Amity School of Engg &

Technology
M.Tech ECE, Semester II
Satellite Communication
Module 1 Lecture 1

Dr Sanmukh Kaur

1
 Course Overview

 Course Title: Satellite Communication

 Credit Hours: L 3 + P 2 + SW 2, Total credit units: 5

 Class: M.Tech ECE, Semester: II

 Instructor (s): Dr Sanmukh Kaur

 Number of modules : 5

 Pedagogy for Course Delivery: The course would be covered under Theory and
Laboratory. It also includes small project based learning under the self work (SW).

2
 Course Objectives

 The course is aimed at showing the students how theoretical concepts learned
during prerequisite courses (Analog and Digital communication)are applied in
the satellite communications field to provide valuable services to society
worldwide.

 The course provides an in-depth understanding of different concepts used in

satellite communication system including tools necessary for the calculation of
basic parameters and hands on experience through practical classes.

3
 Course Objectives
The course will cover every aspects of satellite communication like:

- Orbital mechanics

- Launching techniques

- Satellite link design

- Earth station technology

- Access system towards a satellite

- Different applications of satellite communication

4
 Course Learning Outcomes
Students completing this course will be able to:

 Identify the fundamentals of orbital mechanics, the characteristics of common

orbits used by communications and other satellites

 Understand the systems required by a communications satellite to function and

the trade-offs and limitations encountered in the design of a
communications satellite system

 Be able to calculate an accurate link budget for a satellite

5
 Course Learning Outcomes

 Design antenna systems to accommodate the needs of a particular satellite

system

 Understand how analog and digital technologies are used for satellite
communication systems.

6
 Course Grading
 Assessment / Examination Scheme:
Theory L/T (%) Lab/Practical/Studio (%) Total
80 20 100

 Theory Assessment (L&T):

Continuous Assessment/Internal Assessment
Components Mid-Term Class Home Attendance End Term
(Drop down) Exam Quiz Assignment Exam
Weightage (%) 15 10 10 5 60

7
 Course Grading
 Lab Assessment (P):
Continuous Assessment/Internal Assessment
Components PR LR Viva Attendance End Term
(Drop down) Exam
Weightage (%) 15 10 10 5 60

8
 Related Journals/Conferences
 Journals
- IEEE Transactions on Communications
- IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications
- IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications
- IEEE Journal of Communications and Networks
- International Journal of Satellite Communication and Networking

 Conferences
- IEEE International Conferences on Communications (ICC)
- IEEE Global Communications Conference (Globecom)
- Space based Communications, Applications and Technologies in the 5G
Era: I

11
 Module I : Orbital mechanics and
Launchers
Overview of Satellite Communication

 Satellite communication systems exist because the earth is a sphere.

 Satellites, as they can link places on the earth that are thousands of miles apart are a
good place to locate a repeater.

 A Repeater can receive a signal from one earth station, amplify it, and retransmit it
to another earth station [Fig.1].

10
 Overview of Satellite Communication

11
[Fig.1]
 Overview of Satellite Communication
 The majority of communication satellites are in geostationary orbit, at an altitude of
35, 786 km. systems exist because the earth is a sphere.

 Signals reaching at satellite or at earth station get weaker in proportion to square of

the distance travelled.

 There is a limit on the weight of the GEO satellites and the electrical power they can
generate using solar cells.

12
 Overview of Satellite Communication
 The high cost of building and launching a satellite must be recovered over a 10 to 15
year lifetime by selling communication capacity.

 As satellites have become larger, heavier and more powerful, smaller earth station
antennas have become feasible.

 Direct broadcast satellite TV (DBS-TV) receiving system can use dish antenna as
small as 0.5 m in diameter [Fig.2].

13
 Overview of Satellite Communication

Fig.2

14 Fig.2: DBS – TV system

 Overview of Satellite Communication
 Satellite systems operate in the microwave and millimeter wave frequency bands
using frequencies between 1 and 40 GHz [Fig.3].

 What is the frequency range for microvaves?

 For what application 3-30MHz frequency range is used?

