the transfer function derived in Step 1 of the pre-lab,
and use the second-order system design equations (from class lecture, the lab
instructor, or from a control systems textbook – see references) to determine the
expected Mp, tp, and ts for the system step-response.
Expected for
Ka = 1:
tp seconds
ts seconds
Mp %
Step 3 – Compute Ka for Specified Transient Response:

• Determine the value of Ka that will yield a 25% overshoot to a step input for the
transfer function derived in Step 1 of the pre-lab, and use the second-order system
design equations as needed.
• Also, predict the peak time, tp, and settling time, ts, at this value of Ka.
Expected for
Mp = 25%:
Ka
tp seconds
ts seconds

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Procedure:
page 31)
Step 2 – Perform the Zero Op-Amp Output Procedure (refer to Procedure section, page
43)
Step Response for Ka = 1

Step 1 – Connect the system components as shown in Figure 10:
• Set the gain, Ka, to 1.
The Dual-Attenuator provides the variable gain, Ka. With the black plug of the
attenuator connected to ground, the gain will increase as the dial is turned toward
10 (voltage increases at the wiper terminal), and decrease as the dial is turned
toward 0 (voltage decreases at the wiper terminal). Therefore, a gain of 1 should be
observed with the dial turned all the way to 10. (This can be verified with the Set
Gain using an Attenuator Procedure – page 44.)
Step 2 – Function Generator setup:

• Set the function generator for Square-wave output, frequency low enough so that
the step response has sufficient settling time before the next edge of the square-
wave (use the settling time, ts, as a guide), amplitude for 50° peak-to-peak.
Use Kp to convert from the angular specification to voltage.
Note that each edge of the square-wave represents half of the period of the overall
waveform.
• Connect the function generator output to the Op-Amp input, Vin, as shown in Figure
10.
• Confirm that the VMotor input to the servo-amp is limited to ±VMAX Vpp; reduce Vin
if necessary.

• Connect the oscilloscope CH1 input to the Input Voltage, VIn.
Adjust the vertical sensitivity (Volt/division) of CH1 so that the entire amplitude of
the square-wave input fits on the screen.
• Connect the oscilloscope CH2 input to VPosition, the output of the Position Indicator
(refer to Figure 10).
Adjust the vertical sensitivity of CH2 so that the entire amplitude of the step
Invert CH2.
• Adjust horizontal sweep (seconds/division) until a single step response (from the
Step 4 – Measure and Record the Step Response characteristics:

• Perform the Measure Characteristics of an Under-Damped Step Response
Procedure (refer to Procedure section, page 45).
response.

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• Record the measured values of tp, ts and Mp below and compare the measured
values with the expected values computed in the second part of the pre-lab:
Measured: Analyze:
%Error
tp seconds %
ts seconds %
Mp % %
• On the hard copy/print-out of step response, indicate tp, ts and Mp.
Step Response for Mp = 25%

Step 1 – With the same system component connections as shown in Figure 10:
• Use the Set Gain using an Attenuator Procedure (refer to Procedure section,
page 44) to set the gain, Ka, to the value computed in the third part of the pre-lab
to achieve a 25% overshoot.
Step 2 – Function Generator setup – setup in the previous procedure:

waveform.
10.
if necessary.
Step 3 – Oscilloscope setup – setup in the previous procedure:

• Release the HOLD or RUN/STOP feature on the oscilloscope (from the previous
procedure).
• Connect the oscilloscope CH2 input to VPosition., the output of the Position Indicator
(refer to Figure 10), adjust the vertical sensitivity of CH2 so that the entire
amplitude of the step response fits on the screen. Invert CH2.


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response.
values with the expected values computed in the third part of the pre-lab:
Measured: Analyze:
%Error
tp seconds %
ts seconds %
Mp % %
Summary:
Collected data supporting the measurements of tp, ts and Mp for both Ka = 1 and Mp
= 25%
Annotated hardcopies of step response traces for both Ka = 1 and Mp = 25%
documentation:
Derivation of closed-loop transfer function
Pre-lab computations
Error analysis of the measured vs. expected values

• Are the second-order system design equations adequate to predict and design the
response of the under-damped step response? Why or why not? (Consider your
error analyses of the measured vs. expected values of tp, ts and Mp.)

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Procedure: Zero Op-Amp Output
Purpose:
This procedure must be performed before each lab exercise that uses the Op-Amp to zero
the output signal of the Op-Amp unit.
Note: This procedure must be performed AFTER performing the Balance Pre-Amp
Output Procedure.
VTach
+15V GND -15V

Op-Amp
+15V GND -15V (Given) +15V GND -15V
100 kΩ Zero
VTach
ωHS
5
Zero 1
-
100 kΩ
VIn 1
Defined τ
VMotor Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
6
2 2 4 2 2
100 kΩ
3 Shaft
100 kΩ
ωLS = 0
Figure 11 – Op-Amp Zero Output Adjust
Procedure:
Step 1 – Connect the Op-Amp, Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, and Tachometer as shown in
Figure 11.
• Connect the three power connections (+15V, 15V, and ground) on the Op-Amp,
Pre-Amp, and Tachometer units from either the Servo-Amp or the Power Supply.
• On the Op-Amp unit, set the three-position selector to the single resistor feedback.
• On the Pre-Amp unit, set the three-position switch to “defined τ.”
Step 2 – Ground the “V-In” input (plug 1) on the Op-Amp unit. This provides a
“command” input for Zero speed from the motor.
Step 3 – Adjust the Zero Set dial on the Op-Amp unit until the motor does not turn.

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Procedure: Set Gain using an Attenuator
Purpose:
This procedure describes how to set a specified gain value between the values of zero and
one using an attenuator (potentiometer).
Vin
Ka
2
10 kΩ
Vout=Vin*Ka
1
Black
Plug
Figure 12 – Seting Gain using an Attenuator
Procedure:
Step 1 – Disconnect the Vout (wiper) terminal on the attenuator from other “downstream”
connections. This will prevent the Vout voltage from driving the motor.
Step 2 – Connect the +15V source voltage from either the Servo-Amp or the Power Supply
as Vin, as shown in Figure 12.
Step 3 – Compute Vout.

• Measure and record Vin using the digital volt meter read-out on the Tachometer
unit. Vin is supposed to be +15V; this is just for confirmation.
• Compute Vout as the product of the measured value of Vin and the desired gain
value.
Step 4 – Set Vout.

• Connect the Vout (wiper) terminal on the attenuator to the digital volt meter input on
the Tachometer unit (plug 4).
• Adjust the potentiometer dial until Vout equals (reasonably closely; within a few
tenths of one volt) the computed Vout value from Step 3.
Step 5 – Reconnect the attenuator Vin and Vout terminals to their original connections.

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Procedure: Measure Characteristics of an Under-Damped Step

Response
Purpose:
This procedure is used to measure the Rise-Time, Peak-Time, Settling-Time, and Percent
Overshoot of an under-damped second-order step response.
tp
Overshoot
90%
tr 2% (+/- 1%)
Settling Band
Final Value
ts
10%
Figure 13 - Measuring the Characteristics of an Under-Damped Second-Order Step Response
Procedure:
• Connect one oscilloscope input channel to the signal being evaluated (e.g.: VPosition).
• Adjust the vertical sensitivity (Volt/division) so that the entire amplitude of the step
response fits on the screen (including the peak overshoot).
• Adjust horizontal sweep (seconds/division) so that a single step response (from the
• Use the HOLD or RUN/STOP feature on the oscilloscope to capture a positive
going step response.

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Step 2 – Measure the Final Value:

• Use the Cursor or Measure feature on the oscilloscope to measure the overall
vertical displacement of the step response from the beginning of the step to the final
value – Refer to Figure 13. Call this 100%.
Note that due to disturbance inputs, system nonlinearities, etc., the oscillations may
never decay to within the 2% (±1%) settling band. (This condition should be noted
in your lab report.) If so, estimate and measure the value that the signal is
oscillating around and use this as the final value.
If required:
Step 3 – Measure the Rise-Time, tr:
• Use the Cursor or Measure feature on the oscilloscope to measure the time that it
takes for the step response to transition from 10% to 90% or the final value. (Refer
to Figure 13.)
If required:
Step 4 – Measure the Peak-Time, tp:
takes for the step response to transition from the beginning of the step response to
the first peak of the oscillation. (Refer to Figure 13.)
If required:
Step 5 – Measure the Settling-Time, ts:
takes for the step response to transition from the beginning of the step response
until the oscillation remains within 2% (±1%) of the final value (i.e.: the settling
band). (Refer to Figure 13.)
If the oscillations do not decay to within the 2% (±1%) settling band, this condition
should be noted in your lab report.
If required:
Step 6 – Measure the Percent Overshoot, Mp:
• Use the Cursor or Measure feature on the oscilloscope to measure the amount of
overshoot of the first peak of the oscillation above the final value. (Refer to Figure
13.)
• Compute the percent overshoot as:
Overshoot Peak Value − Final Value
Percent Overshoot, M p = ×100% = ×100%
Final Value Final Value

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Lab Exercise 3 – Design for Steady-State Error and

Marginal Stability
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab exercise is to design and evaluate a type-1 position control system’s
ability to track a ramp-input to a specified steady-state error, and to design a third-order
system to operate on the threshold of stability.
Objectives:
• Predict a type-1 system’s expected steady-state error to a ramp input
• Design a systems steady-state error by adjusting gain
• Measure the system’s steady-state error to a ramp input
• Predict a marginally stable system’s oscillation frequency
• Design a system to operate on the threshold of stability by adjusting gain
Reference Reading:
• References from Previous Lab Exercises:
o Block-Diagram Simplification
o Second-Order Dynamic Response Design Procedure & Equations
Steady-State Error:
Stability:
Steady-State Error:
Stability:
Steady-State Error:
Stability:
Steady-State Error:
Stability:

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Steady-State Error:
Stability:
Figure 14 - Position Control Loop Block Diagram indicating Error Signal

(Note: Wiring diagram is identical to Figure 10, page 36.)

