ANDERSON JUNIOR COLLEGE

H2 MATHEMATICS
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PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Syllabus Requirements:
Skills of partial fractions decomposition are required in topics such as Series and Sequences,
Integration and Differential Equations.
References:
1. Pure Mathematics by Andy Martin
2. Pure Mathematics 1 by L Bostock and S Chandler

Section 1: Polynomials
1.1 Definition of a Polynomial
A polynomial of degree n is an expression of the form

an x n + an −1 x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 + ....... + a1 x + a0
where an , an −1 , an − 2 ,..., a1 , a0 are all real constants and n is a non-negative integer.

[Examples] Expresssion Is it a polynomial?

x2 + 2x – 1 YES! It is a polynomial of degree 2.

4x4 – 3x2 + 2 YES! It is a polynomial of degree 4.

1
NO! It is not a polynomial since the power of x in x is
2
2 x + x2 − 1
and is not an integer.
1 1
x+ NO! It is not a polynomial since the power of x in is −1 and
x x
is a negative number.

1.2 Equality of Polynomials

Consider two polynomials f ( x ) and g ( x ) . If f ( x ) = g ( x ) for all real values of x, we can

write f ( x ) ≡ g ( x ) (read as “ f ( x ) is equivalent to g ( x ) ”).

[Examples] For the EQUATION x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0 , only some values of x (in this case, that
would be x = 1 and x = 2) will satisfy the equation. Usually we will solve the
equation for these values of x.

1
 For the EQUIVALENCE x 2 − 3 x + 2 ≡ ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) , all values of x will

satisfy both sides of the equation.

Example 1.2.1
Given that x − 4 ≡ A( x − 1)2 + B ( 2 x + 1) ( x − 1) + C ( 2 x + 1) , find the values of A, B and C.
Solution
x − 4 ≡ A( x − 1) 2 + B ( 2 x + 1) ( x − 1) + C ( 2 x + 1)

Let x = 1 : 1-4 = C(2+1) ⇒ C = −1

2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Let x = − 1
: − −4 = A ⎜ − − 1⎟ ⇒ A = -2
⎝ 2 ⎠
2
2

Comparing coefficients of x 2 : 0 = A + 2 B ⇒ B = 1
Method 2 :
x − 4 ≡ A( x − 1) 2 + B ( 2 x + 1) ( x − 1) + C ( 2 x + 1)

Comparing coefficients of
x2 : 0 = A + 2B ⇒ A = - 2B --------(1)
x : 1 = -2A – B + 2C -----(2)
constant : -4 = A – B + C -------(3)
Substitute (1) into (2) and (3) :
(2) becomes 1 = 3B + 2C ----------(4)
(3) becomes -4 = -3B + C ----------(5)
Solving (4) and (5) : -3 = 3C ⇒ C = -1 , B = 1 , A = -2

Section 2: Rational Function

P( x)
A rational function is an expression of the form where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials
Q( x)
and Q(x) ≠ 0.

1 x 2 + 3x
[Examples] (i) and 2 are rational functions.
x +1 x + 5x − 6
1
(ii) is not a rational function since the denominator x + 1 is not a
x +1
polynomial.

[NOTE]
P( x)
• If the degree of P(x) < the degree of Q(x), is called a proper fraction.
Q( x)

2
 P( x)
• If the degree of P(x) ≥ the degree of Q(x), is called an improper fraction.
Q( x)

3x 2 + 2 x + 1
[Examples] (i) is a proper fraction.
4 x3 + 3
x3 + 1 2x 4 + 3
(ii) and are improper fractions.
2x 3 + x − 1 x 2 − x − 10

x 3 − 2x + 1
(iii) is an improper fraction. :
( x 2 + 1)( x − 2)

Section 3: Partial Fractions

By adding or subtracting two or more fractions, we can easily form a single fraction.
2 x 2( x 2 + 1) + x( x + 1)
e.g. + 2 =
x +1 x +1 ( x + 1)( x 2 + 1)
3x 2 + x + 2
=
(x + 1)(x 2 + 1)

Conversely, we can also resolve a single fraction into the sum of two or more fractions called
partial fractions.

2x 3 1 2 1
Example: = − +
(1 + x 2 )(1 − x) 2 1+ x 2 1− x (1 − x) 2

Note : Partial fractions

ƒ Denominators of partial fractions are powers of irreducible
polynomials.