 Above 10 GHz, rain causes significant attenuation and above 20 GHz, attenuation in
heavy rain can cause link failure.

15
16
Fig.3: Electromagnetic spectrum and Satellite Frequency Bands
 Overview of Satellite Communication
 For the first 20 years of satellite communications, analog signals were widely used
with most links employing frequency modulation.

 The move toward digital communications in terrestrial telephone and data

transmission has been mirrored by a similar move toward digital transmission over
satellite links.

 Telephony, data, DBS-TV. Radio broadcasting, and navigation with GPS all use
digital signaling techniques.

17
• 3-30MHz high frequency

• 30-300 MHz VHF

• 300MHz- 3000MHz (3GHz) UHF

18
 Amity School of Engg &
Technology
M.Tech ECE, Semester II
Satellite Communication
Module 1 Lecture 2

Dr Sanmukh Kaur

19
 Learning Objectives & Outcomes

 To develop the equation of a Satellite in stable orbit.

 Identify the different forces acting on a Satellite in stable orbit.

 Ability to analyze the planetary motion by understanding the Keepler’s laws

20
 Orbital mechanics and Launchers
Developing the equation of the orbit

 International treaties hold that the space frontier above a given country begins at a
height of 100 miles (160 Km).

 Most Satellites, for any mission of more than a few months are placed into orbits of
atleast 400 Km above the Earth.

 There are two opposite forces acting on a Satellite in a stable orbit [Fig.1].

21
 Developing the equation of the orbit

22
[Fig.1: Forces acting on a Satellite in a stable ]
 Developing the equation of the orbit
 The centripetal force acting on the satellite, FIN , is given by :
FIN = m x (μ / r2)
FIN = m x ( GME / r2) (1)

 Where
- m is the mass of the object
- GME is Kepler’s constant (3.986004418 x 10 5 Km3 / s2)
(G is universal gravitational constant)
(ME is mass of the Earth)

 In a similar fashion, the centrifugal force acting is given by :

FOUT = m x (v2 / r) (2)
23
 Developing the equation of the orbit
 If the forces on a satellite are balanced, FIN = FOUT, and using Eq 1 and 2,
m x (μ / r2) = m x (v2 / r) (3)

 Hence the velocity of a satellite in a circular orbit is given by:

v = (μ / r)1/2 (4)

 The period of satellite’s orbit, T, will be:

T = (2 𝜋 r) ∕ v = (2 𝜋 r) ∕ [(μ / r)1/2 ] (5)

24
 Developing the equation of the orbit
 Thus
T = (2 𝜋 r3/2) ∕ (μ1/2 ) (6)

 Table depicting velocity, v, and orbital period, T, for four satellite systems that
occupy typical low earth orbit (LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), and geostationary
earth orbit (GEO) orbits around the earth.

25
 Developing the equation of the orbit

26
 Equation for the radius of the satellite’s orbit
 Using standard mathematical procedures, we can develop an equation for
the radius of the satellite’s orbit, r0, as:

(7)

 where θ0 is a constant, e is the eccentricity of an ellipse whose semi latus

rectum p is given by

 h is the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of the satellite. μ is

Keepler’s constant.

27
 Let us revise Ellipse
 -Center of ellipse (0,0)
- Vertices (±a, 0)
- Length of Major axis = 2a
- Length of Minor axis = 2b
- e = distance of focus c from center /
distance of vertex a from center
-e = √(a2 – b2)/a = c/a
-c2 = a2 – b2
- ellipse equation x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1
- Latus rectum = 2b2/a
- Length of Semi Latus rectum = b2/a

 The latus rectum is the chord parallel to the directrix and passing through a
focus. Its half length is semi latus rectum.

28
 Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
1. The orbit of any smaller body about a larger body is always an ellipse, with the
center of mass of the larger body as one of the two foci.
2. The orbit of the smaller body sweeps out equal areas in equal time (see Fig.2).
If t1 – t2 = t3 – t4 then A12 = A34.

29
Fig.2 Kepler’s second law of planetary motion
 Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
3. The square of the period of revolution of the smaller body about the larger
body equals a constant multiplied by the third power of the semimajor axis of
the orbital ellipse.