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Figure 15 - Third-Order Position Control System Block Diagram for Marginal Stability Design
+15V GND -15V
Op-Amp VTach
1 µF
Zero
Dual Attenuator
100 kΩ
Ka
VTach
ωHS
5
VPosition 6 3
Zero 1
-
2
100 kΩ Defined τ
VMotor Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
3 2
100 kΩ
2 4 2 2
1
Shaft
ωLS
Units: RPM
Unit Conversion:
6 ⋅ ( revolution
minute
)⋅ ( degree
second
)
Units: Shaft
degree/sec
ω,θ
+15V -15V
1 2
VPosition
Position Indicator
VPosition
Figure 16 - Third-Order Position Control System Wiring Diagram
Equipment List:
• Dual Attenuator
• Oscilloscope
• Printer

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Steady-State Error
In Lab Exercise #2, the system design criteria, tp, ts and Mp, were based on the transient
response with respect to the final value from a step input. Some design specifications
consider how closely the steady-state output tracks the input signal. The Error signal,
E(s), is defined as the difference between the system input and the system output. While
the system Transfer Function examines the ratio of the system output over the input in the
frequency (“s”) domain, the system Steady-State Error, ess, examines the Difference (i.e.:
Error) between the system input and output in the time domain.
Many control system textbooks examine system steady-state error with respect to the
number of system poles at the origin (i.e.: 1/s terms – the number of system poles at the
origin).
Note that the System Type, number of poles at the origin, is independent of the
system order (number of poles in the system transfer function), other than the fact
that the system order must be at least equal to the system type.
This lab exercise examines the ability of a type 1 system (one pole at the origin) to track a
ramp input (R/s2).
Marginal Stability
System stability examines whether a system’s output decays to a final value or remains
bounded over time (stability), or grows toward infinity or to the maximum extent of the
system output capability – such as an op-amp output getting “stuck on the rails” –
(instability).
For a system to be stable, all system poles must have negative real parts (i.e.: be to the left
of the jω-axis; “be in the Left-Half Plane”). A system is unstable if any pole has a positive
real part (i.e.: lies to the right of the jω-axis; “is in the Right-Half Plane”).
A system’s output will oscillate if it has complex poles. If the complex poles are stable (lie
in the Left-Half Plane), then the oscillation amplitude will exponentially decay; if the
complex poles are unstable (lie in the Right-Half Plane), the oscillation amplitude will
exponentially grow. When a system’s complex poles lie directly on the jω-axis, the
oscillation is “un-damped”; the system output oscillates with constant amplitude. This
condition is called marginal stability.
Pre-Lab:
Steady-State Error
Step 1 – Derive the Error Transfer Function:
• Derive the error transfer function, TE(s) = Verror(s)/VIn(s), for the system shown in
Figure 14. The error transfer function should be derived with the symbols in the
block diagram (Ka, Km, τm, Kp), and then the values measured in Lab Exercise #1
should be substituted in. Note that the gain, Ka, is still a variable.

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Step 2 – Derive the System Error Function, Verror(s), to a Ramp-Input, VIn(s) = R/s2:
• Verror(s) = VIn(s)⋅TE(s).
The Ramp-Input will be R=2V/sec (i.e.: R=2 in the equation for Verror(s)).
Step 3 – Derive the Steady-State Error Function:

• Apply the Laplace Final Value Theorem (FVT) to Verror(s) to derive the formula for
steady-state error, Verror-ss(s).
Step 4 – Compute Ka for Specified Steady-State Error:

• The formula for steady-state error from Step 3 should be a function of only a single
variable, Ka, since all other parameters are known.
Compute the value of Ka to produce a steady-state error Verror-ss(s) = 0.2V to the
Ramp-Input.
Ka
Step 5 – Determine the Input Signal Frequency:

• The Ramp-Input will be a 10 VPP Triangle-wave from the signal generator.
Compute the period and associated frequency necessary to create a ramp of
R=2V/sec. Note that the ramp signal is half of the total period of the Triangle-
wave.
T seconds
f Hz
Marginal Stability
• Derive the closed-loop transfer function, T(s) = Vp(s)/VIn(s), for the third-order
system shown in Figure 15. The transfer function should be derived with the
symbols in the block diagram (τ1, Ka, Km, τm, Kp), and then the values measured in
Lab Exercise #1 should be substituted in. Note that the gain, Ka, is still a variable.
The theoretical value of Ka to achieve marginal system stability and the

resulting system oscillation frequency will be computed by two different
methods.
Method 1 – Routh-Hurwitz Coefficient Test

Step 1 – Perform the Routh-Hurwitz coefficient test on the third-order denominator
polynomial from the closed-loop transfer function, T(s)
Step 2 – Find Ka for Marginal Stability:

• Find the value of Ka that makes the first element in the “s1 row” equal zero.
This is the predicted value of Ka for marginal stability.
Ka

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Step 3 – Find the Theoretical Oscillation Frequency, ω:

• Substitute the value of Ka from Step 2 into the “s2 row”.
With the “s1 row” equal to zero from Step2, the “s2 row” is called the Auxiliary
Equation. If the coefficients in the “s2 row” are A and B, the Auxiliary Equation
will have the form As2 + B.
• Manipulate the Auxiliary Equation to be in the form s2 + ω2, and solve for the
theoretical oscillation frequency, ω in units of rad/sec.
ω rad/sec
f Hz
Method 2 – Mathematical Substitution

Step 1 – Substitute s = jω into the third-order denominator polynomial from the closed-
loop transfer function; T(s) becomes T(jω)
Step 2 – Solve for Ka and ω:

• Separate the Real and Imaginary parts of the complex function, T(jω), from Step 1.
This will yield two equations, Re{T(jω)} and Im{T(jω)}, with two unknowns, Ka
and ω.
The poles of the system are where the denominator of the transfer function is equal
to zero.
• Solve for the values of Ka and ω to make both equations equal zero:
Re{T(jω)} = 0 , Im{T(jω)} = 0
Ka
ω rad/sec
f Hz
Procedure:
page 31)
43)
Steady-State Error
Step 1 – Set the gain, Ka, to the value computed in the pre-lab for Steady State Error:
page 44)

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Step 2 – Connect the system components as shown in Figure 10 (Lab Exercise #2, page
36):
• The Op-Amp feedback network is set to the 100KΩ resistor.

• Set the function generator for Triangle-wave output.
• Set the frequency to the value computed in the pre-lab for Steady State Error.
• Set the amplitude to 10 VPP.
• Use the oscilloscope to verify that the slope of the Triangle-wave is 2V/sec.
Adjust the amplitude and/or frequency if necessary to generate a 2V/sec slope.
Get reasonably close and record the actual slope, R, of the ramp input.
• IF THE WAVEFORM GENERATOR WILL NOT ALLOW A LOW
ENOUGH FREQUENCY TO SATISFY THE PRE-LAB SPECIFICATION:
o Set the waveform generator to the lowest possible frequency.
o Re-compute the necessary peak-to-peak amplitude for this period to
achieve a 2V/sec ramp. (Recall that the ramp signal is half of the total
period of the Triangle-wave.) Note this deviation in your lab report.
Use the actual value of the ramp when comparing the expected vs. measured
values of steady-state-error.
• Connect the function generator output to the Op-Amp input, as shown in Figure 10.

the triangle-wave input fits on the screen.
Adjust the vertical sensitivity of CH2 so that the entire amplitude of the response
fits on the screen.
Invert CH2.
• Adjust horizontal sweep (seconds/division) until a rising slope input (from the low
point on the triangle-wave to the peak) is displayed on the screen.
• With the two signals aligned vertically, the vertical “gap” between the two
waveforms is the steady-state error. This “gap” can be measured with the
oscilloscope cursors.
• The “Math” function of the oscilloscope can also be used to plot the difference (i.e.:
error) between the two waveforms. The “difference” waveform will resemble an
under-damped square-wave step response. Measure the “delta” between the “top”
and “bottom” steady-state values of the “difference” waveform.
Note that the “delta” between the “top” and “bottom” steady-state values of the
“difference” waveform is actually 2*Verror since the “bottom” edge is the error from
the negative going ramp (falling slope of the triangle-wave), and the “top” edge is
the error from the positive ramp (rising slope of the triangle-wave).

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Step 5 – Alternate method to measure Verror:

• Connect the oscilloscope CH1 input to the Error Voltage, Verror. This signal is the
output (plug 6) of the Op-Amp.
The Error signal will resemble an under-damped square-wave step response.
the signal fits on the screen.
• The overall amplitude of this signal is 2*Verror, as explained is Step 4.
Measured: Analyze:
%Error
Verror V %
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain a print-out of the Verror
trace.
Marginal Stability
Step 1 – Double-Check the Pre-Amp and Op-Amp Balanced/Zeroed Output:
• Perform the Balance Pre-Amp Output Procedure (refer to Procedure section,
page 31)
• Perform the Zero Op-Amp Output Procedure (refer to Procedure section, page
43)

• Note that this setup is EXACTLY THE SAME as the Steady-State Error exercise
EXCEPT that the Op-Amp feedback network is set to the RC network (τ = 0.1 sec).
• Disconnect the Function Generator input. When the system is unstable, stray
noise signals in the system are sufficient to cause the system output to oscillate.
• Connect one oscilloscope channel to VPosition, the output of the Position Indicator.
• Connect the other oscilloscope channel to VMotor, the input to the Servo-Amp.
Step 3 – Set the system into Marginal Stability:

• Set Ka to the Maximum value (dial setting 10, gain value 1).
The motor position will oscillate with increasing amplitude.
• When the oscillation appears to be about 50° peak-to-peak (use Kp to convert from
the angular specification to voltage), reduce Ka from the maximum value and
observe the VPosition oscillation amplitude.
• Also observe the VMotor amplitude to find whether the input is within the ±VMAX
range (for linear – unsaturated – motor operation). [There may also be an audible
difference between when the motor is operating in saturated vs. unsaturated modes.]
• When the system is operating at Marginal Stability, the VPosition signal will look like
a smooth sine-wave. On the threshold of Marginal Stability, the VPosition amplitude
will be constant. At this point, slight changes to Ka will result in either increasing
or decreasing VPosition amplitude as the system poles transition between stability and
instability.
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain a print-out of the trace.

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• Measure and record the oscillation frequency and compare this to the theoretical
value.
• Without disturbing the attenuator setting, disconnect the attenuator from the system
and measure the gain, Ka, using a method similar to setting the gain to a specific
value (refer to Set Gain using an Attenuator Procedure, page 44).
Record the measured value of Ka and compare this value to the theoretical value for
Marginal Stability.
Measured: Analyze:
%Error
f Hz %
Ka %
Summary:
Collected data supporting the measurements of Verror to a Ramp-input for steady-
state error exercise, and oscillation frequency and associated Ka for marginal
stability exercise
Annotated hardcopies of step response traces for both Verror and un-damped
oscillation
documentation:
Derivation of closed-loop transfer functions
Error analysis of the measured vs. expected values:
o Steady-state error, ess (Verror) – considering actual ramp-input slope
o f (ω) and Ka for marginal stability

• .

