Methods of Data Collection

in qualitative research

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an

established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.

Data Collection Methods in Qualitative Research:

 There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in

 Qualitative Research
 Observation method
 Interview method
 (iii)Questionnaires
 Through schedules
 Focus groups
Other methods
 Warranty cards
 Distributor audits
 Pantry audits
 Consumer panels
 Using mechanical devices
 Through projective techniques
 Depth interviews
 Content analysis

Observation Method:
 Daily observations are just casual
 No specific purpose
 Observation as a method of data collection
 Different from such casual viewing
 The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioral sciences.
 In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation.

 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
  Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it
is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
 Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the
case in the interview or the questionnaire method.

This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who
are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other

observation method has various limitations.

 it is an expensive method.
 the information provided by this method is very limited.
 sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that
some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.

Why to observe ?

• To study people in their 'natural setting

• Data consists of detailed information
• Provide a deeper, richer, understanding
• Survey work which tends to produce less detailed
• Some methods only allow for the study of one individual
• To study groups of people together,

Characteristics of observation research

 Physical and a mental activity

 Behavior is observed in natural surroundings.
It enables understanding significant events affecting social relations of the participants.
It determines reality from the perspective of observed person himself.
 It identifies regularities and recurrences in social life by comparing data in our study with that of
other studies.
 It avoids manipulations in the independent variable i.e., one that is supposed to cause other
variable(s) and is not caused by them.
Recording is not selective
 Feature of observation
 Eye Observation, observation involves the use of the eyes rather than the use of the ears and
the voice. An experienced worker never believes in hear say he only trusts if he has observed
that with his own eyes or if the report is a first hand evidence of his eyes. So it can be said that
observation done with the help of the eyes acts as a most trustworthy medium for making an
observation.
  Aim Observations which act on scientific grounds are brought in use by the scientists or the
researchers with some or the other aim to achieve something. Such scientists make their
observations in a very minute and a detailed manner which helps them in achieving specific
goals. These goals can include discovery of something, verification of the hypothesis etc.
 Planning The value of an observation in an operation is only if it is done properly – in a planned
manner as, if it is done in a careless sense then the chance of making such an observation again
may come or not.
 Recording The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain should be
remembered but a known fact is that memory is very deceptive in nature. With the passage of
time things tend to get out of mind, so it is very important to keep a record of such activities.
 Physical and mental activity – Sense organs have a very critical role to play in the observation
process. During the observation researcher or an investigator has to use his sense organs for
seeing and hearing things and then has to keep in mind the whole set of observations for an in
depth analysis of the matter later on.
 Exactness Observation should be based on standardized tools of research which makes an
observation exact in its nature of working.
 Direct study Observation is a very vital scientific method that helps a lot in the collection of the
primary information that is reliable in nature in which direct study of the situation is involved.

Advantages of Observation

 Very direct method for collecting data or information – best for the study of human behavior.
 Data collected is very accurate in nature and also very reliable.
 Improves precision of the research results.
 Problem of depending on respondents is decreased.
 Helps in understanding the verbal response more efficiently.
 By using good and modern gadgets – observations can be made continuously and also for a
larger duration of time period.
 Observation is less demanding in nature, which makes it less bias in working abilities.
 By observation, one can identify a problem by making an in depth analysis of the problems.

Types of observation

• Participant Observation: Participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the

researcher studies a group not only by observing the group, but also by participating in the activities of
the group. EXAMPLE: an anthropologist goes to live with a tribe in the Amazon rainforest or a sociologist
moves into a housing project to learn about poverty.
• Non-participant Observation: Non-participant Observation involves observing participants without
actively participating. This option is used to understand a phenomenon by entering the community or
social system involved, while staying separate from the activities being observed. EXAMPLE: when
researchers sit in on meetings or workshops on site, but do not actively participate.

• Direct Observation: the collection of information using your senses. By observing, you can document
activities, behavior, and physical aspects of a situation without having to depend on peoples' willingness
or ability

• Indirect Observation: involves material generated either indirectly from transcriptions of audio
recordings of verbal behavior in natural settings (e.g., conversation, group discussions) or directly from
narratives (e.g., letters of complaint, tweets, forum posts)

• Controlled Observation: researchers are able to determine which of their subjects receive the factor
that is being tested for having a causal influence upon another factor.