 T2 = (4π2a3)/μ where T is the orbital period, a is the semimajor axis of the

orbital ellipse, and μ is Kepler’s constant.

 If the orbit is circular, then a becomes distance r, defined as before[Eq.6].

30
 Describing the Orbit of a Satellite
 The quantity θ0 in Eq. (7) serves to orient the ellipse with respect to the orbital
plane axes x0 and y0.

 x0 and y0 may be chosen so that θ0 is zero. This now gives the equation of the orbit
as:
(8)

 The path of the satellite in the orbital plane is shown in Fig.3.

31
32 Fig.3 The orbit as appearing in the orbital plane.
 Describing the Orbit of a Satellite
 The lengths a and b of the semi major and semi minor axes are given by
a = p ∕ (1 − e2) (9)
b = a (1 − e2) 1/2 (10)

 The point in the orbit where the satellite is closest to the earth is called the perigee
and the point where the satellite is farthest from the earth is called the apogee.

 As θ0 is zero, x0 axis is the major axis of the ellipse. The expression of the orbital
period T can be derived as

T2 = (4π2a3)/μ

33
 Amity School of Engg &
Technology
M.Tech ECE, Semester II
Satellite Communication
Module 1 Lecture 3

Dr Sanmukh Kaur

34
 Learning Objectives & Outcomes

 To understand how the satellite is located in the orbit.

 Ability to identify the difference between Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbit.

35
 Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbit
Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbit.

T2 = (4π2a3)/μ (1)

 This equation is the mathematical expression of Kepler’s third law of planetary

motion:

 This equation determines the period of the orbit of any satellite, and it is used in
every GPS receiver in the calculation of the positions of GPS satellites.

 Eq. (1) is also used to find the orbital radius of a GEO satellite, for which the period
T must be made exactly equal to the period of one revolution of the earth for the
satellite to remain stationary over a point on the equator.

36
 Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbit

 To be perfectly geostationary, the orbit of a satellite needs to have three features:

(i) It must be exactly circular (i.e., have an eccentricity of zero);
(ii) It must be at the correct altitude (i.e., have the correct orbital period); and
(iii) It must be in the plane of the equator (zero inclination with respect to equator).

 This equation determines the period of the orbit of any satellite, and it is used in
every GPS receiver in the calculation of the positions of GPS satellites.

 If the inclination of the satellite is not zero and / or if the eccentricity is not zero, but
the orbital period is correct, then the satellite will be in a geosynchronous orbit.

 The position of a geosynchronous satellite will appear to oscillate about a mean look
angle in the sky with respect to a stationary observer on the earth’s surface.

37
 Sidereal day & Solar day
Sidereal day & Solar day

 The orbital period of a GEO satellite, 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds, is one
sidereal day.

 A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings of any particular longitude
on the earth by any star, other than the sun (Gordon and Morgan 1993).

 The mean solar day of 24 hours is the time between any consecutive crossings of
any particular longitude by the sun, and is the time between successive sunrises (or
sunsets) observed at one location on earth, averaged over an entire year.

38
 Locating the Satellite in the Orbit
 The equation of the orbit may be rewritten as:

(2)

[as a = p ∕ (1 − e2), Eq.8 & Eq.9 of Lec.2]

 The angle ϕ0 (see Fig.3, Lec.2) is measured from the x0 axis and is called the true
anomaly. It is the angle from the perigee to the instantaneous position of the
satellite.

 The rectangular coordinates of the satellite are given by

(3)

(4)
39
 Locating the Satellite in the Orbit
 The average angular velocity η is
(5)
[asT2 = (4π2a3)/μ]

 If the orbit is an ellipse, the instantaneous angular velocity will vary with the
position of the satellite around the orbit.

 If we enclose the elliptical orbit with a circumscribed circle of radius a (Fig.1), then
an object going around the circumscribed circle with a constant angular velocity η
would complete one revolution in exactly the same period T as the satellite requires
to complete one (elliptical) orbital revolution.