P( x)
To resolve a single fraction into partial fractions, the following rules must be observed:
S ( x)

3.1 Rule 1:

P( x)
must be a proper fraction and there should be no common factors in the
S ( x)
numerator and denominator.

‹ An improper fraction must first be converted into the sum of a polynomial and a
proper fraction.

3
Example 3.1.1:
4 x 3 − 3x + 2
- improper fraction
(2 x − 1)( x + 2)

4 x 3 − 3x + 2 4 x 3 − 3x + 2
=
(2 x − 1)( x + 2) 2 x 2 + 3x − 2
10 x − 4
= 2x − 3 + by long division
(2 x − 1)( x + 2)

Example 3.1.2 (Alternative Method):

2 x 2 + 3x + 5
- improper fraction
x2 + 5x + 6

2 x 2 + 3x + 5
=
( )
2 x 2 + 5 x + 6 − 10 x − 12 + 3 x + 5
x2 + 5x + 6 x + 5x + 6
2

7x + 7
= 2−
x + 5x + 6
2

Review Question
x2 + 3 R ( x) R ( x)
Express into the form Q ( x ) + where is a proper fraction.
2x + x + 1
2
S ( x) S ( x)

1 5− x
[Answer: + ]
(
2 2 2 x2 + x + 1 )

3.2 Rule 2:

Non-repeated linear factors in the denominator:

px + q A B
= +
( ax + b )( cx + d ) ( ax + b ) ( cx + d )

Example 3.2.1
2x + 1
Express in partial fractions
x + 5x + 6
2

Solution
2x + 1 2x + 1
= ( x + 3)( x + 2)
x2 + 5x + 6

2x + 1 A B
Let ≡ +
( x + 3)( x + 2) x + 3 x + 2

4
Multiplying both sides by the LCM (x + 3)( x + 2 )
⇒ 2 x + 1 = A( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 3)
Solving for A and B:
Let x = -3, -5 = -A ⇒ A = 5
Let x = -2, -3 = B
2x + 1 5 3
Therefore, = − .
x + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
2

Method 2: Cover - Up Method ( Refer to Appendix for explanation )

2x + 1 2x + 1 A B
≡ ≡ +
x + 5x + 6
2
( x + 3)( x + 2) x + 3 x + 2
2(−3) + 1 −5
By cover up method, A = = =5
−3 + 2 −1
2(−2) + 1 −3
B= =
−2 + 3 1
2x + 1 5 3
Therefore, = −
x + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
2

Example 3.2.2
10 x − 4
Express in partial fractions.
(2 x − 1)( x + 2)

Solution
10 x − 4 A B
Let ≡ + .
(2 x − 1)( x + 2) 2 x − 1 x + 2
1
10( ) − 4 2 10(−2) − 4 24
2
By cover up method, A = = ; B= =
1 5 2(−2) − 1 5
+2
2
10 x − 4 2 24
Therefore, ≡ +
(2 x − 1)( x + 2) 5(2 x − 1) 5( x + 2)

Example 3.2.3 (worked example)

x2 − x +1
Express 2 in partial fractions.
x − x−2

Solution
x2 − x +1 3
= 1+
x − x−2
2
(x − 2)(x + 1)
3 A B
Let ≡ + .
( x − 2)( x + 1) x − 2 x + 1

5
 3 3
By cover up method, A = =1 ; B= = −1
2+1 − 1− 2
x2 − x +1 1 1
Therefore, = 1+ − .
x − x−2
2
x − 2 x +1

Review Question:
5 x − 17 2 3
Express in partial fractions. [Ans: + ]
x − 7 x + 12
2
x−3 x−4

3.3 Rule 3:

Repeated Linear Factors in the denominator:

px 2 + qx + r A B C
= + +
( ax + b )( cx + d )
2
( ax + b ) ( cx + d ) ( cx + d )2

Example 3.3.1
1 − 8x − x 2
Express in partial fractions.
(x + 1)(x − 1) 2

Solution
1 − 8x − x 2 A B C
Let 2 ≡ + +
( x + 1)( x − 1) x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1) 2

Multiplying both sides by the LCM (x + 1)( x − 1)2 :

1 − 8x − x 2 = A(x − 1) 2 + B (x + 1)(x − 1) + C (x + 1)
Let x = 1, -8 = 2C ⇒ C = −4
Let x = -1, 8 = 4A ⇒ A=2
Compare the coefficient of x2, − 1= A + B
⇒ B = −3