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Lab Exercise 4 – Design of Position Control System with

Velocity Feedback
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab exercise is to design and evaluate a position control system, and to
improve the ability to control the servo motor system step-response over the position
control system analyzed in Lab Exercise #2. In this exercise, an inner velocity feedback
loop will be introduced to the system around the motor and tachometer with an additional
gain parameter, Kb.
Figure 17 - Position Control System with Velocity Feedback Loop - Block Diagram
+15V GND -15V
Op-Amp VTach VTach
100 kΩ Zero
Dual Attenuator

Ka
ωHS
5
VPosition 6 3
Zero 1
-
2
100 kΩ Defined τ
VMotor Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
3 2
100 kΩ
2 4 2 2
1
Shaft
Dual Attenuator
(½)
Kb
ωLS
VTach Units: RPM
3 Unit Conversion:
6 ⋅ ( revolution
minute
)⋅ ( degree
second
)
2
Units: Shaft
degree/sec
1
ω,θ
+15V -15V
1 2
VPosition
Position Indicator
VPosition
Figure 18 - Position Control System with Velocity Feedback Loop - Wiring Diagram

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Objectives:
• Design a system’s step-response using two adjustable gain parameters
Reference Reading:
o Steady-State Error

Velocity Feedback:
Equipment List:
• Dual Attenuator
• Oscilloscope
• Printer
In Lab Exercise #2, a closed-loop position control system was designed to meet a single
step response performance requirement: Overshoot, Mp, of 25%. The controller was a
single variable gain (multiplier) of the error (difference between system input and output).
With a single adjustable parameter (one “degree of freedom”), only one performance
requirement could be specified.
In this exercise, an inner “velocity loop” will be added; the velocity signal from the
tachometer, Vtach, will be fed-back to an input of the Pre-Amp after first passing through a
new adjustable gain, Kb.
The second adjustable parameter will result in a system with two degrees of freedom, and
will allow the design requirements to specify two step response performance criteria.
Pre-Lab:
• Derive the closed-loop transfer function, T(s) = VP(s)/VIn(s), for the system shown
in Figure 17. The transfer function should be derived with the symbols in the block
diagram (Ka, Kb, Km, τm, Kt, Kp), and then the values measured in Lab Exercise #1
should be substituted in. Note that the two gains, Ka and Kb, are still variables.

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Additionally, it may be convenient to algebraically manipulate the transfer function

so that the coefficient of the s2 term in the denominator is 1.
Step 2 – Specify a Transient Response and Compute Ka and Kb for the Specified Behavior:
• Specify (i.e.: choose) an overshoot, Mp < 20%, and Settling Time, ts,2% < 4/3
seconds to a step input.
• Determine the value of Ka and Kb that will yield the specified transient
response (Mp, and ts,2%) to a step input for the transfer function derived in Step 1 of
the pre-lab, and use the second-order system design equations as needed.
• Predict the peak time, tp, for this design.
• Confirm that for a Unit-Ramp input (1/s2 – slope is 1 Volt/sec) the Steady-State
Error, ess < 4° (use Kp to convert from the angular specification to voltage).
Design Objectives:
Mp %
ts seconds
Controller Values:
Ka
Kb
Expected Peak-Time and Ramp-input steady-state error:

tp seconds
ess degree Volt
Procedure:
Step 1 – Preliminary Preparation:
page 31)
43)
Step 2 – Set the gains, Ka and Kb, to the values computed in the pre-lab:
page 44)


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waveform.
18.
if necessary.

Invert CH2.

response.
values with the expected values computed in the second part of the pre-lab:
Measured: Analyze:
%Error
tp seconds %
ts seconds %
Mp % %
The Steady-State Analysis to a Ramp-Input is only theoretical – not part of the Lab
Exercise.

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Summary:
Collected data supporting the measurements of tp, ts and Mp
Annotated hardcopy of step response
documentation:
Error analysis of the measured vs. expected values of tp, ts and Mp
Theoretical analysis of steady-state error to a ramp-input

• How was the addition of the velocity feedback able to allow two step response
performance specifications to be met?

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Lab Exercise 5 – System Stabilization Design by Velocity

Feedback
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab exercise is to stabilize an unstable system (third-order system from
Lab Exercise #3 – intentionally made unstable) using the inner velocity feedback loop that
was introduced in Lab Exercise #4.
Pre-Amp
Op-Amp input Position
Motor Unit
Integration
Attenuator Gear Conversion Indicator
VPosition(s)
0
VIn(s) + 1 + Km 1 1
Ka 6 Kp
- τ 1s + 1 - τ ms +1 30 s
Attenuator
VPosition(s)
Kb Kt
Tachometer
VTach(s)
Figure 19 - Third-Order System with Velocity Feedback Loop - Block Diagram
+15V GND -15V
Op-Amp VTach VTach

1 µF
Zero
Dual Attenuator
100 kΩ (½) +15V GND -15V (Given) +15V GND -15V

Ka
ωHS
5
VPosition 6 3
Zero 1
-
2
100 kΩ Defined τ
VMotor Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
3 2
100 kΩ
2 4 2 2
1
Shaft
Dual Attenuator
(½)
Kb
ωLS
VTach Units: RPM
3 Unit Conversion:
6 ⋅ ( revolution
minute
)⋅ ( degree
second
)
2
Units: Shaft
degree/sec
1
ω,θ
+15V -15V
1 2
VPosition
Position Indicator
VPosition
Figure 20 – Third-Order System with Velocity Feedback Loop - Wiring Diagram

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Objectives:
• Stabilize an unstable system’s step-response using velocity feedback
Reference Reading:
o Stability
Equipment List:
• Dual Attenuator
• Oscilloscope
• Printer
In Lab Exercise #3, third pole was introduced to the system. The additional pole adds
phase lag (delay). With the additional lag, increasing the system gain above some
threshold value caused the system to become unstable.
In this exercise, the inner “velocity loop” introduced in Lab Exercise #4 will be added to
the third-order position control system from Lab Exercise #3. The gain Ka will be set to a
value to intentionally cause system instability. Then, the velocity feedback gain, Kb, will
be designed so as to return the system to marginal stability, and then to an over-damped
condition.
Pre-Lab:
Preliminary
• Derive the closed-loop transfer function, T(s) = VPosition(s)/VIn(s), for the system
shown in Figure 19. The transfer function should be derived with the symbols in
the block diagram (Ka, τ1, Kb, Km, τm, Kt, Kp), and then the values measured in Lab
Exercise #1 should be substituted in. Note that the two gains, Ka and Kb, are still
variables.

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Marginal Stability
Step 1 – Induce System Instability:
• Begin with the value of Ka from Lab Exercise #3 that was found to bring the system
into marginal stability.
• Increase that value of Ka by 10% to assure that the system is unstable.
Ka
Step 2 – Find Kb for Marginal Stability and the Theoretical Oscillation Frequency, ω:
• Using either method from Lab Exercise #3, compute the value of Kb that restores
the system to marginal stability, and also find the theoretical oscillation frequency,
ω in units of rad/sec.
Kb
ω rad/sec
f Hz
Response for Kb = 1
Step 1 – Predict Transient Response for Kb = 1:
• Let Kb = 1 in the closed-loop transfer function, and keep the same value of Ka
(unstable) from the previous part of this exercise.
• Predict the step-response performance (peak time, tp, settling time, ts, and percent
overshoot, Mp) and the steady-state error, ess, to a unit-ramp input (1/s2 – slope is 1
Volt/sec).
Expected for
Kb = 1:
tp seconds
ts seconds
Mp %
ess Volt
Procedure:
page 31)
43)
Step 2 – Set the gains, Ka and Kb, to the values computed in the pre-lab:
page 44)

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• The Op-Amp feedback network is set to the RC network (τ = 0.1 sec).
• Note that the signal generator input is not needed to maintain the marginally stable
(i.e.: un-damped) oscillation, and should be disconnected from the Vin input for this
first part of the lab exercise.
Step 4 – Set the system into Marginal Stability:

• Use the same technique described in Lab Exercise #3 to set the system into a
marginally stable state.
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain a print-out of the un-
damped system oscillation.
• Measure and record the value of Kb that resulted in marginal stability.
• Measure and record the oscillation frequency of the marginally stable system.
Measured: Analyze:
%Error
Kb %
f Hz %
Step 5 – Set Kb to 1:
• Replace the attenuator for Kb with a direct connection form the tachometer output
to the pre-amp input. This sets the value of Kb to 1.

wave (use the predicted settling time, ts, as a guide), amplitude for 50° peak-to-
peak.
waveform.
20.
if necessary.

• Measure and record the step response characteristics and compare these to the
predictions from the pre-lab.
response.

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Measured: Analyze:
%Error
tp seconds %
ts seconds %
Mp % %
Exercise.
Summary:
Collected data supporting the measurements of oscillation frequency and associated
Kb for marginal stability, and step response when Kb = 1
Annotated hardcopies of un-damped system oscillation and step response for Kb = 1
documentation:
Error analysis of the measured vs. expected values of Kb, un-damped oscillation
frequency, and step response for Kb = 1

• .