40
 Locating the Satellite in the Orbit
-Point O is the center of the earth

-Point C is both the center of the

orbital ellipse and the center of
the circumscribed circle.

-The satellite location in the

orbital plane coordinate system
is specified by (x0, y0).

-A vertical line through the

satellite intersects the
circumscribed circle at point A.

-The eccentric anomaly E is the

angle from the x0 axis to the line
joining C to A.
41
Fig.1Circumscribed circle and the eccentric anomaly E.
 Locating the Satellite in the Orbit
 It is related to the radius r0 by (6)
or (7)

 tp (time of perigee) This is the time when the satellite is crossing the x0 axis; and
the time when E is zero.

 The mean anomaly M is the arc length (in radians) that the satellite would have
traversed since the perigee passage if it were moving on the circumscribed circle at
the mean angular velocity η.

(8)

42
 Locating the Satellite in the Orbit
 If we know the time of perigee, tp, the eccentricity, e, and the length of the semi
major axis, a, we now have the necessary equations to determine the coordinates
(r0, ϕ0) and (x0, y0 ) of the satellite in the orbital plane.

 The process is as follows:

1. Calculate η using Eq. (5)

2. Calculate M using Eq. (8)
3. Solve Eq. (8) for E
4. Find r0 from E using Eq. (7)
5. Solve Eq. (2) for ϕ0
6. Use Eqs. (3) and (4) to calculate x0 and y0

43
 Locating the Satellite With Respect to the Earth
 In order to locate a satellite from a point on the rotating surface of the earth,
geocentric equatorial coordinate system is referred as shown in Fig.2.

 The rotational axis of the earth is the zi

axis, which is through the geographic
North Pole.

 The xi axis is from the center of

the earth toward a fixed location in
space called the first point of Aries.

 The (xi, yi) plane contains the earth’s

equator and is called the equatorial
plane.

44 Fig.2 The geocentric equatorial system

 Locating the Satellite With Respect to the Earth
 The two points at which the orbit penetrates the equatorial plane are called nodes;

 The satellite moves upward through the equatorial plane at the ascending node and
downward through the equatorial plane at the descending node.

 The angular distance measured eastward in the equatorial plane from the xi axis is
called the right ascension and is given symbol RA. The right ascension of the
ascending node is called Ω.

 The angle that the orbital plane makes with the equatorial plane (the planes intersect
at the line joining the nodes) is called the inclination, i. Fig.3 illustrates these
quantities

45
 Locating the Satellite With Respect to the Earth
 The variables Ω and i together locate the orbital plane with respect to the equatorial
plane.

 To locate the orbital coordinate

system with respect to the
equatorial coordinate system we
need ω, the argument of perigee
west.

 This is the angle measured along

the orbit from the ascending node
to the perigee.

46
 Orbital Elements
 To specify the absolute (i.e., the inertial) coordinates of a satellite at time t, we need
to know six quantities.

 These quantities are called the orbital elements. More than six quantities can be
used to describe a unique orbital path.

 Commonly used are:

-eccentricity (e),
-semimajor axis (a)
- time of perigee tp
- right ascension of ascending node (Ω),
-inclination (i)
- argument of perigee (ω).

 Frequently, the mean anomaly (M) at a given time is substituted for tp.
47
 Amity School of Engg &
Technology
M.Tech ECE, Semester II
Satellite Communication
Module 1 Lecture 4

Dr Sanmukh Kaur

48
 Learning Objectives & Outcomes

 To understand how the satellite can be located using azimuth and elevation
angles.

 Ability to analyze the look angles for communication with a satellite.

49
 Look angle determination
Look angles
 The coordinates to which an earth station antenna must be pointed to communicate
with a satellite are called the look angles.

 These are most commonly expressed as azimuth (Az) and elevation (El)

 Azimuth is measured eastward (clockwise) from geographic north to the projection

of the satellite path on a (locally) horizontal plane at the earth station.

 Elevation is the angle measured upward from the local horizontal plane at the earth
station to the satellite path.

 Fig.1 illustrates these look angles.

