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PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi

Assignment-2020 M.Sc. Mathematics (Eve)

IV-Semester

GROUP - ‘IV’

Bushra Noureen 18-ARID-4333

Hamza Khalid 18-ARID-4336

Hamza Shafiq 18-ARID-4337

Hafiza Javairia Ahmad Khan 18-ARID-4334

Assignment Submitted to: - Dr. Saima Mustafa

TOPIC: Topological Spaces and its Applications

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Introduction:
This research is largely preliminary in nature; it consists of a brief review of some of the
terminology and the elementary theorems of general topology, an examination of the concept
“topological space” in terms of more familiar notions, and a comparison of this concept with the
mathematical objects of which it is an abstraction. Around 1735, Euler discovered the formula V
– E + F = 2 relating the number of vertices, edges and faces of a convex polyhedron, and hence of
a planar graph. The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy and L'Huilier,
is at the origin of topology. In 1827, Carl Friedrich Gauss published General investigations of
curved surfaces which in section 3 defines the curved surface in a similar manner to the modern
topological understanding: "A curved surface is said to possess continuous curvature at one of its
points A, if the direction of all the straight lines drawn from A to points of the surface at an
infinitely small distance from A are deflected infinitely little from one and the same plane passing
through A."
Yet, "until Riemann’s work in the early 1850s, surfaces were always dealt with from a local
point of view (as parametric surfaces) and topological issues were never considered. Mobius and
Jordan seem to be the first to realize that the main problem about the topology of (compact)
surfaces is to find invariants (preferably numerical) to decide the equivalence of surfaces, that is,
to decide whether two surfaces are homeomorphic or not."

The subject is clearly defined by Felix Klein in his "Erlangen Program" (1872): the geometry
invariants of arbitrary continuous transformation, a kind of geometry. The term "topology" was
introduced by Johann Benedict Listing in 1847, although he had used the term in correspondence
some years earlier instead of previously used "Analysis situs". The foundation of this science, for
a space of any dimension, was created by Poincare. His first article on this topic appeared in 1894.
In the 1930s, James Waddell Alexander II and Hassler Whitney first expressed the idea that a
surface is a topological space that is locally like a Euclidean plane. After an introductory section
on topology, we consider topological spaces, subspaces, quotient spaces, Kolmogorov Space,
Housdorff Space, Sub Cover, product spaces and Compact topological space.

History:
The term “Topology” was introduced by “Johann Bendict Listing” in 1847, although he
had used the term in the correspondence some years earlier instead of previously used “Analysis
Situs”, the foundation of this science, for a space of any dimension, was created by “Poincare”.
“Topology” word’s means “Distortion”
Topo →Place/Space Logy → Study
Topology is like the example of rubber. It could be in its original form after changing. First
we will discuss in details about topology.
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Topology:

Let X be a non-empty set and τ be the collection of subsets of X. Then T is called a topology
on X, if it satisfies the following axioms:

i. The union of any number of members of T belongs to τ.

ii. The intersection of finite number of number of τ belongs to τ.
iii. The empty set ɸ and X itself belongs to τ.

If T is a topology on set X. Then the pair (X, τ) is called a topological space.

Example:

Let X = {a, b, c} and τ = {ɸ, {a}, {a, b}, X} be the collection of subsets of X. Since, τ satisfy
the axioms, so T is a topology on X.
Graphically, a b
(X, τ)
Note That: c

 Member of a topology τ on X are called subsets of X. While element of X is called

points/members of X.
 When there is no ambiguity, a topological space (X, τ) will also be denoted simply by a
letter X. It is being used to understand that there is some special or specified topology on
X.
 Clearly a set with at least two elements can be given more than one topology. It is
therefore necessary to mention which collection of subsets of a set X we take for a certain
topology on X.
Open set:

The member of τ are called open set of τ -open.

Closed Set:
The complement of an open set is called closed set.

Example: Let A = {a, b, c}

τ 1 = {ɸ, {a}, {b}, {A}} (Not a topology)

τ 2 = {ɸ, {a}, {c, d}, {b, c, d}} (Not a topology)

τ 3= {ɸ, {a, b, c}} (Weakest topology)

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τ 4= {ɸ, {b, c}, {b, c, d}, {a}} (Not a topology)

τ 5= {ɸ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {A}} (Not a topology)

 29 topologies can be made on a set which has three elements.

Indiscrete topology (ɸ and X):

τ = {ɸ, X} is the weakest/indiscrete topology on X.

Discrete Topology (Power Set):

τ = P(x) is the strongest/Discrete topology on X.

 Note: In both discrete and indiscrete topological spaces every subset of X is both open
and closed.
Comparable Topology:

Let τ 1 and τ 2 be two topologies on X. If either τ 1 ⊆ τ2 or τ2 ⊆ τ1 . Then τ 1 and τ 2

are called compare-able topologies.

Coarser/Weaker and Finer/Stronger Topologies:

If τ1 ⊆ τ2 then τ 1 is called coarser or weaker then τ 2 is called finer or stronger than τ1.

Example:

Let X = {1, 2, 3} and τ 1= {ɸ, {1}, {X}}, τ 2= {ɸ, {1}, {1, 2}, {X}}

Both τ 1 and τ 2 are topologies on X. Alsoτ1 ⊆ τ2, so τ 1 is coarser than τ 2 and τ 2 is called finer
than τ 1.

 Theorem

Let τ 1 and τ 2 be two topologies on X then τ 1∩ τ 2 is always a topology on X. Which is coarser

than both τ 1 and τ 2 and finer than any topology T which is coarser than both τ 1 and τ 2.

 Theorem

Let (X, τ) be a topological space then

i. ɸ and X are closed.

ii. Union of finite numbers of closed is closed.
iii. Intersection of any number of closed set is closed.
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Note:
Any or arbitrary collection is defined as: {𝑈𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ Ω} where Ω is any set.