• Uncontrolled Observation: researchers have no such control over whether their subjects receive the
treatment being investigated

Interview Method
Interviews are designed to collect a richer source of information from a small

number of people about Attributes, Behavior, Preferences, Feelings, Attitudes, Opinions,Knowledge

Interviews are most effective for qualitative research:

 They help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects' opinions, behavior,
experiences, phenomenon, etc.
 Interview questions are usually open-ended questions so that in-depth information will be
collected.

Mode of Data Collection

You can use structured or unstructured interviews. Structured interviews are comparable to a
questionnaire, with the same questions in the same order for each subject and with multiple choice
answers. For unstructured interviews questions can differ per subject and can depend on answers
given on previous questions, there is no fixed set of possible answers.

There are several types of interviews, including:

• Phone
• Face-to-Face
• Online (e.g. Skype, Google hangout, etc.)
Types of interview

• Based on subject matter

1. Qualitative interview:

• A qualitative interview is a more personal form of research compared to questionnaires.

• The interviewer can probe or ask follow-up research questions of the interview participant. In
some cases, subjects may start to interview the interviewer.

2. Quantitative interview:

• quantitative interviews usually contain closed-ended questions that are delivered in the same
format and same order to every respondent. 
• Quantitative interview data are analyzed by assigning a numerical value to participants'
responses.;

3. Mixed interview:

• The mixed or semi-structured interview is one in which the interviewer displays a mixed
strategy, alternating prepared and spontaneous questions.

Based on the nature of approaches

1. Structured interview

The style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the
selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured observation.

2. Unstructured interview

But when observations to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the
same is termed as unstructured observation.

Advantages of interview

• Information collected is reliable

• Help to study the abstract factor

• Highly flexible

• Eliminate the personal barriers

• Study the immediate reaction of interviewe

Disadvantages of interview

• Time consuming

• Costly

• Result dependent on interviewing skill

• No objective

• No Scientific

• Manually data entry

Conducting the Interview

These are the steps that are consistent in the literature on conducting

interviews in research (Creswell, 2012; McNamara, 1999):

• Identify the interviewees.

• Determine the type of interview you will use.

• During the interview, audiotape the questions and responses.

• Take brief notes during the interview.

• Locate a quiet, suitable place for the interview.

• Obtain consent from the interviewer to participate in the study.

• Have a plan, but be flexible.

• Use probes to obtain additional information.

• Be courteous and professional when the interview is over.

Forming questions

• Verbal / Open
• List
• Category
• Ranking
• Quantity
• Grid
• Scale
 Questionnaires Method

Introduction
• A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of
• questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
• Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview
• Questionnaires have many uses, most notably to discover what the
• masses are thinking.
• These include: market research, political polling, customer service
• feedback, evaluations, opinion polls, and social science research.

A good questionnaire design:

1. Identify the scope of your research: Think about what your questionnaire is going to include
before you start designing the look of it. The clarity of the topic is of utmost importance as this is
the primary step in creating the questionnaire. Once you are clear on the purpose of the
questionnaire, you can begin the design process.
2. Keep it simple: The words or phrases you use while writing the questionnaire must be easy to
understand. If the questions are unclear, the respondents may simply choose any answer and
skew the data you collect.
3. Ask only one question at a time: At times, a researcher may be tempted to add two similar
questions. This might seem like an excellent way to consolidate answers to related issues, but it
can confuse your respondents or lead to inaccurate data. If any of your questions contain the
word “and,” take another look. This question likely has two parts, which can affect the quality of
your data.
4. Be flexible with your options: While designing, the survey creator needs to be flexible in terms
of “option choice” for the respondents. Sometimes the respondents may not necessarily want to
choose from the answer options provided by the survey creator. An “other” option often helps
keep respondents engaged in the survey.
5. The open-ended or closed-ended question is a tough choice: The survey creator might end up
in a situation where they need to make distinct choices between open or close-ended questions.
The question type should be carefully chosen as it defines the tone and importance of asking the
question in the first place.

1. If the questionnaire requires the respondents to elaborate on their thoughts, an open-ended

question is the best choice. If the surveyor wants a specific response, then close-ended
questions should be their primary choice. The key to asking closed-ended questions is to
generate data that is easy to analyze and spot trends.