50
 Look angle determination

51 Fig.1The definition of elevation (El) and azimuth (Az).

 Look angle determination
Subsatellite Point

 The subsatellite point is the location on the surface of the earth that lies directly
between the satellite and the center of the earth.

 It is the nadir pointing direction from the satellite and, for a satellite in an equatorial
orbit, it will always be located on the equator.

 Since geostationary satellites are in equatorial orbits and are designed to stay
stationary over the earth, it is usual to give their orbital location in terms of their
subsatellite point.

52
 Elevation angle calculation
 Fig. 2 shows the geometry of the elevation angle calculation.

-rs is the vector from the center of the earth to the satellite
-re is the vector from the center of the earth to the earth station
-d is the vector from the earth station to the satellite. These three vectors lie in the
same plane and forma triangle.
-The central angle γ measured between re and rs is the angle between the earth station
and the satellite
-ψ is the angle (within the triangle) measured from re to d.
- Le is the number of degrees in latitude that the earth station is north from the
equator
- le is the number of degrees in longitude that the earth station is west from the
Greenwich meridian
- Ls is subsatellite point north latitude
- ls is subsatellite point west longitude
53
 Elevation angle calculation

 The elevation angle El can be

calculated from knowledge of
the subsatellite point and the
earth station coordinates

Fig. 2 El is measured upward from the local horizontal at the earth station.
54
 Elevation angle calculation
(1)

 the elevation angle El is related to the central angle ψ by

(2)

 By the law of sines we have

(3)

From Eq.1,2,3

(4)

55
 Elevation and Azimuth Angles for GEO Satellites
 Azimuth is more difficult to compute than the elevation angle because the exact
geometry involved depends on whether the subsatellite point is east or west of the
earth station, and in which of the hemispheres the earth station and the subsatellite
point are located.

 The problem simplifies somewhat for geosynchronous satellites.

 For most geostationary satellites, the subsatellite point is on the equator at

longitude ls , and the latitude Ls is 0.

 The geosynchronous radius rs is 42 164.17 km and mean earth radius re is

6378.137 km.

 Since Ls is zero, Eq. (1) simplifies to

(5)
56
 Elevation and Azimuth Angles for GEO Satellites
 Substituting rs and re in (4) gives the following expression for elevation angle El at
the earth station:

(6)

 the distance d from the earth station to the satellite and the

(7)

57
 Elevation and Azimuth Angles for GEO Satellites
 To find the azimuth angle, an intermediate angle α must first be found

(8)

 Having found the intermediate angle α, the azimuth look angle Az can be found
from:

58
 Elevation and Azimuth Angles for GEO Satellites
 Case 1: Earth station in the Northern Hemisphere with
(a) Satellite to the SE of the earth station:
Az = 180◦ − 𝛼 (9)
(b) Satellite to the SW of the earth station:
Az = 180◦ + 𝛼 (10)

 Case 2: Earth station in the Southern Hemisphere with

(c) Satellite to the NE of the earth station:
Az = 𝛼 (11)
(d) Satellite to the NWof the earth station:
Az = 360◦ − 𝛼 (12)

59
 Visibility of Satellite
 Satellite is said to be visible from an earth station, if the elevation angle El is
positive. It should be greater than at least 0°.

 It requires that

 This means that the maximum central angular separation between the earth station
and the sub satellite point is limited by

(13)

 For a nominal geostationary orbit, the last equation reduces to γ ≤ 81.3° for the
satellite to be visible.
60
 Amity School of Engg &
Technology
M.Tech ECE, Semester II
Satellite Communication
Module 1 Lecture 5

Dr Sanmukh Kaur

61
 Learning Objectives & Outcomes

 To understand the effects of Orbital perturbations causing the satellite to drift away
from its nominal location

 Ability to analyze the operation of Telemetry and Tracking Subsystem of a satellite.

62
 Orbital Perturbations
 Keplerian orbit is an ellipse whose properties are constant with time.

 In practice, the satellite and the earth respond to many other influences:
- Asymmetry of the earth’s gravitational field
- The gravitational fields of the sun and the moon
- Solar radiation pressure

 For LEO satellites, atmospheric drag can also be important.