1 − 8x − x 2 2 3 4
Therefore, ≡ − − .
( x + 1)( x − 1) 2
x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1) 2

Review Question:
18 x − 9 −5 5 3
Express in partial fractions. [Ans: + + ]
( x + 2 )( x − 1) x + 2 x − 1 ( x − 1)2
2

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3.4 Rule 4:

Non-repeated quadratic factor in the denominator:

px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C
= + 2
( ax + b ) ( x 2 + c 2 ) (
( ax + b ) x + c 2 )

Example 3.4.1
x2 − 3
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x 2 + 1)

Solution
x2 − 3 A Bx + C
Let ≡ + 2 (Note that discriminant of x2 +1 = -4 < 0)
( x − 1)( x + 1)
2
x −1 x +1

Multiplying by the LCM (x − 1)(x 2 + 1) :

x 2 − 3 ≡ A( x 2 + 1) + ( Bx + C )( x − 1)
Let x = 1 : -2 = 2A ⇒ A = -1
Let x = 0 : -3 = A – C ⇒ C = 2
Equating coefficients of x2 : 1 = A + B ⇒ B = 2

x2 − 3 − 1 2x + 2
Therefore ≡ +
( x − 1)( x + 1) 2
x −1 x2 + 1

Example 3.4.2 (Worked example)

3x 3 + 12
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 1) ( x 2 + 2 )

Solution:
3x 3 + 12
is an improper fraction.
( x − 1) ( x 2 + 2 )

3x 3 + 12 3x3 + 12
=
( x − 1) ( x 2 + 2 ) (x 3
− x2 + 2 x − 2 )

=
( )
3 x3 − x 2 + 2 x − 2 + 3x 2 − 6 x + 6 + 12
= 3+
(
3 x2 − 2 x + 6 ) = 3+
(
3 x2 − 2 x + 6 )
(x 3
− x + 2x − 2
2
) (x 3
− x + 2x − 2
2
) ( x − 1) ( x + 2 )
2

7
Let
(
3 x2 − 2 x + 6 ) =
A Bx + C
+ 2
( x − 1) ( x + 2 )
2
( x − 2 ) x +2( )
( ) ( )
⇒ 3 x 2 − 2 x + 6 = A x 2 + 2 + ( Bx + C )( x −1)

Let x = 1 : 3 (12 − 2 (1) + 6 ) = A (12 + 2 )

⇒ A=5

Comparing coefficients of x 2 : 3 = A + B ⇒ B = −2
Comparing the constants : 18 = 2A – C ⇒ C = -8
3x3 + 12 5 −2 x − 8
∴ = 3+ + 2
( x − 1) ( x 2
+2 ) (
x −1 x + 2 )
5 2( x + 4)
= 3+ − 2
(
x −1 x + 2 )

Review Question:
3x 2 − 2 x + 7 3 2
Express in partial fractions. [Ans: − ]
( x − 2) ( x 2
+1 ) x − 2 x2 + 1

Appendix :
Cover-up Rule (Very useful method )
This method can be used when the denominator consists of distinct (non-repeated) linear
factors.
f (x ) A B f ( x) B(x − a )
Consider ≡ + , ie ≡ A+ ( note ! )
(x − a )(bx + c) x − a bx + c (bx + c) bx + c
To find A: We ‘cover’ (x − a ) on the LHS and substitute x = a . The value obtained is A.
f (a )
i.e. A = .
b (a ) + c
c
To find B: We ‘cover’ (bx + c) on the LHS and substitute x = − . The value obtained is
b
c
f (− )
b
B. i.e. B = .
c
− −a
b

8
Summary

When expressing a rational function into partial fractions, the following rules must be
observed :
Rule 1 : An improper fraction must first be converted into the sum
P( x) of a polynomial and a proper fraction.
must be a proper fraction
S ( x)
and there should be no common
factors in the numerator and
denominator.
Rule 2 :

Non-repeated linear factors in px + q A B

the = +
denominator ( ax + b )( cx + d ) ( ax + b ) ( cx + d )

Rule 3 :

Repeated Linear Factors in px 2 + qx + r A B C

= + +
the denominator
( ax + b )( cx + d )
2
( ax + b ) ( cx + d ) ( cx + d )2
Rule 4 :
px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C
= + 2
( ax + b ) ( x 2 + c 2 ) (
( ax + b ) x + c 2 )
Non-repeated quadratic factor
in the denominator: