https://doi.org/10.3311/PPso.

13348
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Periodica Polytechnica Social and Management Sciences, 28(2), pp. 121–128, 2020

A Cross-Culture Study of Academic Procrastination and Using

Effective Time Management

Martina Košíková1, Veronika Loumová2*, Jana Kovaľová3, Petra Vašaničová1,

Viktoria Mykhaylivna Bondarenko4

1
Department of Mathematical Methods and Managerial Informatics, Faculty of Management, University of Prešov,
Konštantínova 16, 080 01 Prešov, Slovakia
2
Department of Management, Faculty of Management, University of Prešov, Konštantínova 16, 080 01 Prešov, Slovakia
3
Department of Managerial Psychology, Faculty of Management, University of Prešov, Konštantínova 16, 080 01 Prešov, Slovakia
4
Department of Business-administration, Faculty of History and International Relations, Uzhhorod National University,
Narodna Square 3, 880 00 Uzhhorod, Ukraine
*
Corresponding author, e-mail: veronika.timkova@smail.unipo.sk

Received: 24 October 2018, Accepted: 23 May 2019, Published online: 29 November 2019

Abstract
Duties, tasks, different situations or decisions need to be resolved on a daily basis. However, it often happens that because of over-
information from different sides, an excessive number of tasks, the fast pace of life, and so on we tend to procrastinate important
tasks for later. This phenomenon can occur in almost every area, including the academic area. This contribution, therefore, addresses
the occurrence of academic procrastination and the establishment and use of time management by university students. The main
objective is to identify possible differences in procrastination and the right use of time management in a cross-cultural context.
A research sample consisted of 292 students from the Uzhhorod National University and from the University of Prešov, on which
we surveyed the rate of procrastination and rate of time management through our own questionnaire. Subsequent testing of the
obtained data revealed that there are statistically significant differences in procrastination between Ukrainian and Slovak students,
but differences in time management have not been confirmed.
Keywords
procrastination, academic procrastination, time management, cross-culture, students

1 Introduction
Present time can be characterized as a hasty and fast successfully complete the activity till the end (Steela, 2007).
period in which there are constantly rapid changes. Procrastination occurs in various areas, whether work,
If one wants to be able to cope with this "time stress", private or academic. The issue of procrastination in man-
it is important to know how to effectively handle per- agement was studied by Birknerová et al. (2015). The aim
sonal time (Košíková et al., 2017). Every person manages of their research was to find out the links between aspects
and organizes his own time based on his own delibera- of motivation to performance, time planning, and procras-
tion (Sojka et al., 2010). If we tend to waste our precious tination. Their research sample consisted of 111 respon-
time on irrelevant things or postpone important tasks for dents, with an average age of 32.80 years, which were
a later, we can talk about procrastination. There are dif- from the administrative, finance, business or education
ferent types of procrastination, and this paper focuses on working area. That research was based on a hypothe-
academic procrastination that is related to students. sis that identified statistically significant links between
aspects of motivation to performance and aspects of pro-
2 Theoretical basic crastination as well as aspects of motivation to exercise
Procrastination may be specified as a postponement of and time planning. Three different questionnaires were
duties or activities for a later time, even if an individual is used for that research: MPQ (Motivation to Performance
trying to accomplish equally valuable performance and to Questionnaire), PRQ (Procrastination Questionnaire),

Cite this article as: Košíková, M., Loumová, V., Jana Kovaľová, J., Vašaničová, P., Bondarenko, V. M. (2020) "A Cross-Culture Study of Academic Procrastination
and Using Effective Time Management", Periodica Polytechnica Social and Management Sciences, 28(2), pp. 121–128. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPso.13348
122|Košíková et al.
Period. Polytech. Soc. Man. Sci., 28(2), pp. 121–128, 2020

TPQ (Time Planning Questionnaire). The results showed later on was because of fear of failure and laziness. On the
a close link between time planning and the associated pro- other hand, men stated that the reason is because of risk-
crastination of employee performance. It turned out that ing and revolting against control, and rebellion.
those respondents who think that it is most important to Procrastination is often associated with a feeling of dis-
organize their tasks in advance and not to postpone duties comfort. Research realized by Hen and Goroshit (2018)
at a later stage while also putting high requirements on examined the consequences of procrastination on students,
their work. On the other hand, in the case of poor-qual- their feeling of discomfort in connection with procrasti-
ity and late preparation, they feel anxiety from the lack of nation, and the desire to change this habit. They assumed
time, which has a negative impact on performance at work. that there is a relationship between decision-making pro-
However, the present paper focuses on investigating the crastination, academic procrastination, and student feel-
incidence of academic procrastination. Researches prove ings (feeling of discomfort, the desire to change this habit).
that procrastination in the academic area is nothing spe- 375 college students of social sciences from northern Israel
cial. As is stated in Schraw et al. (2007), more than 50 % participated in this study. The results of this research doubt
of university students procrastinate regularly and circa the traditional experience that procrastination is mostly
20-40 % students procrastinate occasionally. According associated with feelings of discomfort. This study suggests
to Schouwenburg et al. (2004), only 20 % of students post- that while decision-making procrastinators experience the
pone their duties occasionally and more than 70 % of stu- inconvenience of postponing the decision, academic pro-
dents often procrastinate. crastinators want to change these habits but do not report
Research on procrastination was carried out in Slovakia feelings of discomfort. The findings also indicate the dif-
by the authors Nábělková and Ledajová (2012), who exam- ference between these two types of procrastination. For
ined the possible negative relationship between: a) pro- some students, postponing duties can serve as an immedi-
crastination and self-esteem, b) internalistic orientation of ate emotional relief, followed by negative academic results
personality and volitional regulation. They wanted to sup- that increase the desire to change this habit.
port the assumption that these factors could be considered Procrastination has been studied as a dysfunctional,
protective in relation to procrastination. The research was self-effacing behavior that ultimately results in undesir-
conducted through a set of 5 questionnaires on 216 univer- able outcomes. However, Choi and Moran (2009) found a
sity students, with an average age of 22.3 years. The gen- different form of procrastination (i.e. active procrastina-
der distribution was in the proportion of 57 % of women tion) that leads to desirable outcomes. It follows that occa-
and 43 % of men. The findings highlighted the negative sional procrastination can also have a positive impact on
relationship of volitional regulation with general procras- the personality of a person; it can be beneficial when the
tination and a moderately negative relationship with aca- person knows how to handle it reasonably. On the other
demic procrastination. General procrastination correlates hand, we encounter its most extreme form - chronic, which
negatively with self-esteem. Research has failed to sup- is manifested by discomfort, nervousness, increased anx-
port the supposed relationship between procrastination iety, irritability, mood swings, despair, and demotivation.
and the internalistic orientation of the personality. Such feelings affect not only overall performance and
In 2009, Özer et al. (2009) explored the reasons and learning but also health impairment or tense social rela-
prevalence for academic procrastination, focusing on tionships (Pychyl, 2009). To solve this problem, it is first
gender differences in the causes of student procrastina- and foremost important to recognize and identify it. By
tion. The first study was applied to 203 Turkish university accurately determining the causes of procrastination, it is
students and the validity and reliability of the scale were possible to eliminate its occurrence. One of the possible
tested by factor analysis, which was subsequently revised. solutions to procrastination is the consistent planning of a
The second study was participated by 784 students, of person’s time and the use of so-called time management.
which there were 363 women and 421 men, with an aver- Any company wants to achieve prosperity and its goals
age age of 20.6 years, and standard deviation of age equal for both its owners as well as its employees but also for
to 1.74 years. The results showed that 52 % of students the company itself (Gallo et al., 2018). Effective manag-
reported frequent postponement of academic duties, while ing business performance is a relatively complex and diffi-
men procrastinate more often than women. Significantly cult process, which is undergoing significant changes both
more women than men stated their postponement of duties in practice and in research. It seems that the traditional
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Period. Polytech. Soc. Man. Sci., 28(2), pp. 121–128, 2020

business performance management based primarily on 3 Data and methodology

financial management has reached its limits and in recent The main objective of the paper is to identify the differ-
years we have seen the development of new non-tradi- ences in the occurrence of academic procrastination and
tional indicators, methods and models based primarily on the use of effective time management in the cross-culture
nonfinancial methods, in particular on strategic and other context of Slovak and Ukrainian students. For this contri-
qualitative indicators (Rajnoha et al., 2016). In the current bution, the following research hypotheses were established:
dynamic environment, it is therefore essential that each • H1: We assume that there are statistically significant
company uses its time as effectively as possible. Time differences in the occurrence of academic procrasti-
management means first and foremost the best use of time nation between Slovak and Ukrainian students, i.e.
when it comes to efficient division and planning of indi- with respect to the nationality of the respondent.
vidual activities (Stanková, 2016). Time management is • H2: We assume that there are statistically significant
the process of planning and performance of awareness of differences in the using effective time management
control over time spent on specific activities, particularly between Slovak and Ukrainian students.
in order to increase efficiency and productivity (Singh and
Jain, 2013). As is stated in Sojka et al. (2010), the sense of The data needed for the analysis were obtained through
time management is to control own time and work. Time the questionnaire of the authors, which was the primary
management is one of the most important issues in mod- source of the data. The research sample consists of 292
ern business; time is one of the main sources of success respondents (N=292), while the portfolio of the research
in any area (Singh and Jain, 2013). Particularly import- sample consisted of students of the Uzhhorod National
ant is the academic sphere, while it is very important for University (32.5 %) and students of University of Prešov
students to monitor and detect the extent of their ability from the Faculty of Management (67.5 %). The question-
to manage their time. University students must be able to naire consisted of two basic parts. The first part contained
effectively manage their time and be able to classify their closed-ended categorization questions needed to classify
tasks properly, especially because it is a diverse combi- respondents by age, gender, residence, and nationality.
nation of tasks, each of which requires different prepara- The second part was focused on detecting the occurrence
tion times. These are tasks such as different projects, sem- of procrastination and the efficient use of time manage-
inar assignments, credits, examinations, etc. Lahmers and ment. The majority of individual items were evaluated by
Zulauf (2000) argue that the amount of time spent study- respondents on a 5-point Likert scale, which expresses the
ing in part reflects how effectively students manage the degree of consent (1 = strongly disagree/ no/ never/ incon-
many activities in their lives, whether it be academic pur- sequent, 5 = strongly agree/ yes/ always/ consistent). The
suits, curricular involvement, recreation, socializing with questionnaire also contained open-ended questions identi-
friends, or the necessary activities of life, such as personal fying the reasons and causes of the procrastination, as well
hygiene, eating, and sleeping. as the timetable of the students.
The area of time management is the center of attention The Statistica statistical software was used to pro-
in much of existing researches which are mostly oriented cess the research results. Individual variables were sub-
on the use of time management, especially in working jected to the tests of data normality (Doornik-Hansen
life (Azar, 2017; Burt et al., 2010; Singh and Jain, 2013). test, Shapiro-Wilkov test, Lilliefors test a Jarque-Ber test),
Academic time management was examined by Tsai and which showed that none of the variables had a normal dis-
Liu (2015), who studied the relationship between time tribution. In order to assess the significance of differences
management skills and Facebook interpersonal skills in in the occurrence of procrastination and the efficient use
terms of the academic success of university students. The of time management, we used the Mann-Whitney U test,
study results have shown especially the negative aspects which is suitable for analyzing the data available to us and
of the use of Facebook in connection with academic suc- does not require a normal distribution.
cess. The results have pointed out that students who talk Mann-Whitney U test is a non-parametric test based on
less to friends on Facebook have better results in their aca- the comparison of medians of two independent samples.
demic performance because of their effective time man- The test assumes the same deviations in two populations,
agement skills. The present paper, inter alia, focuses to from which two samples are compared, i.e. it tests whether
identify the occurrence of time management of students. the difference in the average of an order of the two groups
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Period. Polytech. Soc. Man. Sci., 28(2), pp. 121–128, 2020

is statistically significant or just random (Martínez-Murcia ineffective time management, laziness, and reluctance to
et al., 2012; Rimarčík, 2007). deal with the given task or the difficulty of the task.
Calculation of U value is achieved by the following The results of the Mann-Whitney U test are visually com-
expression Eq. (1) (Martínez-Murcia et al., 2012) while plemented by Fig. 1, which displays a categorized histogram
from equation we obtain two different values (U1 and U2 ) of the distribution of the incidence of procrastination in
Slovak and Ukrainian students. The y-axis is the number of
U1( 2) = R1( 2) −
( )
n1( 2) n1( 2) + 1
(1) observations in a given group, the x-axis presents the coun-
2 try of origin of the student and the frequency of occurrence
where n1(2) is the sample size form maple set 1(2), R1(2) is the of procrastination among students from that country. Value
sum of the ranks in sample set 1(2). 1 means that students will postpone their duties always, 2 -
The smaller value of U1 and U2 (U) is the one used when often, 3 - on average, 4 - sometimes and 5 - never.
consulting significance tables. The sum of the two values As a consequence of the incidence of academic pro-
is given by Eq. (2) crastination, we also examined the consistency of the ful-
filling students’ duties and the existence of differences in
n1 ( n1 + 1) n2 ( n2 + 1) the cross-cultural context. The existence of statistically
U1 + U 2 = R1( 2) − + R2 − . (2)
2 2 significant differences confirms the test results in Table 2.
The test results in Table 2 confirm the existence of statis-
N ( N + 1)
By taking into account that R1 + R2 = and tically significant differences. Surprisingly, results show
2
that despite the fact that the occurrence of academic pro-
N = n1 + n2 , we find that the sum is given by Eq. (3) crastination is more frequent among Slovak students, they
are more conscientious when fulfilling their duties than
U1 + U 2 = n1n2 (3)
Ukrainian students. The mean response score for Slovak
We reject the null hypothesis that the two samples students was 3.5 with a standard deviation of 0.689, while
come from identical populations and accept the alternative Fig. 2 is showing that the most frequent answers were pri-
hypothesis that the two populations have unequal means, marily average and consistent fulfillment of duties. The
if U ≤ U α′ (Freund et al., 1988).

4 Results and discussion

Table 1 shows the results of testing the first hypothesis
which examines the existence of academic procrastination
differences between Slovak and Ukrainian students.
Based on the Mann-Whitney U test, we found that there
are statistically significant differences in the occurrence of
academic procrastination between Slovak and Ukrainian
students. Therefore, the hypothesis H1 has been confirmed.
According to research results, procrastination of Slovak
students (the mean response was 3.3 with a standard devi-
ation of 0.8754) occurs more often than of Ukrainian stu-
dents (the mean score was 3.7 with a standard deviation
of 0.6781). Based on the students' answers, the most fre-
quent reasons for postponement of work and duties include Fig. 1 Categorized histogram of the occurrence of academic
lack of time reserved for the given task, which is related to procrastination

Table 1 Results of Mann-Whitney U test – Academic procrastination

Dependent: Independent variable: Country of origin. Marked tests are significant at p < 0.050
Academic
procrastination Valid N Rank Sum Group U Z p-value Z Adj. p-value

Slovakia 197 27162.5

7659.5 −2.51 0.012 −2.88 0.004
Ukraine 95 15615.5
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Table 2 Results of Mann-Whitney U test – The consistency of duties fulfillment

Dependent: Independent variable: Country of origin. Marked tests are significant at p < 0.050
Consistency Valid N Rank Sum Group U Z p-value Z Adj. p-value
Slovakia 197 31184.0
7034.0 3.44 0.001 3.82 0.0001
Ukraine 95 11594.0

whether their time management allows them to "save"

their free time. Delegating tasks, sorting tasks according
to difficulty, concentrating on duties and eliminating time
thieves were also examined. By using the Mann-Whitney
U Test we revealed that there are no statistically signifi-
cant differences between the Slovak and Ukrainian stu-
dents in the efficient use of time management. The test
results of the second hypothesis are shown in Table 3 in
detail. We did not confirm the hypothesis H2.
We, therefore, tested whether there exist at least statisti-
cal significant differences in individual time management
components between Slovak and Ukrainian students. The
items of the questionnaire, in which statistically signifi-
cant differences were recorded, are shown in Table 4.
Fig. 2 Categorized histogram of the occurrence of consistency of duties
Statistically significant differences in the individual time
fulfillment
management components were recorded in items 15, 17 and
18 (time-saving, delegating tasks, and ability to concentrate
average score of Ukrainian students was 3.2105 (standard on tasks). In item no. 15 "Does your time planning save
deviation 0.6668), which also corresponds to the most fre- time for your task fulfillment?" Higher scores were made
quent answers, namely the average fulfillment of duties. by Ukrainian students whose average answers were 3.85,
The second research hypothesis H2 focuses on dif- so they were closer to the answer "rather yes" unlike the
ferences in effective time management. Respondents Slovak 3.59. Fig. 3 shows how the student’s responses were
answered the questions whether they have time manage- represented. While in the case of Slovak students prevailed
ment in place, how effective their time management is, answers were "rather yes" and "do not know", for Ukrainian
whether they are accomplishing their tasks on time and students it was predominantly "yes" and "rather yes".

Table 3 Results of Mann-Whitney U test - Time management

Dependent: Independent variable: Country of origin. Marked tests are significant at p < 0.050
Time management Valid N Rank Sum Group U Z p-value Z Adj. p-value
Slovakia 197 28595.0
9092.0 −0.39 0.695 −0.39 0.693
Ukraine 95 14183.0

Table 4 Differences in time management components

Items of the
Country Mean Standard deviation U test Z p-value
questionnaire
Slovakia 3.59 1.051
Item no. 15 7815.5 -2.280 0.023
Ukraine 3.85 1.142
Slovakia 2.05 0.808
Item no. 17 7441.0 2.834 0.005
Ukraine 1.80 0.936
Slovakia 4.21 0.814
Item no. 18 7854.0 -2.223 0.026
Ukraine 4.44 0.707
Note: Item no. 15. Do your time planning save the time of your task fulfillment? Item no. 17. Do you delegate tasks to
someone else? Item no. 18. Can you concentrate on fulfilling the task?
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Period. Polytech. Soc. Man. Sci., 28(2), pp. 121–128, 2020

Fig. 3 Categorized histogram of the distribution of time-saving using

Fig. 4 Categorized histogram of distribution of delegating tasks
planning

Significant differences were also found in item no. 17

"Do you delegate tasks to someone else?". In this case,
Slovak students scored higher (2.05), who delegated their
tasks somewhat more than Ukrainian students (1.80). On
this issue, it was especially interesting that both Slovak
and Ukrainian students delegated their responsibilities to
others very little, or not at all because the predominant
answers to the question were "no" and "rather not". Poor
use of delegation of tasks can also be given by the nature
of the tasks and duties that students have to fulfill. In most
cases, these tasks are primarily intended to be performed
by the individual, and it is undesirable for someone else
to fulfill these tasks. The exact representation of respon- Fig. 5 Categorized histogram of the distribution of concentrating on tasks
dents' answers to question no. 17 is shown in Fig. 4.
The last component of time management, which showed 5 Conclusions
differences between Slovak and Ukrainian students, was The current highly competitive environment and the
item no. 18, which identified the ability to concentrate on rapid pace of life often require a person to carefully plan
assigned tasks. Again, Ukrainian students scored higher his tasks and make efficient use of his time. The area of
(average values of 4.44), and according to the question- time management is very important both in working life,
naire survey, they have no problem concentrating on the but also in personal or school (academic) life. The hasty
given tasks. The average score of Slovak students was period has forced people many times to unwillingly post-
somewhat lower at 4.21 points. This finding is also sup- pone their tasks for later, and to avoid some difficult
ported by the results in the previous section. It is possible tasks, even if the individual is trying to fulfill these tasks
to assume that less frequent postponement of Ukrainian on time. It is then possible to talk about procrastination,
students ("only sometimes") leads to a better possibility to which occurs frequently in different people, that it occurs
focus on tasks (they answered from "rather yes" to "yes") in various areas, whether in management or in education.
and leads to a better time saving by establishing time man- Procrastination can have a very negative impact and can
agement (in particular, they have tended to answer "rather cause serious problems, but it also has its positive side.
yes").The distribution of students' answers to the question The present paper focused on the study of procrastination
of concentrating on given tasks is shown in Fig. 5. and time management in the academic area, focusing on
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examining the occurrence of academic procrastination tasks is, in contrast to the other results, higher for Slovak
and the use of time management by university students. students. We assume that the differences in these areas
The study aimed to identify the differences in the occur- can also be caused by the different functioning of the
rence of academic procrastination and the use of time higher education system in Slovakia and Ukraine. This
management in the cross-cultural context of Slovak and finding may also be due to the different mentality of stu-
Ukrainian students. The research was carried out using dents, education, or their social and economic situation in
a questionnaire method and results were processed using the country, while some students do not consider studying
mathematical and statistical methods in the Statistica soft- at college to be self-evident yet, on the contrary, to be a
ware. The research sample consisted of 292 students from precious farmhouse and are aware of the sense and impor-
the Uzhhorod National University and from the University tance of the study. Differences in research results can,
of Prešov. Statistically significant differences between of course, be influenced by the different student require-
Ukrainian and Slovak students were confirmed in the ments of teachers.
occurrence of procrastination. In the case of time man- Previous research has shown that effectively estab-
agement, statistically significant differences in cross-cul- lishing time management and reducing the occurrence
tural contexts have not been confirmed. The differences of procrastination contributes to a better feeling of work
were significant only for some components of time man- completed, increasing the performance of an individual,
agement, namely when saving time by task planning, del- improving mood, and reducing adverse stress situations.
egating tasks, and concentrating on work tasks. At the same time, it is advisable to take steps to eliminate
Based on the research conducted, it has been found procrastination and the establishment of time management
that the occurrence of procrastination and insufficient while studying at school, thus avoiding the occurrence of
use of time management is a problem for both Slovak and this unfavorable behavior at work, and by using right time
Ukrainian students (frequent occurrence of procrastina- management will a future employee be able to accomplish
tion, an insufficient delegation of tasks, insufficient time better performance.
management). From the conducted survey, we can argue
that a greater degree of consistency in the fulfillment of Acknowledgement
tasks occurs among Ukrainian students. It has been shown This work was supported by research grant VEGA No.
that Ukrainian students, who delegate their tasks less than 1/0470/18 "Economic activity of tourism in the European
Slovak, have a better ability to concentrate on tasks and area", and GAPU 43/2019 "Cultural differences and their
then to save time in fulfilling these tasks if they plan it impact on tourism" and GaPU 40/2019 "Health tourism in
in advance. The occurrence of procrastination among V4 countries" and GaPU 34/2018 "Current situation and
Ukrainian students is also lower than among Slovak stu- identification of problem areas of administrative burden of
dents. However, it is interesting that the consistency of the EU projects in Slovakia".

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