 These interfering forces cause the true orbit to be different from a simple
Keplerian ellipse and cause the subsatellite point of a nominally geosynchronous
satellite to move with time.

63
 Orbital Perturbations
Longitudinal Changes - Effects of the Earth’s Oblateness
1. The earth is flattened at the poles; the equatorial diameter is about 20 km more than
the average polar diameter.
2. The equatorial radius is not constant, although the noncircularity is small: the
radius does not vary by more than about 100m around the equator
3. There are also regions of mass concentration

 The nonsphericity of the earth, the noncircularity of the equatorial radius, and the
Mascons lead to a non-uniform gravitational field around the earth.

 The force on an orbiting satellite will therefore vary with position.

 A geostationary satellite is weightless when in orbit.

 The smallest force on the satellite will cause it to accelerate and then drift away
from its nominal location.
64
 Orbital Perturbations
 The satellite is required to maintain a constant longitudinal position over the equator

 This will lead to a resultant acceleration or deceleration component that varies with
longitudinal location of the satellite

Inclination Changes - Effects of the Sun and the Moon

 The plane of the earth’s orbit around the sun – the ecliptic – is at an inclination of
7.3° to the equatorial plane of the sun.

 The earth is titled about 23° away from the normal to the ecliptic [Fig.1]

 The moon circles the earth with an inclination of around 5° to the equatorial plane of
the earth.

65
 Orbital Perturbations
 Due to the fact that the
various planes – the sun’s
equator, the ecliptic, the
earth’s geographic equator (a
plane normal to the earth’s
rotational axis), and the
moon’s orbital plane around
the earth – are all different, a
satellite in orbit around the
earth will be subjected to a
variety of out-of-plane forces.

66 Fig.1Orbital planes of the sun, moon, and earth..

 Orbital Perturbations
 Thus there will be a net acceleration force that is not in the plane of the satellite’s
orbit, and this will tend to try to change the inclination of the satellite’s orbit from its
initial inclination.

 The mass of the sun is significantly larger than that of the moon but the moon is
considerably closer to the earth than the sun.

 For this reason, the acceleration force induced by the moon on a geostationary
satellite is about twice as large as that of the sun.

 The net effect of the acceleration forces induced by the moon and the sun on
a geostationary satellite is to change the plane of the orbit at an initial average rate
of change of 0.85°/year from the equatorial plane .

67
 Orbital Perturbations
 Under normal operations, ground controllers command spacecraft maneuvers to
correct for both the in-plane changes (longitudinal drifts) and out-of-plane changes
(inclination changes) of a satellite so that it remains in the correct orbit.

 For a geostationary satellite, this means that the inclination, ellipticity, and
longitudinal position are controlled so that the satellite appears to stay within a box
in the sky that is bounded by ±0.05° in latitude and longitude over the subsatellite
point.

Orbit Determination

 Orbit determination requires that sufficient measurements be made to determine

uniquely the six orbital elements needed to calculate the future orbit of the satellite,
and hence calculate the required changes that need to be made to the orbit to keep it
within the nominal orbital location.

68
 Orbit Determination
 Three angular position measurements are needed because there are six unknowns
and each measurement will provide two equations.

Launchs and Launch Vehicles

 Summarize on Launch vehicles and their selection factors. List and explain any one type of
launching procedures of Satellite.

 Describe as to how does solar eclipse affect the working of a communication satellite? When
is the effect of eclipse is maximum? What is its duration ? Explain. (60,61,72?)

 Explain as to how a satellite is placed into geostationary orbit from earth ? What is transfer
orbit and how is the orbit correction for the launch of satellite at latitude other than equator is
obtained? Explain.

69
 Satellite Subsystems
Attitude and Orbit Control System(AOCS)

 What are the altitude and orbit control subsystems? Explain as to how these perform
their functions.

Telemetry and Tracking Subsystem

 Telemetry, Tracking, Command, and Monitoring (TTC&M) system is essential to

the successful operation of a communications satellite.

 It is part of the satellite management task, which also involves an earth station,
usually dedicated to that task, and a group of personnel.