Finite {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 … … … , 𝑢𝑛 }

Any Collection Countably {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 … … … , 𝑢𝑛 }

Exp.: {N which is infinite set}
Infinite

Un-Countably {𝑈𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ Ω}
Exp.: {R which is infinite set}
Similarly, 𝑛

Finite union ⋃ 𝑢𝑖
𝑖=1
Any Union Countably infinite union ⋃𝑛𝑖=1 𝑢𝑖

Infinite union
Un-countably infinite union ⋃𝛼𝜖Ω 𝑢𝛼

Isolated Points:

X and ɸ are isolated points and both are closed and open.
Co-Finite Topology:

Let X be any non-empty set and τ be the collection containing empty set ɸ and those subsets of
X whose compliments are finite, then is topology on X called co-finite topology.
Usual topology on R:

Let R be the set of real numbers and τ be the collection containing those subsets of R which are
union of open interval then τ is a topology on R called usual topology on R.

Usual topology = {Union of open interval}

R with usual topology τ is called real line.

τ ={𝑈; 𝑈 ⊆ 𝑹, 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) ⊆ 𝑈 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈
Metric Topology:

Let (X, d) be a metric space and τ be the collection of subsets U of X such that for each 𝑥𝜖𝑈 then
there exists an open ball B(X, r) contained in U. i.e. 𝑥𝜖𝐵(𝑋, 𝑟) ⊆ 𝑈.

Then τ is topology on X called metric topology.

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 Theorem
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
i. ɸ and X are open.
ii. Union of any number of open set is open.
iii. Intersection of finite number of open set is open.
Note:

Every metric d on X induces a topology τ on X which is called Metric Topology.

(X, d) → (X, τ)

Every metric space is a topological space but the converse is not true.

i.e. (X, τ) → (X, d) is not possible in general. i.e. Sierpinski space.

Metrizable Space (Metrizable Topological Space):

Let (X, τ) be a topological space if there is a metric d whose metric topology is equal to τ
then (X, τ) is called metrizable space.

i.e. (X, τ) → (X, d).

Example: The Sierpinski space is not metrizable topological space.

Solution: Let X= {a, b} and τ = {ɸ, {a}, X} is a topology on X, then (X, τ) is called Sierpinski space.
This space is not metriziable i.e. there is no metric d on X whose topology is equal to τ. For
contrary suppose, d is a metric on X such that the induced topology of (X, d) is τ.

Since {a} is open in (X, τ) and a ∈ {a} then (X, d)

B (a, r) r B (b, r)
B (a, r) ⊆ {a} (By Definition)
a b
So for each x ∈ B (a, r) there is x ∈ {a} and d (x, a) < r
Such that x=a it implies
i,e. B (a, r) = {a} d (a, b) > r

Consider B (b, r) then for all y ∈ B (b, r)

d (a, b) < r
Hence a ∉ B (b, r).
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Thus B (b, r) = {b} such that {b} is open in (X, d) so (X, τ) is not metreziable.

Subspace:

Let (X, τ x) be a topological space and Y is a subset of X. Let τy consists of those subsets U
of Y for which there is a V in τx. Such that U = V∩Y. Then τ y is a topology on Y called relative
topology on Y and (Y, τy) is called subspace of (X, τ x).

Example: Let X = {a, b, c}, τ x = {ɸ, {a}, {a, b}, X} and 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑐} ⊆ 𝑋, Then

u1 = V1∩Y = ɸ ∩ Y = ɸ

u2 = V2∩Y = {a} ∩ Y = {a}

u3 = V3∩Y = {a, b} ∩Y = {a}
u4 = V4∩Y = X∩Y = Y

τ y = {ɸ, {a}, Y} is a topology on Y called relative topology and (Y, τ y) is subspace of (X, τ x)
Closure of a Set:

Let (X, Ʈ) be a topological space and ‘A’ be a subset of X, Then closure “𝐴̅” of A is the
intersection of all closed supersets of A.

 𝐴̅ = Intersection of all closed superset of A.

 𝐴̅ = Smallest closed superset of A.
 𝐴̅ ⊆ 𝐴 or 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴̅ or
 𝐴̅ is always closed.

 Theorem
Let (X, Ʈ) be a topological space then:

1) ̅ = ɸ , 𝑋̅ = 𝑋 and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴̅
ɸ
2) A is closed if and only if 𝐴̅ = A
3) 𝐴̿ = 𝐴̅
4) For any subsets A and B of X.
i. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 → 𝐴̅ ⊆ 𝐵̅
ii. ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 𝐴̅𝑈𝐵̅
𝐴𝑈𝐵
iii. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅

Example: Give counter example that ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ≠ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅.
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Solution: Let X = {1, 2} and τ = {ɸ, X} with discrete topology. Take A = {1}, B= {2} be two subsets
of X. Now,

𝐴̅ = 𝑋, 𝐵̅ = 𝑋

⇒ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅ = 𝑋 ……. (i)
A∩B = ɸ
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴∩𝐵 ⊆ ɸ ̅ = ɸ …… (ii)

From eq. (i) and (ii)

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ≠ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅
Interior of a set:

Let (X, τ) be a topological space and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋. The interior 𝐴̇ of A is the union of all open
subsets of X which is contained in A.

 𝐴̇ = Int (A) = Union of all open subsets contained in A.

 𝐴̇ = Int (A) = Largest open subset of A in X.
 𝐴̇ ⊆ 𝐴
 𝐴̇ is always open.

 Theorem

Let (X, τ) be a topological space then

1. ɸ̇ = ɸ , 𝑋̇ = 𝑋, 𝐴̇ ⊆ 𝐴
2. A is open if and only if 𝐴̇ = 𝐴
3. 𝐴̇̇ = 𝐴̇
4. If A and B are subsets of X, Then
i. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 then 𝐴̇ ⊆ 𝐵̇
ii. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)̇ = 𝐴̇ ∩ 𝐵̇
iii. 𝐴̇ 𝑈 𝐵̇ ⊆ (𝐴 𝑈 𝐵) ̇

Example: Give counter example that 𝐴̇ 𝑈 𝐵̇ ≠ (𝐴 𝑈 𝐵) ̇.