6. It is essential to know your audience: A researcher should know their target audience. For
example, if the target audience speaks mostly Spanish, sending the questionnaire in any other
language would lower the response rate and accuracy of data. Something that may seem clear
to you may be confusing to your respondents. Use simple language and terminology that your
respondents will understand, and avoid technical jargon and industry-specific language that
might confuse your respondents.
 2. For efficient market research, researchers need a representative sample collected using one of
the many sampling techniques. It is imperative to plan and define these target respondents
based on the demographics required.

7. Choosing the right tool is essential Always save personal questions for last. Sensitive questions
may cause respondents to drop off before completing. If these questions are at the end, the
respondent has had time to become more comfortable with the interview and are more likely to
answer personal or demographic questions.

Characteristics of a good questionnaire

1. Uniformity: Questionnaires are very useful to collect demographic information,

personal opinions, facts, or attitudes from respondents. One of the most significant
attributes of a research form is uniform design and standardization. Every respondent
sees the same questions. This helps in data collection and statistical analysis of this data.
a. For example, the retail store evaluation questionnaire template contains
questions for evaluating retail store experiences. Questions relate to purchase
value, range of options for product selections, and quality of merchandise. These
questions are uniform for all customers.
2. Exploratory: It should be exploratory to collect qualitative data. There is no restriction
on questions that can be in your questionnaire. For example, you use a data collection
questionnaire and send it to the female of the household to understand her spending
and saving habits relative to the household income. Open-ended questions give you
more insight and allow the respondents to explain their practices. A very structured
question list could limit the data collection.
3. Question Sequence: It typically follows a structured flow of questions to increase the
number of responses. This sequence of questions is screening questions, warm-up
questions, transition questions, skip questions, challenging questions, and classification
questions. For example, our motivation and buying experience questionnaire
template covers initial demographic questions and then asks for time spent in sections
of the store and the rationale behind purchases.
Questions to avoid

• Poorly worded

• Biased, leading, or loaded

• Problematic for the respondent, including

• Recall-dependent questions

1. Offensive questions.

2. Questions with assumed knowledge.

3. Questions with unwarranted assumptions.

4. Questions with socially desirable responses.

 Types of questions in a questionnaire

1. Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a questionnaire

where the respondent can answer in a free form with little to no restrictions.
2. Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a “yes/no” close-ended
question. This question is usually used in case of the need for necessary validation. It is the most
natural form of a questionnaire.
3. Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended question type in which
a respondent has to select one (single-select multiple-choice question) or many (multi-select
multiple choice question) responses from a given list of options. The multiple-choice question
consists of an incomplete stem (question), right answer or answers, incorrect answers, close
alternatives, and distractors. Of course, not all multiple-choice questions have all of the answer
types. For example, you probably won’t have the wrong or right answers if you’re looking for
customer opinion.
4. Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of the four measurement scales
– nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the question types that utilize these scales’
fundamental properties are rank order questions, Likert scale questions, semantic differential
scale questions, and Stapel scale questions.
5. Pictorial Questions: This question type is easy to use and encourages respondents to answer. It
works similarly to a multiple-choice question. Respondents are asked a question, and the
answer choices are images. This helps respondents choose an answer quickly without over-
thinking their answers, giving you more accurate data.
Types of Questionnaires based on Distribution

1. Online Questionnaire: In this type, respondents are sent the questionnaire via email or other
online mediums. This method is generally cost-effective and time-efficient. Respondents can
also answer at leisure. Without the pressure to respond immediately, responses may be more
accurate. The disadvantage, however, is that respondents can easily ignore these
questionnaires. Read more about online surveys.
2. Telephone Questionnaire: A researcher makes a phone call to a respondent to collect responses
directly. Responses are quick once you have a respondent on the phone. However, a lot of
times, the respondents hesitate to give out much information over the phone. It is also an
expensive way of conducting research. You’re usually not able to collect as many responses as
other types of questionnaires, so your sample may not represent the broader population.
3. In-House Questionnaire: This type is used by a researcher who visits the respondent’s home or
workplace. The advantage of this method is that the respondent is in a comfortable and natural
environment, and in-depth data can be collected. The disadvantage, though, is that it is
expensive and slow to conduct.
4. Mail Questionnaire: These are starting to be obsolete but are still being used in some market
research studies. This method involves a researcher sending a physical data collection
questionnaire request to a respondent that can be filled in and sent back. The advantage of this
method is that respondents can complete this on their own time to answer truthfully and
entirely. The disadvantage is that this method is expensive and time-consuming. There is also a
high risk of not collecting enough responses to make actionable insights from the data.