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Lab Exercise 6 – Phase Lead Compensator Design

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab exercise is to design a phase lead compensator to meet the specified
time-domain performance requirements.
Pre-Amp
Op-Amp Lead-Lag input
Compensator Position
Motor Unit
Gear Conversion Integration Indicator
K c (τ z s + 1) VPosition(s)
0
VIn(s) + VMotor(s) Km 1 1
6 Kp
- (τ p s + 1) τ ms +1 30 s
VPosition(s)
Figure 21 - Position Controller with Lead Compensator - Block Diagram
VTach
+15V GND -15V

Op-Amp
Compensator +15V GND -15V (Given) +15V GND -15V
100 kΩ Zero
Lead-Lag
VTach
ωHS
5
Zero 1
-
100 kΩ
VIn Defined τ
1
VMotor Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
VPosition 6
2 2
100 kΩ 2 4 2
3 Shaft
100 kΩ
ωLS
Units: RPM
Unit Conversion:
6 ⋅ ( revolution
minute
)⋅ ( degree
second
)
Units: Shaft
degree/sec
ω,θ
+15V -15V
1 2
VPosition
Position Indicator
VPosition
Figure 22 – Position Controller with Lead Compensator - Wiring Diagram

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Objectives:
• Design and implement a Phase-Lead compensator to meet specified system time
response specifications
Reference Reading:
o Steady-State Error

Cascade Compensation Networks:
Phase-Lead Design:
Selecting the Parameter Value, and Dynamic Compensation:
Analog and Digital Implementation:
Lead Compensation, Lead-Lag Compensation:
o Chapter 9, pp 524-530, 537-542, 564-566 (case study)
Physical Realization of Compensation:
Lead Compensation:
Equipment List:
• Dual Attenuator
• Oscilloscope
• Printer
• Discrete components to build the Lead compensator network
In Lab Exercises #2, 3, 4, and 5, variable gain parameters, Ka and Kb, were adjusted such
that the closed-loop system met the time-domain performance specifications. In all of

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these systems, the root-loci of the closed-loop systems passed through regions of the s-
plane such that the specifications could be met by merely adjusting gain values.
In this lab exercise, the time-domain performance specifications require closed-loop pole
locations that do not lie on the system’s root locus, and therefore cannot be met by
adjusting gain values alone.
To meet the performance specifications, it will be necessary to design a compensator with a

pole and a zero along with a gain parameter. The additional pole and zero from the
compensator will “bend” the root locus, or “pull” the closed-loop system poles, into a
region of the s-plane that can meet the desired performance specifications. A Phase-Lead
compensator has its zero closer to the origin of the s-plane than its pole, as shown in Figure
23. It has the general transfer function:
(τ s + 1)
Gc ( s ) = K c ⋅ zc
(τ pc s + 1)
s-plane
Im
X O Re
1 1
− pc = − − zc = −
τ pc τ zc
Figure 23 – Phase-Lead Compensator Pole-Zero Plot
A phase-lead compensator may be constructed from discrete resistors and capacitors as

follows (references [2] and [4]):
C
+ R1 +
VIn R2 VOut
- -
Figure 24 - R-C Phase-Lead Network

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The R-C circuit has the following transfer function:
Gc ( s ) =
VOut ( s )
=
R2  R2 
≡   ⋅
(R1C ⋅ s + 1)
VIn ( s ) 
R2 +  R1
1 
  R1 + R2    R1 R2  

 sC    R + R C ⋅ s + 1
 1 2  
  R1 R2 
τ =  C
 1  (ατ ⋅ s + 1)   R1 + R2 
≡  ⋅ Where : 
 α  (τ ⋅ s + 1)   R + R2 
 α =  1 
  R2 
OR

 τ = (R C )
Gc ( s ) ≡ β ⋅
(τ ⋅ s + 1) 
Where : 
1
(βτ ⋅ s + 1)   R2 
β =  
  R1 + R2 
1
In the first formulation, note that α is greater than 1; the zero at is closer to the origin
ατ
1
than the pole at .
τ
1
In the second formulation, note that β is less than 1; the pole at is further from the
βτ
1
origin than the zero at .
τ
Note also that the D.C. gain of the system (transfer function gain with s = 0) is:
1 R2
=β = , the Voltage Divider equation.
α R1 + R2
The values α and β can be thought of as separation ratios, or separation distances, between
the compensator pole and zero. α typically has a value between 3 and 20. One “rule of
thumb” suggests that the pole be at least ten-times further than the zero from the s-plane
origin (p ≥ 10z). Note, however that large values of α also result in increased attenuation
from the voltage divider.

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A phase-lead compensator may also be constructed from an op-amp circuit as follows

(reference [2]):
RF
C
-
R1 R2
+ + +
VIn
VOut
-
-
Figure 25 – Op-Amp Phase-Lead Circuit
The op-amp circuit has the following transfer function:

V ( s)
Gc ( s ) = Out = −
RF  RF 
≡ −  ⋅
(R1C ⋅ s + 1)
VIn ( s ) 
R2 +  R1
1 
  R1 + R2    R1 R2  

 R + R  C ⋅ s + 1
 sC   1 2  
  RF 
 K c =  
  R1 + R2 
≡ −Kc ⋅
(ατ ⋅ s + 1)   R R 
Where : τ =  1 2 C
(τ ⋅ s + 1)   R1 + R2 
  R1 + R2 
 α =  
  R2 
OR
  RF 
 K c =  
(τ ⋅ s + 1)   R1 + R2 
Gc ( s ) ≡ − K c ⋅ Where :  τ = (R1C )
(βτ ⋅ s + 1)   R2 
 β =  
  R1 + R2 
A second inverting op-amp can be added to reverse the sign inversion.

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Pre-Lab:
• Derive the closed-loop transfer function, T(s) = VPosition(s)/VIn(s), for the system
shown in Figure 21. The transfer function should be derived with the symbols in
the block diagram (Kc, τz, τp, Km, τm, Kp), and then the values measured in Lab
Exercise #1 should be substituted in. Note that the compensator parameters, Kc, τz,
and τp, are still variables.
Step 2 – Set Design Objectives:

• Specify step response design objectives to meet the following requirements:
o Percent Overshoot, Mp < 25%
o Step response Settling Time (2%) < 0.8 sec
• For Unit-Ramp input (1/s2 – slope is 1 Volt/sec) the Steady-State Error, ess < 1°
(use Kp to convert from the angular specification to voltage).
Design Objectives:
Mp %
ts seconds
ess Volt
Step 3 – Specify Desired Closed-Loop Dominant Pole Location to meet Design Objectives:
• Use the second-order system design equations to determine the location of the
desired dominant closed-loop system poles.
Desired Dominant Closed-Loop Pole Pair:

s
Step 4 – Design the Compensator Pole, Zero, and Gain values to meet Design Objectives:
• Refer to the references reading material and “Lab Exercise 6 – Appendix – Design
Pole, Zero, and Gain Values for Phase-Lead Compensator” for guidance.
Your design assumptions, calculations, etc. must be included in your lab report.
Discussion:
The overall system will be third-order. The design equations will be applied to the
dominant complex conjugate pole pair. The third pole, p3, must be real. The
resulting closed-loop transfer function denominator will therefore be:
( s + p3 )( s 2 + 2ζω n ⋅ s + ωn ) = s 3 + ( p3 + 2ζω n ) s 2 + (2ζω n p3 + ωn ) s + ( p3 ⋅ ωn )
2 2 2

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Use the second-order system design equations to determine the necessary ζ and ωn
values, and substitute these into the expanded third-order equation above. (The
location of the third pole, p3, is still a variable.)
Compensator Pole, Zero, and Gain:

pc
pz
Kc
• Your completed design should include an evaluation to assure that the theoretical
closed loop step response will meet the Design Objectives. Simulation tools such
as MatLab and MathCad may be used here.
• Predict the peak time, tp, for this design.
Expected Peak-Time and Ramp-input steady-state error:

tp seconds
ess degree Volt
Step 5 – Determine the Component Values to Implement the Compensator:

• Determine the necessary resistor and capacitor values to implement the
compensator circuit.
• Assume capacitor values around 10 µF or 22 µF.
• Your circuit design calculations, etc. must be included in your lab report.
Compensator Component Values:

R1 kΩ
R2 kΩ
C µF
RF kΩ
Procedure:
page 31)
43)

• Build and insert the Compensator circuit with the designed values and place the
Compensator circuit in the appropriate location.

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waveform.
22.
if necessary.

Invert CH2.

response.
values with the design values in the pre-lab:
Measured: Analyze:
%Error
tp seconds %
ts seconds %
Mp % %
Exercise.

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Summary:
Collected data supporting the measurements of tp, ts and Mp
Annotated hardcopy of step response
documentation:
Pre-lab computations INCLUDING compensator design (pole, zero, gain, and
circuit components)
Error analysis of the measured vs. expected values of tp, ts and Mp

• In what ways is Phase-Lead compensation superior to compensation using gain
alone?

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Lab Exercise 6 – Appendix – Design Pole, Zero, and Gain Values

for Phase-Lead Compensator
Purpose:
This section describes some techniques and background information that may be helpful in
solving for the necessary Pole, Zero, and Gain values for a Phase-Lead Compensator to
yield closed-loop system poles at specified locations.
s-plane Im
Desired
Closed-Loop
θp2 θp1
Pole
Location
θpc θzc
X O X X Re
-pc -zc -p2 -p1
Open-Loop Open-Loop Open-Loop

Compensator Compensator System
Pole Zero Poles
Figure 26 - System and Compensator Poles
There are various methods to determine the compensator pole and zero locations; some of
these are discussed in the reference reading material for the lab exercise.
All methods have the following in common:
Angle Criteria
The angle criteria of the closed-loop root locus requires that the sum of the angles of the
open-loop zeros (with respect to the desired closed-loop pole location) minus the sum of
the open-loop poles (with respect to the desired closed-loop pole location) must equal an
integer multiple of 180° (refer to Figure 26):
∏ (s + z )
i
∠G ( s ) = ∠ i
= ∑ ∠( s + zi ) − ∑ ∠( s + p j ) ≡ 180° ± k ⋅ 360°
∏ (s + p )
j
j i j
where ‘s’ is the desired closed-loop pole location.

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For the system with poles and zeros shown in Figure 26, this would be:
θzc – ( θpc + θp2 + θp1 ) = -180°
Magnitude Criteria
The magnitude criteria of the closed-loop root locus requires that the product of the pole
magnitudes (distances from the open-loop poles to the desired closed-loop pole location)
divided by the product of the zero magnitudes (distances from the open-loop zeros to the
desired closed-loop pole location) is equal to the open-loop gain, K.
For a closed-loop system with the transfer function denominator:

∏i (s + zi )
1 + K ⋅ G ( s) = 1 + K ⋅
j
∏ (s + p j )
The Magnitude Criteria requires that:
∏j s + p j
K= , where ‘s’ is the desired closed-loop pole location.
∏ s + zi
i
Note that the magnitude criteria will give the OVERALL system gain, K, that is
necessary to place the closed-loop pole at the desired location. Therefore, to find the
compensator gain, Kc, the overall system gain must be divided by the open-loop D.C. gain
of the original uncompensated system.
Common methods for finding compensator poles and zeros:
Arbitrary placement of Compensator Zero

Step 1 – Place the Compensator Zero
• The placement of the compensator zero is arbitrary. Placing the zero below or to
the left of the desired closed-loop pole location may help to assure that the desired
closed-loop pole (and it’s complex conjugate) are the dominant system poles.
• Some of the reference reading material discusses various strategies for placing the
zero.
Step 2 – Solve for the Compensator Pole

• Use the root-locus angle criteria to determine the required angle of the compensator
pole, θpc (refer to Figure 26).
• Use trigonometric identities to solve for the placement of the pole to meet the angle
criteria.
Step 3 – Solve for the Compensator Gain

• Use the root-locus magnitude criteria with the system and compensator zeros and
poles to solve for the compensator gain, Kc.

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Simultaneous Solution of Compensator Pole and Zero

There are various simultaneous solutions that can be considered. One is to use the root
locus angle criteria to determine the overall phase that the compensator must add:
• Use the root-locus angle criteria to determine the overall angle required for the
compensator, θc (refer to Figure 26):
θc – ( θp2 + θp1 ) = -180° , where θc = ( θzc - θpc )
• The location of the compensator pole and zero are found using geometric and
trigonometric identities to satisfy the angle criteria.
The following techniques may be useful:
Technique: Measuring Pole and Zero Angles

The angles from open-loop poles and zeros to the desired closed-loop pole location can be
“measured” using basic trigonometric identities.
Figure 27 - Measuring the Angles of Poles and Zeros
The general relationship for the angles of open-loop poles or zeros and the desired closed-
loop pole location is:
y Im{s} − Im{ p}
tan(θ p ) = =
x Re{s} − Re{ p}

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The angles of poles and zeros to the left of the desired closed-loop pole location can be
“measured” using the identity:
 Im{s} − Im{ p} 
θ = tan −1  

 Re{s} − Re{ p} 
For the pole p2 in Figure 27, the angle is found by:

 ω 
θ p 2 = tan −1  
 p2 − σ 
The angles for poles and zeros to the right of the desired closed-loop pole location can be
“measured” using the identity:
 Im{s} − Im{ p} 
φ = tan −1  , and θ = 180° − φ

 Re{s} − Re{ p} 
For the pole p1 in Figure 27, the angle is found by:

 ω 
θ p1 = 180° − φ p1 = 180° − tan −1  
 σ − p1 
Technique: Placing the Pole with the Given Angle

The placement of the open-loop pole with respect to the desired closed-loop pole location
given the angle can be found using basic trigonometric identities.
For the pole p2 in Figure 27, the placement of the pole given the angle is found by:
y Im{s} − Im{ p}
tan(θ p ) = =
x Re{s} − Re{ p}
ω
⇒ tan(θ p 2 ) =
p2 − σ
ω
⇒ p2 = +σ
tan(θ p 2 )
Technique: Measuring OVERALL System Gain

The necessary OVERALL system gain necessary to place the closed-loop pole at the
desired location can be “measured” using the root locus magnitude criteria and basic
trigonometric identities.
From the root locus magnitude criteria:

∏j s + p j
K= , where ‘s’ is the desired closed-loop pole location.
∏ s + zi
i

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The magnitude (distance from the open-loop pole or zero to the desired closed-loop pole)
can be considered as the hypotenuse of a right triangle:
∏j
(Re{s} − Re{ p j }) 2 + (Im{s} − Im{ p j }) 2
K=
∏ i
(Re{s} − Re{zi }) 2 + (Im{s} − Im{zi }) 2
where ‘s’ is the desired closed-loop pole location.
For the system with poles and zeros shown in Figure 26, and the desired close-loop pole
location is s= -σ + jω, this would be:
(σ − p1 ) 2 + (ω ) 2 ⋅ (σ − p2 ) 2 + (ω ) 2 ⋅ (σ − pc ) 2 + (ω ) 2
K=
(σ − zc ) 2 + (ω ) 2
Note that OVERALL system gain, K, must be divided by the open-loop D.C. gain
of the original uncompensated system to find the necessary compensator gain, Kc.

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Lab Exercise 7 – Control System Frequency Response

Analysis
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab exercise is to analyze the frequency response of the subject
systems, and to collect and plot frequency-domain information of the systems.
The fist part of the exercise evaluates the position control system from Lab Exercise #2
(Figure 9 and Figure 10, page 36), and uses the value of Ka computed to achieve a 25%
overshoot to a step input. This closed-loop second-order system is then explored by
comparing sinusoidal input and output signals and constructing the system Bode plot.
The second part of the exercise, evaluates the marginally stable OPEN-LOOP third-
order system (Figure 28 and Figure 29, page 82) (system from Lab Exercise #3 without
the feedback), and uses the value of Ka measured in Lab Exercise #3 to achieve a
marginally stable system. This open-loop third-order system is then explored by
comparing sinusoidal input and output signals and constructing the system Nyquist (polar)
plot.
Objectives:
• Perform sinusoidal steady-state analysis of a system
• Sketch a Bode Plot from laboratory data of sinusoidal system input and output
signals.
• Sketch a Nyquist Plot from laboratory data of sinusoidal system input and output
signals.
Reference Reading:
Bode Analysis:
Nyquist Analysis:
Frequency Response and Bode:
The Nyquist Criterion:
Frequency Response and Bode Plot Techniques:
The Nyquist Stability Criterion:

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Frequency Response Techniques and Bode Plots:
Introduction to the Nyquist Criterion:
Frequency-Response Analysis and Bode Diagrams:
Polar Plots, Nyquist Plots, and Nyquist Stability Criterion:
Additional Reference:
GraphTablet – “Gives you a never ending supply of simple graph paper from your
home printer.” This utility allows you to generate custom semi-log grids for Bode
plots and polar grids for Nyquist plots.
http://www.graphtablet.com/

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Figure 28 – Open-Loop Third-Order System Block Diagram for Nyquist Analysis
+15V GND -15V
Op-Amp VTach
1 µF
Zero
Dual Attenuator
100 kΩ
Ka
VTach
ωHS
5
6 3
Zero 1
-
2
100 kΩ Defined τ
VMotor Shaft
+
1 3 1 RPM/DC Volts
3 2
100 kΩ
2 4 2 2
1
Shaft
ωLS
Units: RPM
Unit Conversion:
6 ⋅ ( revolution
minute
)⋅ ( degree
second
)
Units: Shaft
degree/sec
ω,θ
+15V -15V
1 2
VPosition
Position Indicator
Figure 29 – Open-Loop Third-Order System Wiring Diagram for Nyquist Analysis
Equipment List:
• Dual Attenuator
• Oscilloscope
• Printer

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The previous lab exercises have evaluated systems by means of their “transient” (step)
responses. In theory, one could analyze the step response of a system to determine the
location of the dominant system poles. This method has two fundamental shortcomings:
• Only dominant system poles are identified. “Faster” poles far into the Left-Half
Plane may not be observed.
• The step input has “vertical” discontinuity that would require an infinite amount of
energy to realize in a real system. (The square-wave inputs in the previous lab
exercises have only been approximations of step inputs.)
Sinusoidal Steady-State system analysis techniques that compare the input and output gain
and phase differences have the advantage of being realizable in physical systems. A “black
box” system can be identified by applying a series of sinusoidal inputs at different
frequencies, and measuring the resulting change in magnitude and phase of the output
signal. In fact, there is equipment available that automates this type of system
identification.
Bode analysis plots both gain magnitude (ratio of output to input amplitude) and phase
(difference between output and input phase angles) on two separate, parallel plots with
respect to frequency, using a logarithmic scale for angular frequency, ω. Nyquist analysis
plots gain magnitude and phase on a single polar plot on the complex s-plane independent
of frequency.
Pre-Lab:
Closed-Loop Bode Analysis

Step 1 – Derive Closed-Loop Transfer Function, Gain, and Angle Formulas:
• Re-state the closed-loop transfer function, T(s) = VP(s)/VIn(s), for the second order
position control system from Lab Exercise #2, as depicted in Figure 9 (page 36).
Use the value of gain, Ka, computed in Lab Exercise #2 for a 25% overshoot to a
step input.
Ka
• Re-write the s-domain closed-loop transfer function as a frequency-domain function

by making the substitution s = jω; T(s) becomes T(jω).
• Derive the equations for the magnitude and phase angle of the closed-loop transfer
function T(jω) as:
Num( jω ) (Re{Num( jω )}) 2 + (Im{Num( jω )}) 2
Magnitude, M = T ( jω ) = =
Den( jω ) (Re{Den( jω )}) 2 + (Im{Den( jω )}) 2

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Phase Angle (degrees), Θ = ∠T ( jω ) = ∠( Num( jω ) ) - ∠(Den( jω ) )

 Im{Num( jω )}   Im{Den( jω} 
= tan −1   - tan −1   degrees
 Re{Num( jω ) t }   Re{Den( jω} 
Step 2 – Compute the Natural Frequency, Resonant Frequency, Resonant Peak Magnitude,
and Phase Angle of the Closed-Loop Under-damped Second Order System:
• Compute the natural frequency, ωn, (the “break frequency”) from the closed-loop
transfer function. This may be found from either T(s) or T(jω).
• Use differential equation techniques to determine the resonant frequency, ωr; the
value of ω that maximizes the magnitude, M = |T(jω)|.
Note that this is NOT the observed (damped) oscillation frequency in the time-
domain step response, ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 ; rather it is ωr = ωn 1 − 2 ⋅ ζ 2 - use this
formula as a “sanity check” for your derivation.
Your derivation for ωr must be included in your lab report.
• Substitute ωr into the magnitude and phase angle equations to compute the expected
resonant peak magnitude at ωr, Mr = |T(jωr)|, and the associated phase angle, θr.
ωn 1
For the system , the resonant peak magnitude is .
s + 2ζω n ⋅ s + ω n
2 2
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
The value of magnitude should then be converted to decibels (dB).
Expected Natural Frequency, Resonant Frequency, Resonant Peak Magnitude, and

Phase Angle:
ωn rad/sec Hz
ωr rad/sec Hz
Mr (raw
value) dB
θr degrees
Open-Loop Nyquist Analysis

Step 1 – Derive Open-Loop Transfer Function, Gain, and Angle Formulas:
• Re-examine the third-order system from Lab Exercise #3, as depicted in Figure 15
(page 49).
• Derive the OPEN-LOOP transfer function (the “forward path”), for the system
depicted in Figure 28 (page 82); G(s) = VP(s)/VIn(s).
Use the value of gain, Ka, measured in Lab Exercise #3 to achieve marginal system
stability.
Ka

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• Re-write the s-domain open-loop transfer function as a frequency-domain function

by making the substitution s = jω; G(s) becomes G(jω).
• Derive the equations for the magnitude and phase angle of the open-loop transfer
function G(jω) as:
Num( jω ) (Re{Num( jω )}) 2 + (Im{Num( jω )}) 2
Magnitude, M = G ( jω ) = =
Den( jω ) (Re{Den( jω )}) 2 + (Im{Den( jω )}) 2
Phase Angle (degrees), Θ = ∠G ( jω ) = ∠( Num( jω ) ) - ∠(Den( jω ) )