Solution: Let in case of usual topology on R in real line.
A = Q= Set of rational, B = 𝑄̀ = Set of irrational.
𝐴̇ = ɸ, 𝐵̇ = ɸ
⇒ 𝐴̇ U 𝐵̇ = ɸ ….. (i)
Also A U B = Q U 𝑄̀ = R
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̇ ) = 𝑅̇ = 𝑅 ….. (ii)
⇒ (𝐴 𝑈 𝐵
From (i) and (ii)
𝐴̇ 𝑈 𝐵̇ ≠ (𝐴 𝑈 𝐵) ̇
Fourier or Boundary of a subset:
Let (X, τ) be a topological space and A be the subset of X, then the frontier or boundary
of A is defined by
̅̅̅̅̅
Fr (A) = 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝑋⁄𝐴
⇒ 𝑏(𝐴) = 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐴́̅
⇒ Fr (A) is a closed set.
Fourier Point:
A point 𝑥𝜖𝑋 is in Fr (A) iff every open set U containing x, contains a point of A and a point
𝑋
of ⁄𝐴. i.e. 𝑈 ∩ 𝐴 = ɸ and U ∩ Ac ≠ ɸ.
 Theorem
Let A be a subset of (X, τ), then
i. 𝐴̅ = 𝐴 𝑈 𝐹𝑟 (𝐴)
ii. 𝐴̇ = 𝐴⁄𝐹 𝐴
𝑟
 Corollary:
1) For a subset A of (X, τ), A is closed iff Fr A ⊆ A.
2) A is open if and only if A ∩ Fr A = ɸ.
3) A subset A of (X, τ) has empty frontier if and only if A is bath open and closed.
Limit/Accumulation point of a set:
Let (X, τ) be a topological space. Let 𝑥𝜖𝑋 and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋, then x is called limit point or cluster
point or derived point of A if every open set U containing x contains a point of A different from x.
i.e. U ∩ (𝐴⁄{𝑥} ≠ 0 or 𝑈 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ 0.
Derived Set:
The set of all limit point of A is called derived set and donated by A.
 Theorem

Let A be a subset of (X, τ). Then

1) 𝐴̅ = 𝐴 𝑈 𝐴′ . Thus closure of 𝐴̅ of A consists of points of A and its limit points.

2) A is closed if and only if 𝐴 ⊃ 𝐴′.

 Corollary:

Let A be a subset of topological space X. A point x of X is in 𝐴̅ iff for every open set U
containing x 𝑈 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ɸ.
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Dense Subsets:

A subset ‘A’ of topological space X is said to be dense in X if and only if 𝐴̅ = 𝑋.

Since, 𝐴̅ = 𝐴 𝑈 𝐴′, so A is dense in X iff each point x of X is either in A or limit point of A i.e. 𝑋 =
𝐴̅ = 𝐴 𝑈 𝐴′.
Bases and Sub-Bases
Base for Topology:

Let (X, τ) be a topological space. A sub-collection B of T i.e. 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑇, is said to be base for

topology τ of X if every set in τ is a union of members of B. The members of b are called basic
open sets.
Relative Base:

Let (X, τ) be a topological space and B is a base for topology τ x on X, Then B* = B ∩ Y.

B* = B ∩ Y = {B* ⊆ Y: B* = B ∩ Y, for some B𝜖𝐵} is a base for relative topology τ y on Y.

 Theorem

Let (X, τ) be a topological space. A collection 𝐵 = {𝐵𝛼 ; 𝛼𝜖Ω} of sets in τ is a base for τ iff,
for any open set U and any point x in U, there is 𝐵𝛼 𝜖B such that

𝑥𝜖𝐵𝛼 ⊆ 𝑈.
 Theorem

A family B of subsets of a topological space (X, τ) is a base for Ʈ iff

1) X = U B, That is, every point of X is in some B𝜖𝐵.

2) For B1, B2𝜖B and x𝜖B1∩B2, there is a B𝜖𝐵 such that 𝑥𝜖𝐵 ⊆ 𝐵1 ∩ 𝐵2.
First countable Space:

A topological space (X, τ) is said to be 2nd countable (or 2nd axioms of countability satisfies)
if there is a countable base for T.
Note:
 Countable means finite or countability infinite.
 Clearly every 2nd countable space in 1st countable because for each 𝑥𝜖𝑋, there basic open
set which contains x are almost countable in number.
 A 1st countable space may not be second countable.
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Example: Let X be an uncountable with discrete topology. Then for each 𝑥𝜖𝑋, a (neighborhood)
base at x is Bx = {(x)} which is countable. However, there is no countable base for discrete topology
of X.
 Theorem
Any uncountable set X with co-finite topology is not first countable and so not second
countable.

“SEPARATION AXI0MS”

To -Space / Kolmogorov Space

A topological space (X, τ) is said to be to space if it satisfies to axioms that is for any two points a,
b of X, there exist at least one open set which contains one of the points but not the other, i.e.
there exist an open set U such that a∈U, b∉U

a To -Space
U

.b

Hereditary Property
If a property P is in some space x and if its subspace Y has same property P then is called it
Hereditary property,
 Theorem
The property of being a To-space is hereditary property (or) every subspace “Y” of To-
space is To-Space
 Theorem
A space ‘X’ is a To-space if for any a, b ∈X, a≠b impties {a} ≠ {b}.
T1- Space / Fr’echet Space (X, τ)
A topological space (X, 𝜏) is said to be 𝜏1 space if for any points a, b,∈ X,
U V
a≠b, there exist two sets U and V such that
a ∈U, b ∉ U and A ∈ V ,a ∉ V
In other words, given any pair of two distinct points a, b ∈X each .a .b
belong to an open set which does not certain the other.
The open sets u and v are not necessarily disjoint.
By definitions it is clear that every t space
i.e. a T0 space
T1 T0
i.e. T1 ⊆ T0
But the converse is not true.
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Example
1) Give an example of space which is to but not T1 space.
The Sierpinski space X = (a, b), 𝜏= {𝛷 , {a}, X} is T0 space but not T1 space.
2) Every discrete space is a T1 –space.
Let X= {a, b}, T1 –space {𝛷 {a} , {b},x}. Since for a, b ∈x then exists U = {a}, V = {b} Such
that a∈U, b∈V and a∈ V, b∈ U
 Theorem Following statements about a topological space X are equivalent.
a) X is a T1 - space
b) Each one-point subset of X is closed.
c) Each subset A of X is the intersection of its open super sets.