Types of questionnaires

1. Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The

questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise information. It also initiates a
formal inquiry, supplements data, checks previously accumulated data, and helps
validate any prior hypothesis.
2. Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data.
They use a basic structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the
responses of a respondent. The questions are more open-ended to collect specific data
from participants.
Advantages of a well-designed questionnaire

 With a survey questionnaire, you can gather a lot of data in less time.
 There is less chance of any bias creeping if you have a standard set of questions to
be used to your target audience. You can apply logic to questions based on the
respondents’ answers, but the questionnaire will remain standard for a group of
respondents that fall in the same segment.
 Surveying online survey software is quick and cost-effective. It offers you a rich set of
features to design, distribute, and analyze the response data.
 It can be customized to reflect your brand voice. Thus, it can be used to reinforce
your brand image.
 The responses can be compared with the historical data and understand the shift in
respondents’ choices and experiences.
 Respondents can answer the questionnaire without revealing their identity. Also,
many survey software complies with significant data security and privacy
regulations.

Difference between questioner and survey:

 Focus Groups Method

Introduction

• Focus groups are a data collection method.

• Data is collected through a semi-structured group interview process.
• Focus groups are moderated by a group leader. Focus groups are
 generally used to collect data on a specific topic.
• A focus group is best defined as a small group of carefully selected
 participants who contribute to open discussions for research.
• You use a focus group in qualitative research. A group of 6-10 people,
 usually 8, meet to explore and discuss a topic.

Focus groups are a data collection method.

• Data is collected through a semi-structured group interview process.

• Focus groups are moderated by a group leader. Focus groups are
• generally used to collect data on a specific topic.
• A focus group is best defined as a small group of carefully selected
• participants who contribute to open discussions for research.
• You use a focus group in qualitative research. A group of 6-10 people,
• usually 8, meet to explore and discuss a topic.

Characteristics of focus groups

• Standardization of questions
• Number of focus groups conducted
• Number of participants per group
• Level of moderator involvement

Focus groups may be used

• To explore new research areas.

• To explore a topic that is difficult to observe (not easy to gain access)

• To explore a topic that does not lend itself to observational techniques

(e.g. attitudes and decision-making)

• To explore sensitive topics

• When you want to collect a concentrated set of observations in a short

time span

When focus groups might be used

• To ascertain perspectives and experiences from people on a topic, particularly when these are
people who might otherwise be marginalized In combination with other methods, focus groups
might be used to:
1. Gather preliminary data
2. Aid in the development of surveys and interview guides
3. Clarify research findings from another method

Main pillars of a focus group

• The role of a moderator

• Participants

Steps to conduct focus group research

• Recruit the right participants

• Choose a moderator
• Record the meeting for future purposes
• Write clear discussion guidelines
• Conduct the session and generate a report
• Use the data to make a plan of action

Types of focus groups

 • Dual-moderator focus group (two moderators)
• Two-way focus group (two separate groups)
• Mini focus group (4-5 members)
• Client-involvement focus group (when clients ask you)
• Participant-moderated focus group (One or more participants
• provisionally take up the role of moderator)
• Online focus group (online mediums to gather opinions)

Recording focus group data

One of the challenges in recording focus group data is knowing who is speaking at any particular time,
since often multiple people speak in overlap.

• Consider audio- or video-recording focus group sessions

• Transcribe focus group discussions
• Have a least 2-3 researchers (in addition to the moderator) attend the
• focus group and take notes.
• Note taking is important to capture nonverbal data.

Advantages

Focus groups are one type of qualitative research method that are popular because they:

• Are generally lower cost than other methods

• Can generate results very quickly
• Are easy to conduct
• Can supplement verbal responses with body language and other non-verbal
 cues
• Information gathered is in respondents’ own words,
• Technique is flexible and can be adjusted based on group behavior