 Im{Num( jω )}   Im{Den( jω} 
= tan −1   - tan −1   degrees
 Re{ Num ( j ω ) }
t   Re{ Den ( j ω } 
Step 2 – Compute the Frequency, Magnitude, and Phase Angle at the Edge of System
Stability:
Discussion:
Marginal stability (i.e.: the “edge of system stability”) occurs when the system gain
(magnitude) is 1 and the phase angle is ±180°. The Nyquist plot often resembles a
spiral on the s-plane. The point of marginal stability occurs when the Nyquist plot
intersects the point s = -1 (magnitude of 1, angle of ±180°) on the s-plane. As -1 is
a real value, this intersection must occur when the imaginary part of G(jω) is equal
to zero.
• Compute the frequency at which the system is marginally stable (the imaginary part
of G(jω) is equal to zero), ω0.
• Substitute ω0 into the magnitude and phase angle equations to compute the
expected magnitude at ω0, M0 = |T(jω0)|, and the associated phase angle, θ0.
Expected Frequency for Marginal Stability, and associated Magnitude and Phase
Angle:
ω0 rad/sec Hz
M0 (raw
value) dB
θ0 degrees
Step 3 – Derive the Adjustment Function, Tpt(s), for Conversion of Vt(s) to Vp(s):
Discussion:
As this (open-loop) system is not controlling the closed-loop position, the motor
position may rotate more than 360°. If the position indicator output, Vp, is being
monitored, the potentiometer wiper may pass through the sensor “dead zone”
during which the position indicator output transitions from +15V to -15V; this will
complicate the recording of Vp data. It may therefore be necessary to “reconstruct”
the Vp signal by reading the tachometer output, Vt, and working through block-
diagram algebra to convert Vt to Vp.

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• From the block diagram shown in Figure 28, derive the adjustment function, Tpt(s),
necessary to convert the signal Vt(s) to Vp(s). The system with “reconstructed” Vp
output is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30 - Open-Loop Third Order System showing Adjustment Function
Procedure:
page 31)
43)
Closed-Loop Bode Analysis

Step 1 – Set the gain, Ka, to the value computed in Lab Exercise #2 for a 25% overshoot:
page 44)
Step 2 – Connect the system components as shown in Figure 10 (Lab Exercise #2, page
36):

• Set the function generator for Sine-wave output.
• The frequency will be varied over a range of at least 0.1⋅ωn to 10⋅ωn. The lowest
frequency should be about 0.4 Hz or lower; the highest frequency should be about 2
Hz or higher.
if necessary.
Step 4 – Measure and Record Vin and Vout:

• Use either the “Procedure: Measure Sine-Waveform Phase Delay Angle” (page 32),
or “Lab Exercise 7 – Appendix – The Lissajous Curve” (page 91).
Note that it may be easier to use one technique over the other at different frequency
ranges; it is very difficult to read the Lissajous curve for small phase differences.

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• Vary the frequency by 0.02-1 Hz between recorded samples; smaller increments if

the output is changing significantly, and larger increments if the output is not
changing significantly.
• Take enough samples to identify the basic shape of the Bode plot.
The expected shape of the Bode plot for a second-order system with 25% overshoot
can be found in the reference reading material.
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain several representative
print-outs of the traces. Indicate the key information on the hard copy/print-out. It
is NOT necessary to obtain a print-out of each sample point.
• The resonant peak magnitude may not occur precisely at the computed value of ωr.
Therefore, review the Vout magnitude data recorded and identify the range of
frequencies in which the peak magnitude occurs. Then, vary the frequency in this
range to find and record the data at the resonant peak magnitude.
Compare the resonant peak magnitude data with the expected values.
• Generate the Bode Plot from the sampled data. Plot the Gain and Phase with
respect to angular frequency, ω; use a logarithmic scale for ω.
Input: Set: Measure: Compute:
ω (rad/sec) f (Hz) Vin (Vpp) Vout (Vpp) Q (Vpp) or Gain (dB) Phase
(degree)
t1 & t2 (sec)
rad/sec Hz Vpp Vpp dB degree

Peak Output:
Table 4 - Closed-Loop System Frequency Response

%Error
ωr rad/sec rad/sec %
Mr dB dB %
θr degrees degrees %

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Open-Loop Nyquist Analysis

Step 1 – Double-Check the Pre-Amp and Op-Amp Balanced/Zeroed Output:
page 31)
43)
Step 2 – Set the gain, Ka, to the value measured in Lab Exercise #3 to achieve marginal
system stability:
page 44)
Step 3 – Connect the system components as shown in Figure 29 (page 82):

• The Op-Amp feedback network is set to the RC network (τ = 0.1 sec).
• Note that there is NO FEEDBACK from the output of the position indicator to the
Op-Amp input.

• Set the function generator for Sine-wave output.
• The frequency will be varied over a range of at least 0.1⋅ω0 to 10⋅ω0.
if necessary.
Step 5 – Measure and Record Vin and Vout:

• Use either the “Procedure: Measure Sine-Waveform Phase Delay Angle” (page 32),
or “Lab Exercise 7 – Appendix – The Lissajous Curve” (page 91).
Note that it may be easier to use one technique over the other at different frequency
ranges; it is very difficult to read the Lissajous curve for small phase differences.
• Vary the frequency by 0.02-1 Hz between recorded samples; smaller increments if
the output is changing significantly, and larger increments if the output is not
changing significantly.
• If “reconstructing” the Vp output from the Vt data, be very cautious to record
the correct magnitude and phase angle between Vin(s), Vt(s), and Vp(s).
• Take enough samples to identify the basic shape of the Nyquist plot.
The expected shape of the Nyquist plot for an open-loop third-order system can be
found in the reference reading material.
• Use the Hard Copy feature on the oscilloscope to obtain several representative
print-outs of the traces. Indicate the key information on the hard copy/print-out. It
is NOT necessary to obtain a print-out of each sample point.

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• The point of marginal stability may not occur precisely at the computed value of ω0.
Therefore, review the overall system magnitude and phase data recorded and
identify the range of frequencies where the gain is ~1 and the phase is ~ -180°.
Then, vary the frequency in this range to find and record the data at the point of
marginal stability.
Compare the marginal stability data with the expected values.
• Generate the Nyquist Plot. Plot the Gain and Phase on the s-plane as a polar plot.
Input: Set: Measure: Compute: “Reconstructed”
ω (rad/sec) f (Hz) Vin (Vpp) Vout (Vpp)

Vt
Q (Vpp) or Gain (dB) Phase (degree)
t1 & t2 (sec)
Vp

Marginal
Stability: rad/sec Hz Vpp Vpp dB degree
Table 5 - Open-Loop System Frequency Response

%Error
ω0 rad/sec rad/sec %
M0 dB dB %
θ0 degrees degrees %

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Summary:
Collected data supporting the measurements of ωr, Mr and θr for the Closed-Loop
Bode analysis, and ω0, M0 and θ0 for the Open-Loop Nyquist analysis.
Representative oscilloscope traces (annotated) from both Bode and Nyquist
sections; label the traces with appropriate names and sample information.
documentation:
Derivation of transfer functions
Pre-lab computations including all expected values, derivation of frequency for
peak magnitude, derivation of frequency for marginal stability
Error analysis of the measured vs. expected values of ωr, Mr, θr, ω0, M0, and θ0

• .

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Lab Exercise 7 – Appendix – The Lissajous Curve
Purpose:
The Lissajous curve plots two functions against each other without an explicit time axis;
time occurs implicitly. The Lissajous curve is essentially a mapping from the input
waveform to the output waveform. This is a type of transfer function. Consider Figure 31.
The Lissajous curve is generated by using the X-Y display mode on the oscilloscope time
base selection. The horizontal extent of the Lissajous Curve is the Vin(t) peak-to-peak
value; the vertical extent of the curve is the Vout(t) peak-to-peak value. Centering the curve
in the oscilloscope screen, the height Q can be found.
This technique may be used to determine the gain and phase angle relationship between the
input and output waveforms as an alternative method to comparing the two sinusoidal
waveforms directly. Furthermore, measuring the phase delay (phase shift) by comparing
two sinusoidal waveforms may be difficult when the time delay is very small compared to
the period of the waveform. This technique may be used to facilitate the measurements in
that case.
Figure 31 - Lissajous Curve Analysis

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References:
Lissajous Figures
http://surendranath.tripod.com/Lissajous/Lissajous.html
ExploreLearning – Lissajous Figures “Gizmo”

http://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?method=cResource.dspDetail&ResourceID=31
Procedure:
• Set the display mode to X-Y.
• Ground both Channel 1 (CH1) and Channel 2 (CH2) inputs.
• Center the dot vertically with the CH1 offset adjustment, and center it horizontally
with the time base adjustment.
• Connect the input signal, Vin(t), to CH1 and the output signal, Vout(t), to CH2.
Step 2 – Measure Vin(t), Vout(t), and Q (all are in units of peak-to-peak voltage, Vpp)
Step 3 – Compute Gain and Phase Angle:

• Gain is calculated as:
 Vout − pp 
Gain = 20 ⋅ log10   dB
V 
 in − pp 
• Phase Angle is calculated as:

 Q pp 
Phase Angle = Θ = sin −1   degrees
V 
 out − pp 
The sign of the Phase Angle is negative if the output waveform Lags the input waveform
(Lissajous curve “leans” toward the first quadrant of the s-plane), and is positive if the
output waveform Leads the input waveform (Lissajous curve “leans” toward the fourth
quadrant of the s-plane)
Example:
The Lissajous curve in Figure 31 shows input and output waveforms, Vin(t) and Vout(t):
Vin (t ) = sin(2π ⋅ t ) V pp
Vout (t ) = 34 ⋅ sin(2π ⋅ t + π6 ) V pp
The values measured are:

• Vin(t) = 2 Vpp
• Vout(t) = 1.5 Vpp
• Q = 0.75 Vpp

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The computed values are:

 1.5 V pp 
Gain = 20 ⋅ log10   dB = − 2.5 dB
 2V 
 pp 
 0.75 V pp 
Phase Angle = sin −1   degrees = 30° = π radians
 1 .5 V  6
 pp 
Note that Figure 31 shows an example of on output waveform that Leads the input
waveform, and therefore the Phase Angle is positive.

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Appendix – TDS3012 Oscilloscope Specifications

This section written by Dr. Joseph R. Asik
Basic Description
Bandwidth 100 MHz; Sample rate 1.25 GS/s; 2 Channels
Cursor Menu
Controls Buttons
Soft keys Inputs Ext

Hardcopy On/Off Trigger
This section contains a basic description of the features and operation of the
Tektronix 3012 Oscilloscope shown above. Additional details can be found in the
Detailed Description.

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Using the Menu System - Front-Panel Menus and Controls
The front panel has buttons and controls for the functions you use most often. The front
panel has menus to access more specialized functions To use the menu system, follow the
steps shown below.
1. Push a dark-colored front-panel menu button to display the menu you want to use.
2. Push a bottom screen button to select a menu item. If a pop-up menu appears, continue
to push the screen button to select an item from the pop-up menu.

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3. Push a side screen button to choose a menu item. If the menu item contains more than
one choice, push the side screen button again to make the choice.
4. Certain menu choices require you to set a numerical value to complete the setup. Use the
general-purpose knob to adjust the parameter value. Push the COARSE button to make
larger adjustments.
Using the Menu Buttons
You can use the menu buttons to perform the following oscilloscope functions.
1. MEASURE. Performs automated measurements of waveforms.
2. CURSOR. Activates the cursors.
3. SAVE/RECALL. Saves and recalls setups and waveforms to memory or a floppy disk.

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Saving to disk allows the student to transfer data electronically to his/her report.
4. DISPLAY Changes the appearance of waveforms and the display screen.
5. QUICKMENU. Activates QuickMenus such as the built-in Scope QuickMenu.
6. UTILITY Activates various system utility functions, such as selecting a language.

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7. Vertical MENU. Adjusts the scale, position, and offset of waveforms. Sets the input
parameters.
8. Trigger MENU. Adjusts the trigger functions.
9. Acquire MENU. Sets the acquisition modes and horizontal resolution, and resets the
delay time.
Using the Dedicated Controls
These dedicated buttons and controls generally control waveforms and cursors without the
use of menus.
1. COARSE. Causes the general-purpose knob and position knobs to make adjustments
more quickly.
2. SELECT. Toggles between the two cursors to select the active cursor.

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3. General purpose knob. Moves the cursors. Sets numerical parameter values for some
menu items. Push COARSE to make adjustments quickly.
4. Vertical POSITION. Adjusts the vertical position of the selected waveform. Push
COARSE to make adjustments more quickly.
5. Horizontal POSITION. Adjusts the trigger point location relative to the acquired
waveforms. Push COARSE to make adjustments quickly.
6. Trigger LEVEL. Adjusts the trigger level.
7. RUN/STOP Stops and restarts acquisition.
8. SINGLE SEQ. Sets acquisition, display, and trigger parameters for a single-shot (single
sequence) acquisition.
9. SET TO 50%. Sets the trigger level to the midpoint of the waveform.
10. AUTOSET. Automatically sets the vertical, horizontal, and trigger controls for a usable
display.
11. FORCE TRIG. Forces an immediate trigger event.
12. WAVEFORM INTENSITY Controls waveform intensity.
13. B TRIG. Activates the B Digger. Changes the trigger menu to set the B-trigger
parameters.
14. DELAY Enables delayed acquisition relative to the trigger event. Use horizontal
POSITION to set the amount of delay.
15. Horizontal SCALE. Adjusts the horizontal scale factor.
16. Horizontal zoom. Splits the screen and magnifies the current acquisition horizontally.

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17. Waveform OFF. Removes selected waveform from the display.
18. Vertical SCALE. Adjusts selected waveform vertical scale factor.
19. CH1, CH2 MATH. Displays a waveform and chooses the selected waveform. REF
shows the reference waveform menu.
20. Hard copy. Initiates a hard copy from the dot matrix printer using the port selected in
the Utility menu.
21. Power switch. Turns power to on or standby. Power-up time varies from about 15
seconds to 45 seconds, depending on the oscilloscope internal calibration process.
22. Wrist-strap ground. Connect a wrist strap when working with ESD-sensitive circuits.
This connector is not a safety ground.
23. MENU OFF Clears menu from the display.
Hard Copy
After you connect a printer and set up the oscilloscope, push the hard-copy button at the
left of the display to make a hard copy. You can also store hard-copy images on a floppy
disk (in normal or compressed format) and then transfer them later to a PC for printing or
use in a report.
Connecting a Printer
Connect your printer to the parallel printer port on the rear panel of the oscilloscope.
Setting Up to Print

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Follow these steps to set up the oscilloscope to print a hard copy:
1. Push the UTILITY menu button.
2. Push the System screen button to select Hard Copy.
3. Push the Format screen button and then choose the printer format appropriate for your
application.
4. Push the Options screen button to select the image orientation (portrait or landscape)
as well as turn on or off hard copy file compression.
5. Push the Ink Saver screen button and select On for most applications. If you want the
hard copy colors to be the same as the screen colors, you can select Off.
6. Push the Port screen button and select the port that your printer is connected to or select
File to save the hard copy on a floppy disk.
7. Push the hard copy button. ¬
Hard Copy File Compression. When compression is set to on, the oscilloscope
compresses the hard copy data, using the current printer format, into a gnuzip file format,
with the extension .gz. Compressing hard copy files lets you store more screen captures on
a floppy disk. Centronics output is never compressed. .gz files can be decompressed using
PKZIP or WinZip programs.
Color and Gray-Scale Printing. You can print a color hard copy that uses the display
colors. Gray-scale waveform information is printed as shades of color. If you have a
Deskjet or Laserjet monochrome printer, gray-scale waveform information is printed as a
dithered image.
Ink Saver and Preview. As an alternative to printing the display colors, turn on the Ink
Saver function to print a hard copy with a white background. This function saves printer
ink while it preserves the color coding of the waveforms and readouts. Ink saver also
works with the monochrome print formats.
Push and hold the Preview screen button to show how the colors will appear on the paper.
Clear Spool. You can push the Clear Spool screen button to empty the print spooler to
stop a hard copy operation in progress, if the hard copy port connection is not made due to
incompatible settings (such as baud rate), or if you lose the hard copy port connection
before the hard copy is complete.

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Tektronix 3012 Oscilloscope – Detailed Description
Identifying Items in the Display
The following items may appear in the display; not all items are visible at any given time.
Some readouts move outside the graticule area when menus are turned off.
1. Waveform baseline icons show the zero-volt level of the waveforms (ignoring the effect
of offset). The icon colors correspond to the waveform colors.
2. Acquisition readout shows when acquisition is running, stopped, or when acquisition

preview is in effect.
3. Trigger position icon shows the trigger location in the waveforms.
4. Expansion point icon shows the point that the horizontal scale expands and compresses
around.
5. Waveform record icon shows the trigger location relative to the waveform record. The
line color corresponds to the selected waveform color.
6. Trigger status readout show trigger status.

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7. Trigger level icon shows the trigger level on the waveform. The icon color corresponds
to the trigger source channel color.
8. Cursor and measurement readouts show results and messages.
9. Trigger readouts show the trigger sources, slopes, and levels, and position.
10. Readout shows the delay setting or the trigger location within the record.
11. Horizontal readout shows the main or zoom time/division.
12. Auxiliary waveform readouts show the vertical and horizontal scale factors of the math
or reference waveforms.
13. Channel readouts show the channel scale factor, coupling, input resistance, bandwidth
limit, and invert status.
14. Triangle icon with the battery icon indicates a battery is installed and battery power is
in use. The battery icon shows the approximate charge level of the battery.
15. Power-plug icon with the battery icon indicates a battery is installed but line power is in
use. The battery may be charging. The battery icon shows the approximate charge level.
Using QuickMenus
The QuickMenu feature simplifies the use of the oscilloscope. When you push the
QUICKMENU button, a set of frequently used menu functions show on the display. Then,
push the screen buttons around the display to operate the QuickMenu.

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Using the Scope QuickMenu. Scope is one type of QuickMenu that you can use to control
the basic oscilloscope functions. You can perform many tasks without using the regular
menu system. If you need to use a function that is not contained in the Scope QuickMenu,
push the button you would normally push to access that function. For example, if you want
to add an automatic measurement, push the MEASURE button to set up the measurement.
Then, push the QUICKMENU button to return to the Scope QuickMenu with the
measurement also in the display.
1. Edge Trigger controls. Push these screen buttons to set trigger parameters for edge
trigger.
2. Trigger controls if either B trigger or video trigger is selected.
3. Cursor control. Push this screen button to turn on cursors and select the cursor type. Push
the SELECT button to toggle between the two cursors to select the active cursor. Use the
general-purpose knob to move the active cursor.
4. Acquisition controls. Push these screen buttons to set acquisition parameters.
5. Channel vertical controls. Push these screen buttons to set vertical controls for the
selected channel. Use the CH 1, CH2, CH3, CH4, MATH, and REF buttons to select the
channel you want to control.

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6. Vertical controls if either the math waveform or a reference waveform is selected.
7. Menu. Push this screen button to select a specific QuickMenu display if more than one is
available.
NOTE. Items in the Scope QuickMenu not mentioned above are also contained in the
regular display.
Other QuickMenus. Some optional application packages include a custom QuickMenu

display. Those QuickMenus contain specific features that are important for the application.
Front-Panel Connectors
1. PROBE COMP Square wave signal source to compensated probes.
2. CH 1 & CH 2. Channel inputs with TekProbe interface.
3. EXT TRIG. External trigger input with TekProbe interface (two-channel models only).

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Rear-Panel Connectors
1. Parallel printer port. Connect to a printer to make hard copies.
2. CAL switch. For use by authorized service personnel only.
3. DC power output. Provides -15 V DC accessory power only when the oscilloscope is
connected to the AC power line.
4. Ground terminal. Connect to earth ground when using battery power.
5. Power input. Attach to an AC power line with integral safety ground.
6. GPIB port. Connect to a controller for remote programmability.
7. RS-232 port. Connect to a controller or terminal for remote programmability or printing.
8. VGA port. Connect to a VGA monitor to display the screen image.
9. l0baseT local area network (LAN) Ethernet port. Connect to a 10baseT network for
remote printing or programming.
Application Examples
This section presents two common oscilloscope applications:
• 1. Taking simple measurements
• 2. Analyzing signal detail

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Each application example highlights different features of the oscilloscope and gives you
ideas about using the oscilloscope to solve test problems.
Taking Simple Measurements
You need to see a signal in a circuit, but you do not know the signal amplitude or
frequency. Connect the oscilloscope to quickly display the signal and then measure its
frequency and peak-to-peak amplitude.
Using Autoset
To quickly display a signal, do these steps:
1. Connect the channel 1 probe to the signal.
2. Push the AUTOSET button.
The oscilloscope sets vertical, horizontal, and trigger controls automatically. You can
manually adjust any of these controls if you need to optimize the display of the waveform.
When you are using more than one channel, the autoset function sets the vertical controls
for each channel and uses the lowest-numbered active channel to set the horizontal and
trigger controls.
Selecting Automatic Measurements
The oscilloscope can take automatic measurements of most displayed signals. To measure
signal frequency and peak-to-peak amplitude, do these steps:
1. Push the MEASURE button to see the measurement menu.

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2. Push the CH 1 button and then push the Select Measurement for Chl screen button.
3. Select the Frequency measurement.
4. Push the more screen button until you can select the Pk-Pk measurement.
5. Push the MENU OFF button.
The measurements show on the screen and update as the signal changes.
Measuring Two Signals
You are testing a piece of equipment and need to measure the gain of its audio amplifier.
You have an audio generator that can inject a test signal at the amplifier input. Connect two
oscilloscope channels to the amplifier input and output as shown. Measure both signal
levels and use these measurements to calculate the gain.

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To display the signals connected to channels 1 and 2, do these steps:
1. Push the CH 1 and CH 2 buttons to activate both channels.
2. Push the AUTOSET button.
To select measurements for the two channels, do these steps:
3. Select the Amplitude measurement.
4. Push the CH 2 button and then push the Select Measurement for Ch2 screen button.
5. Select the Amplitude measurement.
6. Calculate the amplifier gain using the following equations:
output amplitude 3.155 V

Gain = --------------------------- = ------------------- = 24.27
Input amplitude 130.0 mV
Gain (dB) = 20 x log(24.27) = 27.7 dB

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Customizing Your Measurements
In this example you want to verify that the incoming signal to a piece of digital equipment
meets its specifications. Specifically, the transition time from a low logic level (0.8 V) to a
high logic level (2.0 V) must be 10 ns or less.
To select the rise time measurement, do these steps:
2. Push the CH 1 button and then the Select Measurement for Chl screen button.
3. Select the Rise Time measurement. Rise time is typically measured between the 10%
and 90% amplitude levels of a signal; these are the default reference levels the oscilloscope
uses for rise time measurements. However, in this example you need to measure the time
the signal takes to pass between the 0.8 V and 2.0 V levels.
You can customize the rise time measurement to measure the signal transition time
between any two reference levels. You can set each of those reference levels to a specific
percent of the signal amplitude or to a specific level in vertical units (such as volts or
amperes).
Setting Reference Levels. To set the reference levels to specific voltages, do these steps:
1. Push the Reference Levels screen button.
2. Push the Set Levels in screen button to select units.
3. Push the High Ref screen button.
4. Use the general-purpose knob to select 2.0 V.
5. Push the Low Ref screen button.
6. Use the general-purpose knob to select 800 mV
The measurement verifies that the transition time (3.842 ns) meets the specification ( 10
ns).

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Measuring Specific Events
Next you want to see the pulses in the incoming digital signal, but the pulse widths vary so
it is hard to establish a stable trigger. To look at a snapshot of the digital signal, do this
step:
1. Push the SINGLE SEQ button to capture a single acquisition.
Now you want to measure the width of each displayed pulse. You can use measurement
gating to select a specific pulse to measure. To measure the second pulse, for example, do
these steps:
1. Push the MEASURE button.
3. Select the Positive Width measurement.
4. Push the Gating screen button.
5. Select Gate With V Bar Cursors to choose measurement gating using cursors.
6. Place one cursor to the left and one cursor to the right of the second pulse.
The oscilloscope shows the width measurement (160 ns) for the second pulse.

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Taking Cursor Measurements
You can use the cursors to take quick measurements on a waveform. To measure the ring
frequency at the rising edge of the signal, do these steps: i
1. Push the CURSOR button.
2. Push the Function screen button.
3. Select V Bars cursors.
4. Push the V Bar Units screen button.
5. Select 1/seconds (Hz).
6. Place one cursor on the first peak of the ring using the general-purpose knob.
7. Push the SELECT button.
8. Place the other cursor on the next peak of the ring.

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The cursor ∆ readout shows the measured ring frequency is 227 kHz.
Acquisition Features
Separate Digitizers. Ensure accurate timing measurements with separate digitizers for
each channel. Each digitizer can sample at up to the maximum sample rate; acquisition on
all channels is always concurrent to provide full single-shot bandwidth on each channel.
Normal Acquisition. Acquire 10,000-point waveforms to capture horizontal detail and

then use the zoom @function to analyze the detail.
Fast Trigger Acquisition. Acquire up to 3,000 waveforms per second to see rapidly
changing signals or intermittent signal irregularities.
Pretrigger. You can capture signals that occur before the trigger point. You can position
the trigger point at the beginning of the acquisition, at the end, or at any location in
between.
Delay. You can also delay the acquisition so that it starts after the trigger point. Use delay
when you want to acquire the signal at a specific time after the trigger point.
Peak Detect. See pulses as narrow as 1 ns even at the slower time base settings. Peak
Detect helps you see noise and glitches in your signal.

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Signal Processing Features
Average. Apply averaging to your signal to remove uncorrelated noise and improve
measurement accuracy.
Envelope. Use envelope to capture and display the maximum variation of a signal.
Waveform Math. Use waveform math to add, subtract, multiply, or divide waveforms. For
example, you can use math to analyze differential signals or calculate a power waveform.
Display Features
Color LCD Display. Identify and differentiate waveforms easily with color-coding.
Waveforms, readouts, and buttons are color matched to increase productivity and reduce
operating errors.
Digital Phosphor. A Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope can clearly display intensity

modulation in your signals. The oscilloscope automatically overlays subsequent
acquisitions and then decays them to simulate the writing and decay of the phosphor in an
analog oscilloscope CRT. This feature results in an intensity-graded waveform display that
shows the information contained in the intensity modulation.
Signal Preview. Use the preview feature to optimize the control settings when setting up a
single-shot acquisition. As you adjust the controls, the adjustments modify the current
acquisition to show a preview of how the next acquisition should appear.
Measurement Features
Cursors. Use cursors to take simple voltage, time, and frequency measurements.
Automatic Measurements. Choose from a list of 21 automatic waveform measurements.

You can customize the measurements by changing reference levels or by adding
measurement gating.
Trigger Features
Dual Triggers. Use the main (A) trigger system alone or add the B trigger to capture more
complex events. You can use the A and B triggers together to set up a wait-for-time or
wait-for-events trigger.
Video Trigger. Trigger on video fields or lines to see a stable display of standard video
signals.

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Convenience Features
Autoset. Use Autoset to quickly set up the vertical, horizontal, and trigger controls for a
usable display.
Scope QuickMenu. Use the built-in Scope QuickMenu for simplified oscilloscope
operation.
Single Sequence. One button sets the trigger parameters to the correct settings for a single-
shot acquisition (or single-sequence acquisition).
Floppy Disk. Use the built-in floppy disk to store and recall waveforms and setups, as well
as upgrade the oscilloscope firmware and install new features.
Probe Support. Use the standard probes or choose an optional probe for a specific
application.
Optional Features
Communication Modules. Install a communication module to add RS-232, GPIB, VGA,

or Ethernet local area network (LAN) ports for remote programmability, sending hardcopy
to a LAN printer, or displaying the oscilloscope screen on a monitor

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Manual Control Systems 112

Uploaded by

Manual Control Systems 112

Uploaded by

Manual for

April 24, 2005

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 1 of 115 April 24, 2005

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 2 of 115 April 24, 2005

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 3 of 115 April 24, 2005

Associated equipment includes a potentiometer for angular position sensing and a DC

Students should utilize simulation programs such as MatLab/Simulink to assist in the

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 4 of 115 April 24, 2005

Lab Exercise Schedule

Session # Exercise # Exercise Title

3, 4 2 Closed Loop Position Control System Design

5, 6 3 Design for Steady-State Error and Marginal Stability

7, 8 4 Design of Position Control System with Velocity Feedback

9 5 System Stabilization Design by Velocity Feedback

10, 11 6 Phase Lead Compensator Design

12, 13 7 Control System Frequency Response Analysis

14, 15 Additional Sessions-Instructor Option

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 5 of 115 April 24, 2005

Lab Report Format

Include supporting documentation (such as diagrams, tables, etc.) that is needed to

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 6 of 115 April 24, 2005

Lab Setup and Procedure:

Connect the Op-Amp, Dual Attenuator, Pre-Amp, Servo-Amp, Motor, Tachometer,

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Conclusions and Comments:

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The following may be included as appendices to the report, or included at

Diagrams and Schematics:

It is reasonable to use spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel, to

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 9 of 115 April 24, 2005

tp Peak-Time – The amount of time from the beginning of an under-damped step

tr Rise-Time – In an under-damped step response, the amount of time between the

ts Settling-Time – In an under-damped step response, the amount of time from the

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Accuracy, Precision & Resolution

Other values (such as measurements or estimations) have some degree of uncertainty.

For example, which would be a “better” measurement for 1 centimeter?

Evaluation of Measurement Error and Deviation

“The difference between theory and practice is that, in theory,

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 11 of 115 April 24, 2005

• “Round-Off” Error in the calculation of the theoretical value

To quantify how closely reality (“measured”) comes to expectation (“theoretical”), a

Theoretical − Measured Error

• For two measurements – M1 & M2 :

• For a set of measurements – {M1 … Mn}:

Prof. B. D. Sweet Page 12 of 115 April 24, 2005

- i - Power Supply and Servo Amplifier

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- ii - Motor, Tachometer, and Position Indicator

- iii - Dual Attenuator, Pre-Amp, and Op-Amp

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- iv - Position Indicator Face Plate

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Servo Motor System

Pre-Amp Servo-Amp Motor Tachometer

Figure 1 - Motor Linearization Connections

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Figure 2 - Output Position Indicator Faceplate and Front Dial

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Figure 3 - Operational Amplifier Faceplate

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Lab Exercise 1 – Parameter Determination

Figure 4 - "Core" System Plant Block Diagram

Pre-Amp Servo-Amp Motor Tachometer

Figure 5 - “Core” System Plant Wiring Diagram

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Also, the following system parameters will be measured:

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Maximum VMotor Input: VMAX

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Motor Linearity: Km and Kt

Method 1 – Steady-State Operation

Note: when setting inputs or other adjustable parameters to specified

Step 2 – Compute Km and Kt:

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