 Corollary A space x is T1 iff every finite subset of X is closed

 Corollary Every finite T1 -space is discrete.
 Theorem Any uncountable set X with co-finite topology is not first countable and so not
second countable.
Open Cover:
Let (X, Ʈ) be a topological space then a collection of open sets 𝜁 = {𝑈𝛼 : 𝛼𝜖Ω} is said to be
open cover for X if 𝑋 = ⋃𝛼𝜖Ω 𝑈𝛼 .

Sub Cover

Let 𝑪 = 𝑈𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈= Ω be an open cover for X i.e.𝑋 = 𝑈𝛼∈Ω 𝑈𝛼 A sub-collection C ={Ur :r E

Ω′ ⊆ Ω} of 𝐶 is said to be sub-cover for X if X= 𝑈𝑟∈Ω′ Ur

Lindelof Space
A space (X, τ) is said to be Lindelof space if every open cover of X has a countable cover.
 Theorem
Closed subspaces of a Lindelof space are Lindelof.
 Theorem
Every second countable space is Lindelof.
 Theorem
Every second countable space is separable, that is, has a countable dense subset.
 Theorem
Every separable metric space is second countable.
Continues Functions is Topological solaces:

Let (X, τ) and (X, τ’) be two topological spaces. A function f:X→Y is said to be continuous
at a point xo of X, if for any open set (neighborhood) V containing f(xo) in Y, there is an open set
(neighborhood) U containing xo in X such that
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𝑓(𝑢) ⊆ 𝑉

Continuity at point xo: A function f: X→Y is continuous on X if f is continuous at every point of X.

 Theorem

Let X and Y be two topological solaces A function f:X→Y is continuous on X iff for each subset
V open in Y then f-1(v) is open in X.

 Corollary

A function f: X→Y is continuous on X iff every closed ‘c’ in Y f-1(C) is closed in X.

 Corollary

A function f: X→Y is continuous on X for any subset ‘A’ of X 𝑓(𝐴̅) ⊆ ̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝑓(𝐴).

 Theorem

Let X, Y, Z be topological spaces and f: X→Y, g: Y→Z be continues functions. Then gof: X→Z
is continuous.
Homeomorphism:
Let X, Y be topological spaces. A function f: X→Y is said to be homeomorphism if

 f is bijective
 f is continuous
 f-1 is continuous
Two spaces X and Y are said to be homeomorphism between X and Y.
𝑋≅𝑌
 Theorem

Let f: X→Y is bijective continuous function, then 𝑓 −1 is continuous if and only if is open.
 Theorem
Let x be a T1 -space and A a subset of X. if x is a limit point of A then every open set
containing X contains an infinite number of distinct points of A.

Example : let a =(0,1), now A ⊆R and R is a T1 –space with usual topology on R.

O is the limit point of A because each open set U Containing 'O' contains a point of a different
from O i.e U⋂ A\ {0} ≠ 𝛷.
U = (-r, r) ⟹ O ∈ U =(-r, r)
Infact U ∩A is infinite set, further more let b= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then B has no any limit point
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B’=𝛷
 Corollary
In a T1 –space, no finite subset has a limit point.
T2 –Space /Housdorff Space
A topological space x is said X to be T2 space or housedorff space if for any two points a,
b ∈X, a ≠b there exists open sets u, v such that a∈U , b∈V and U∩ V = 𝛷
In other words, each pair of distinct points a, b, ∈X belongs to disjoint open sets
 T2 is a T1 -space
Theorem The following statements about a topological space are equivalent:
 X is a Hosdurff space.
 The diagonal D= (x,x) : x ∈X) is closed.
 X*X.
Example: - Every metric space (x, d) is T1 -space or housedorff space
Solution If (x, d) be a metric space and a. b are any two distinct points of X .i. e a,b, ∈X a≠b
Since d (a, b) - r>o (by property)
𝑟 𝑟
Consider open balls B (a :2 ) B (a :2 ) with center at a and b respectively. Since each
𝑟 𝑟
open ball is open and also a∈B (a :2 ) b∈B (a :2 )
𝑟 𝑟
Lastly we show that B (a :2 ) ∩B (H: 2) = 𝛷
i.e. two open sets are disjoint containing a and h respectively.
𝑟 𝑟
If possible let c∈B (a: 2) ∩B(b: 2 )
𝑟 𝑟
⟹ c∈ 𝐵 (𝑎: 2) and c∈B (b: 2)

𝑟 𝑟
⟹d (c, a) = < and d (c, b) <
2 2

By Triangular Inequality,

r=d(a,b)<d(a,c)+d(c,d)
𝑟 𝑟
< 2 +2=r

Which is contradiction this our assumption is false

𝑟 𝑟
Hence: B (a: 2 ∩ B (b, 2) =𝛷 therefore every metric space (x, d) is T2-space.

Convergent Sequence:

Let (x, τ) be a topological space A sequence ( 𝑥𝑘 ) in X is said to converge to a point x of x

if for every open set u containing x there is a natural number no

Such that 𝑥𝑘 ∈ 𝑈 for all k > 𝑛0

 15

Note that :-
1 1
(1) We discuss the sequence {𝑥}. Since →0
𝑛

Take U= (-0, 1, 0.1), 0∈U Let 𝑛0 = 11, 𝑥𝑘 ∈ 𝑈∀𝐾 ≥ 11, so there are infinite numbers of element
in U.

We consider 𝑛0 = 11 then 𝑥𝑘 ∈ 𝑈∀𝐾 ≥ 11

X11, X12, X13 --------∈U.

(2) In real analysis xK →x ∀K≥n0 ⟹ (xK-x)<ℰ

(3) In metric xK →x ∀K>N0 ⟹d (xK-x)<ℰ

 Theorem Let x be a housdorff space then any sequence in x can converges to at most one
point. Thus in a housdorff space limits are unique
 Theorem Let x be an arbitrary topological space and Y a housdorff space. Let f:𝑋 → 𝑌be
a continuous function. Then the graph.

G= {(x, y), Y=f(x)} ⊆X x Y.

Is closed in X x Y.

 Theorem Let x, y be topological space and Y a housdorff space. Let f and g be continuous
functions from x to y. there.

A= {x∈X: f(x) = g(x)} is closed in X.

 Theorem Let f: 𝑋 → 𝑌, g: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be continuous functions from a space X to Housdorff

space Y and suppose that.

f (x) = g (x)

for all x in a dense subset D of X then f(x) = g (x) ∀ x∈X.

 Theorem A space X is a Housdorff space iff, for any two distinct points a, b in X, there are
closed sets C, and C2, such that .

a∈𝑐1 , b∉ 𝑐1 , a ∉c2 , b ∈C2 and X= C1 U C2

Theorem A space x is Hausdorff iff. For every point a of x {a} =∩𝛼 𝐶𝛼

Where each 𝐶𝛼 is a closed set containing on open set U which contains a.

 16

 Theorem The topological product п𝛼 𝑋𝛼 𝑜𝑓 𝑇0 T1 or T2 spaces X2 is also to T1 or T2

respectively.
 Theorem A first countable space X is said to be a regular space iff every convergent
sequence has a unique limit.

Regular Space

A Topological space X is said to be a regular space if for any closed set A and any point
x not in A there are open sets U and V such that

x∈U ,A⊆V

And U ∩V =∅

Example: A regular space need not be T1 –Space.

Consider t= {𝛷, X,{a},{b,c} on X={a, b,c}

The closed subset of X

⟹X,𝛷, {𝑎}, {b, c}

(X, τ) is a regular space because A= {a} closed subset of X.

U= {A,C} and V = {a} are open in X .

Such that

b∈U, A⊆V , U∩V=𝛷

C∈U, A⊆V, U∩V=𝛷

On other hand (X, τ) is not T1-space every single ton of X is not closed.

i.e. {b}, {c}.

T3-space

A T3 Space is a regular T1 -Space is regular Space +T1 Space

Every T3-Space Is T1 Space.

Example Every T3-space is T2- space.

 17

solution let x be a t3 then x is regular t1 space for any XY∈X. then x is regular T1-space for any
x,y∈X, x≠y .then A= {y} be closed set in x{because each single ton is closed in X.{because each
singleton is closed in T1-space }

Also X is regular for any closed set A={y} and a point x not in a there exist open et U and v such
that

b∈U , A⊆V , U∩V=𝛷

C∈U, A⊆V, U∩V=𝛷

Hence x is T2 space.

 Theorem:

The following statement about a topological.

a) x is regular

b) for any open set u in x and x∈u there is a open set v containing x such that x∈ 𝑣 ⊆U

c) Each element of X has a (local) neighborhoods containing of closed sets.

Completely regular space

A topological space X is said to be completely regular if for any closed set A in X and a point x not
in A. there is a continuous function f:X⟶ [0, 1] such that f(x) = 0 and f(A) = 1

Equivalent statement: The identity is always continuous so the function f: I⟶ [0, 1]. Given by

g = I-f. I(x) = 1. ∀ X ∈ x. Then

 18

g(A) =(I – f) (A) = I(A) – f(A) = 1 – 1 = 0

And g(x) = (I – f) (x) = I(x) – f (x) = 1 – 0 = 1

⟹ g(x) 1 and g(A) = 0 which is equivalent condition for completely space.

 Theorem A completely regular space is regular.

𝑻𝒚 Chonoff space /𝑻𝟑𝟏 space

𝟐

A completely regular 𝑇1 _ space is said to be a 𝑇𝑦 Chonoff space or T31 space.

2

Since 𝑇3 = regular +T1 T31 =completely regular + T1 space.

2

 Theorem Every completely regular T1 space is Housdorff.

 Theorem a) Every subspace of completely regular space (or of a 𝑇𝑦 Chonoff space) is
completely regular (is 𝑇𝑦 Chonoff).

b) The topological product of completely regular (or of a 𝑇𝑦 Chonoff space) is completely regular
( or 𝑇𝑦 Chonoff).

 Prove that every metric space is regular Housdroff space.

Example Every metric space is completely regular in fact a 𝑇𝑦 Chonoff space.

Solution: let (X, d) be a metric space and A be a closed subset of X and x a point of X not in A.
Then define a function f: X ⟶ [0, 1] by

F(y) =d (y, A), y∈X

Then f is continuous because for any ɛ˃0 take 𝛅=ɛ. Then ∀ y, 𝑦 ′ ∈ 𝑋, 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑦 ′ ) < 𝜹

⟹|f(y) –f(𝑦 ′ )|= | d(y, A) – d (𝑦 ′ , A)| ≤ d(y, 𝑦 ′ ) ˂ℰ = 𝛅.

Also f(A) = 0 ∵ f(y) = d (y, A) ⟹ f(A)=d (A, A) =|A-A|=0

And for not in A f(x)=d(x,A)= K ≠ 0 because A is closed and x ∉ A.

Take g = (1/k) f ⟹ g(x) = 1/k f(x) = k/k = 1

Then g is continuous with the properties.

g(A) = 0 and g(x) = 1.

 19

Hence X is completely regular.

Lastly, since every metric space is T1 . Hence every metric space is completely regularT1 . Or 𝑇𝑦
Chonoff space.

Space C(X, R)

The space C(X, R) is the set of all real valued continuous function defined on a topological space
X.

The space C(X, R) is said to separate points if for any two distinct point x, y of X, there is a function
f in (X, R) such that f(x) ≠ f(y).

Where X is a topological space.

Theorem For any space if a C (X, R) separate point of X then X is housdroff space.

Normal space:

A topological space X is said to be a normal space if for any two closed disjoint subsets A and B
of X there exist disjoint open sets U and V such that

A ⊂ U, B ⊂ V and U⋂V = Φ. X

U V

u
A B

𝑻𝟒− Space: A normal T1 space is called 𝑇4− Space.

Example: Every discrete space with at least two points is normal.

Solution: let X = {a, b} and τ =(x). Then every subset of X is both open and closed.

Let A= {a} ⊆ {a} =U

B= {b} ⊆ {b} =V

Where A and B are closed and U and V are open and

 20

U⋂V =Φ

Hence X is normal.

Example: Every metric space is a normal space.

Proof:

Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of n metric space (X, d) if A or B trivial then Φ and
X are the requires open sets containing A and B are non- empty.

Let a ∈ A , Then a ∉ B. since B is closed .

d (a, B) = 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑏∈𝐵 𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏) > 0

Let 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏) similarly for every point b of B. b ∉ A and 𝑟𝑏 = 𝑑(𝑏, 𝐴).

Consider now the open balls B (a:𝑟𝑎 /3) and B (b, 𝑟𝑏 /3). Take

𝑟
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑎∈𝐴 B (a: 3𝑎 ), 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑏∈𝐵 B (b, 𝑟𝑏 /3)

Then U and V are open sets being union of open balls

Also A⊆ U , B ⊆ V.

NOW we show that U⋂V = Φ

If x ∈ U⋂ V, there are point 𝑎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 in A and B resp.such that

𝑟 𝑟′
𝑥 ∈ 𝐵(𝑎1 , 31 ) and𝑥 ∈ 𝐵( 𝑏1 , 31 )

𝑟1 𝑟1′
So that d (𝑎1 , 𝑥) < and d (𝑏1 , 𝑥) < .
3 3

Since A and B are closed and disjoint.

d (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ) = 𝑟 > 0 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑(𝑎1 , 𝐵) = 𝑟1 ≤ 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 (𝑏1 , 𝐴) = 𝑟1′ ≤ 𝑟

By definition of infimum. Hence

r= d (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ) ≤ d (𝑎1 , 𝑥)+ d (𝑥, 𝑏1 )

𝑟 𝑟1′
≤ 31 + 3
 21

𝑟 𝑟
≤ +
3 3
2𝑟
≤
3

<𝑟 ⟹ 𝑟 < 𝑟.

A contradiction. Hence U⋂V =Φ. Therefore, U and V are the required open sets containing A and
B respectively.

 Theorem A topological space (X, τ) is a normal iff, for any closed set A and an open set
U containing A, there is at least one open set V containing A such that

A⊆V ⊆𝑉̅ ⊆ 𝑈

 Theorem A normal T1 space, that is a 𝑇4− Space, is regular.

 Theorem A closed subspace of a normal space is normal.
 Corollary Every closed subspace of a 𝑇4− Space is a 𝑇4− Space.
 Theorem A closed continuous image of a normal space is normal.

Compact topological space

A topological space (x, τ) is said to be compact if every open cover of X contains a (sub -
cover) finite sub cover.

A subspace Y of X is said to be compact if Y, with relative topology, is compact.

Example: Let X be on infinite set with co-finite topology τ, then (X, τ) is compact.

Let X be an infinite set and τ be the co-finite topology on X.

C= {⋃ 𝛼 𝑖𝛼 ∈Ω} be an open cover of X.

Take ⋃ 𝛽 ∈ 𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ⋃,𝛽 𝑖𝑠 finite. Put ⋃,𝛽 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3………….,, 𝑥𝑛 } . Since C is an open cover
of X, there are sets ⋃ 𝛼𝑖 ∈ 𝐶. Such that

𝑥𝑖 ∈ ⋃ 𝛼𝑖 i=1, 2, 3, 4………n.

Then finite sub collection is ⋃ 𝐶1 = {𝑈𝛽 , 𝑈𝛼1 , 𝑈𝛼2 , … … … … , 𝑈𝑛 } . This is a finite subcover
of X.
𝑛
i.e. = 𝑈𝛽 ∪ (𝑈𝑖=1 𝑈𝛼𝑖 )

Hence X is compact.
 22

Finite intersection topology

Let X be a topological space and 𝑈 = {𝑈𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ Ω} be a collection of subsets of X. Then the

collection U is said to satisfy the finite intersection property if every finite sub-collection of U has
non-empty intersection. That is for any finite sub-collection of U has non-empty intersection.
That is for any finite subset Ω1 of Ω,

⋂ 𝑈𝛽 ≠ 𝛷
𝛽∈Ω1

 Theorem A topological space X is compact iff every collection {𝐶𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ Ω} of closed sets
is X which satisfies the finite intersection property itself has non-empty intersection.
 Theorem The continuous image of a compact space is compact.
 Corollary The homeomorphic image of compact space is compact.
 Corollary Compactness is a topological property.
 Theorem: Every compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.
 Theorem: Let X be a Housdroff space, C a compact subset of X and x an element of X
which is not in C. Then there are disjoint open sets 𝑈𝑥 and 𝑉𝑥 in X such that
 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 ⊆ 𝑉𝑥 .
 Theorem: Every closed subset of a compact space is compact.
 Corollary: Every closed subset of a compact Housdroff space is itself compact and
Housdroff.
 Theorem: Every compact Housdroff space is normal.
 Theorem: Any continuous bijective function from a compact space X to a Housdroff space
Y is necessarily a homeomorphism.
 Theorem Every compact subset of 𝑅𝑛 is closed and bounded.
 Theorem A continuous real valued function defined on a compact space is bounded and
attains its bounds.
 Countably Compact Space
A topological space x is said to be countably compact iff every countable sub- cover has a
finite sub- cover.
OR
A topological space X is said to be countably compact iff every countable collection of
closed set in X which satisfy the finite intersection property, itself has non-empty intersection.

Example Let B= {1, 1/2,1/3 ,..} =countable set and A= [0, 1] =uncountable set.

Clearly B⊆A. ‘O’ is limit point of B because for any open set containing ‘O’

𝑈 ∩ 𝐵{0} ≠ 𝛷
 23

I.e. Also contains at least one point of A= [0, 1]. This is a so because

𝑈 ∩ 𝐴{0} ≠ 𝛷

If countably infinite subset of A has limit exist, then infinite set A has limit exist.

 Theorem Let X be a topological space. Then any infinite subset of X has a limit point iff
every countably infinite subset of X has a limit point.
 Theorem let X be a countably compact space. Then every infinite subset of X has a limit
point in X.

Bolzano-Wierstrass Property

A space X is said to satisfy the Bolzano-Wierstrass property iff every infinite subset of X
has a limit point in X.

Corollary Every countably compact space satisfies the Bolzano-wierstrass property.

Theorem Let X be a 𝑇1 -space. Then X is countably compact iff X satisfies the Bolzano-wierstrass
property.

Heine_Borel Theorem

Every open cover of a closed and bounded interval A = [a, b] is reducible to a finite sub
cover.

(or)

Let A=[a, b] be a closed and bounded interval and let {𝐼𝑛 } be a sequence of open intervals
𝐼𝑛 in R such that A=[a, b] ⊆ 𝑈𝑛 𝐼𝑛 (open cover)

Then this open cover is reducible to a finite sub cover {𝐼𝑖 ∶ 𝑖 = 1, 2, … … … , 𝑛} such that
𝑛
A = [a, b] ⊆ 𝑈𝑖=1 𝐼𝑖

Hence by Heine_Boret theorem every closed interval [a, b] is compact.

CONNECTED SPACE

Connected Space

A topological space X is said to be connected if there does not exist a pair A, B of non-
empty disjoint open subsets of X such that X=AUB.

Dis-connected Space
 24

A topological space X is said to be dis-connected if there exist two non-empty disjoint

open subsets A and B of such that

AUB=ɸ and AUB=X X=Dis-connected

A B
Then [A, B] is called dis-connected of X and (X, τ) is called dis-connected space.

Example: Every indiscrete space is connected.

Sol: For any set X, τ= {ɸ, X} is the discrete topology, there exist a pair of A, B of non-empty disjoint
open sets such that

X=AUB

Therefore (X, τ) is connected.

 Any infinite space with co-finite topology is connected.

 The space Q rational number is dis-connected.

 Theorem

A topological space X is dis-connected if and only if X contains a non-empty subset A which

is both open and closed in X.

 Theorem

The continuous image of a connected space is connected.

 Theorem

A space X is connected if and only if there exist a surjective continuous function f from X
onto the two-point discrete space.

 Theorem

A topological space (X, τ) is connected if and only if every continuous function f from X to
a discrete space D reduces to a constant function.

Connected Subspace

A subspace Y of a space X is connected if and only if Y is connected under the relative

topology on Y. Thus a subspace Y of a topological space X is connected if there does not exist two
non-empty disjoint open subset 𝐴1 and 𝐵1 of Y such that Y=𝐴1 𝑈𝐵1 .
 25

Where A, B are open in X.

 Theorem
 Let {A, B} be a disconnection of a space X and C be a connected subspace of X. Then C is
connected in A or B.
 Theorem
 Let ⋃𝛼∈Ω 𝑋𝛼 where each 𝑋𝛼 is connected and ⋂𝛼∈Ω 𝑋𝛼 ≠ 𝜙. Then X is connected.
 Theorem
 A topological space X is connected if and only if, for every pair of points in X, there is some
connected subspace of X which contains both.
 Theorem
 Let C be a connected subset of X and for some subset A of X,
 𝐶⊂𝐴⊆𝐶
 Then A is connected. In particular 𝐶 is connected.
 Theorem
 A subspace X of the real line R is connected if and only if X is an interval.

 Corollary
 The real line R is connected.
 Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem)

Let 𝑓: 𝑹 → 𝑹 be continuous function. Let x, z Є f(R) with x<z. Then, for every y Є R with
x<y<z, there is an r Є R such that f(r) = y.

 Theorem

The Cartesian product 𝑋 × 𝑌 of two connected spaces X and Y is connected.

 Corollary

The spaces 𝑹𝑛 and 𝑪𝑛 (≅ 𝑹2𝑛 ) are connected.

Components a topological space

If a space X is not connected, then it is sometimes important to know about certain

connected subsets of X. This leads us to the concepts of a component of X which is defined below:

Let X be a topological space A maximal connected subset of X is called a component.

REMARKS
 26

 If X is connected, then X itself is a component.

 If X is disconnected, then X contains one or more than one component.

Con. A B
Con.
X= Disc X= Disc X= Disc
Con.

 Theorem

Let X be topological space. Then

a) For each x Є X, there is exactly one component of X containing x.

b) Each connected subset of X which is contained in a component of X.

c) A connected subset of X which is both open and closed is a component.

d) Every component is closed in X.

Totally Disconnected Spaces

A topological space X is said to be totally disconnected if and only if all non-empty subset
which are not one point subsets are disconnected.

A topological space X is said to be totally disconnected if for any two points x and y of X,
there is a disconnected {A, B} of X such that

x Є A and y Є B

Example

Every discrete space is totally disconnected.

 Theorem

A totally disconnected space is Hausdorff.

 Theorem

The subspace Q of rationales in the space R of real numbers is totally disconnected.

 27

REMARKS

The examples Q and 𝑸∗ of rationals and irrational numbers as totally disconnected spaces
show that a totally disconnected spaces show that a totally disconnected space need not be
discrete.

 Theorem

The components of a totally disconnected space are its singleton subsets.

 Theorem

If a Hausdorff space X has an open base whose sets are also closed, then X is totally
disconnected.

Applications of Topological spaces

Topology and its Applications is primarily concerned with publishing original research
papers of moderate length. However, a limited number of carefully selected survey or expository
papers are also included. The mathematical focus of the journal is that suggested by the title:
Research in Topology. It is felt that it is inadvisable to attempt a definitive description of topology
as understood for this journal. Certainly the subject includes the algebraic, general, geometric,
and set-theoretic facets of topology as well as areas of interactions between topology and other
mathematical disciplines, e.g. topological algebra, topological dynamics, functional analysis,
category theory. Since the roles of various aspects of topology continue to change, the non-
specific delineation of topics serves to reflect the current state of research in topology.
Topology is the only major branch of modern mathematics that wasn't anticipated by the
ancient mathematicians. Throughout most of its history, topology has been regarded as strictly
abstract mathematics, without applications. However, illustrating Wigner's principle of “the
unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences,” topology is now beginning
to come up in our understanding of many different real world phenomena. In this
minisymposium, Robert MacPherson describes the history and pervasiveness of topology, Raúl
Rabadán describes how topology modifies our understanding of evolution and disease, and
Randall Kamien discusses the relationship between topology and liquid crystals, like those in
computer displays. Following the presentation, Robbert Dijkgraaf moderates a panel discussion
on topology.
Topology is useful to mathematics as a whole. Mathematics is useful to humanity. By
transitivity, Topology is useful to humanity.

Real life examples

 28

There are many real-life examples, for instance, the hairy ball theorem is encountered
every time you wonder how come we can't have a map of the earth without having two poles
where latitude is undefined. Or when trying to comb your hair. People who make clothes know
very well that the more holes you need (sleeves,), the more additional seams you need after you
cut the main piece of cloth. The minimal number of seams is basically the first betti number.
Making pants is fundamentally different from making a sweater, because the number of holes is
different. Origami (or wrapping presents) falls into the same category
Knots are very important in everyday life, even if you are not a mountain climber. You
subconsciously realize it is important if something is a knot or not. If you tie your shoelaces
correctly, you didn't make a true knot, so you can pull a strand and it unties. However, if you
mess it up, you made a knot (and lost a few minutes to undo it). The same goes for earphones.
While it may not be critically important to know how to classify knots and how to define all the
complicated invariants seen in knot theory, on some basic level, you do grasp the concept of
something being equivalent and just arranged differently, compared to something being
fundamentally different. In one case, there is only a continuous rearrangement of the rope that
separates you from falling to your death, in the other case, cutting is the only way.

Another example is map coloring: even if you don't make maps, as a child you probably
tried coloring something so that adjacent fields don't share the same color. You probably even
noticed that if you made a closed squiggle with a single stroke, an alternating pattern of two
colors is enough. But nevertheless, it took mathematicians quite a long time (and a computer) to
finally prove that you need at most 4 colours. That's nothing else but topology.
In material science, the examples are: magnetic skyrmions and related solitons, which
will help fit more data on a hard drive; liquid crystals have defects that are governed by quite
complex topological rules - whether you want to avoid defects or control them, you need to know
the rules; DNA knotting and topological insulators were already mentioned by other answers;
topology of neural networks is a way of making sense of the mess of data you acquire in brain
research; other topology-related physics questions are less "applicative" and could be regarded
as purely academic: topology of curved space-time, study of knotted vortices in liquids, helicity
of magnetic fields.
It depends on what you mean by "using" topology. In everyday life, you are dealing with
some rudimentary topological notions subconsciusly, without actually performing any real math.
In physical sciences, topology is currently sort of a hype: it has seen a high increase in research
and publication volume - it will definitely yield new useful stuff, but there is also a lot of papers
that are just there because it's interesting to look at something from topological perspective.
Both use cases actually use a very small subset of what mathematicians call topology. So
for them, topology encountered in physics on the academic level isn't much better than counting
poles on a globe.
Topology also has applications within computer science.
 29

Directed algebraic topology is a branch of algebraic topology that has applications in

concurrency theory when trying to avoid and resolve deadlocks and starvation. Topological data
analysis is an alternative to standard data mining, which allows one to infer global and structural
properties about data. In applied mathematics, topological data analysis (TDA) is an approach to
the analysis of datasets using techniques from topology. Extraction of information from datasets
that are high-dimensional, incomplete and noisy is generally challenging. TDA provides a general
framework to analyze such data in a manner that is insensitive to the particular metric chosen
and provides dimensionality reduction and robustness to noise. Beyond this, it inherits
functoriality, a fundamental concept of modern mathematics, from its topological nature, which
allows it to adapt to new mathematical tools.

Applications in physics
Topology plays a huge role in contemporary condensed matter physics, and many top-notch
researchers have made a career of it---e.g. Xiao-Liang Qi at Stanford. There are more applications
of topology to condensed matter physics than I can begin to enumerate
Dislocations in crystals.
These are an example of a "topological defect" a flaw in a material which cannot be removed by
continuous deformation. Such defects are classified by homotopy groups.
Anyons and topological quantum computing.

Alexa Kitaev has proposed a very robust model for a quantum computer in which the stability of
the computer (stability being the main challenge in building a practical quantum computer) is
protected by topology (similar to the stability of dislocations in crystals).

Threshold complexes from topology were used to disprove a computer science conjecture about
the complexity of certain algorithms. Complexity of algorithms has been studied using topological
techniques including the Borsuk-Ulam theorem

References

Book : Introduction to topological space and Functional analysis by “Dr. Abdul Majid”

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