 The main functions of satellite management are to control the orbit and attitude of
the satellite, monitor the status of all sensors and subsystems on the satellite, and
switch on or off sections of the communication system [Fig.2].
70
 Telemetry and Tracking Subsystem

71
Fig.2 Earth based control system for a GEO satellite.
 Telemetry and Tracking Subsystem
Telemetry and Monitoring System

 The monitoring system collects data from many sensors within the satellite and
sends the data to the controlling earth station.

 There may be several hundred sensors located on the satellite to monitor pressure in
the fuel tanks, voltage, and current in the power conditioning unit, current drawn by
each subsystem, and critical voltages and currents in the communications
electronics.

 The temperature of many of the subsystems is important and must be kept within
predetermined limits, so many temperature sensors are fitted.

72
 Telemetry and Tracking Subsystem
 The sensor data, the status of each subsystem in the communication system are
reported back to earth by the telemetry system.

 Telemetry data are usually digitized and transmitted as phase shift keying (PSK) of a
low-power telemetry carrier using time division multiplexing (TDM).

 At the controlling earth station a computer is used to monitor, store, and decode the
telemetry data so that the status of any system or sensor on the satellite can be
determined immediately by the controller on earth.

 Alarms can also be sounded if any vital parameter goes outside allowable limits.

73
 Telemetry and Tracking Subsystem
Tracking System

 A number of techniques can be used to determine the current orbit of a satellite.

Velocity and acceleration sensors on the satellite can be used to establish the change
in orbit from the last known position, by integration of the data.

 The earth station controlling the satellite can observe the Doppler shift of the
telemetry carrier or beacon transmitter carrier to determine the rate at which range is
changing. Together with accurate angular measurements from the earth station
antenna, range is used to determine the orbital elements.

74
 Telemetry and Tracking Subsystem
Command System

 A secure and effective command structure is vital to the successful launch and
operation of any communications satellite.

 The command system is used to make changes in attitude and corrections to the orbit
and to control the communication system.

 During launch, it is used to control the firing of the AKM and to extend the solar
arrays and antennas of a three-axis stabilized satellite.

75
 Amity School of Engg &
Technology
M.Tech ECE, Semester II
Satellite Communication
Module 1 Lecture 6

Dr Sanmukh Kaur

76
 Learning Objectives & Outcomes

 To study the functions of communication subsystem and types of antennas employed

in Satellite communication

 Ability to analyze the operation of Communication Subsystem of a satellite.

 Design antenna systems to accommodate the needs of a particular satellite system.

 Understand the systems required by a communications satellite to function

77
 Communication Subsystem
 A communication satellite exists to provide a platform in geostationary orbit for the
relaying of voice, video and data communications.

 All the other subsystems on the satellite exist solely to support the communication
system.

 As it is the communication subsystem that earns the revenue for the system operator,
communication satellites are designed to provide largest traffic capacity possible.

 Repeaters and antennas together make the communication subsystem.

Transponder

 The transponder in a communications satellite is the series of components that provide the
communications channel, or link, between the uplink signal received at the uplink antenna,
and the downlink signal transmitted by the downlink antenna.
78
 Transponder
 A typical communications satellite will contain several transponders, and some of the
equipment may be common to more than one transponder.

 Each transponder generally operates in a different frequency band, with the allocated
frequency spectrum band divided into slots, with a specified center frequency and operating
bandwidth.

 The C-band FSS service allocation, for example, is 500MHz wide.

 A typical design would accommodate 12 transponders, each with a bandwidth of 36 MHz,

with guard bands of 4MHz between each.

 Atypical commercial communications satellite today can have 24 to 48 transponders,

operating in the C-band, Ku-band, or Ka-bands.

79
 Transponder
 The number of transponders can be doubled by the use of polarization frequency reuse, where
two carriers at the same frequency, but with orthogonal polarization, are used.

 Both linear polarization (horizontal and vertical sense) and circular polarization (right-hand
and left-hand sense) have been used.

 Additional frequency reuse may be achieved through spatial separation of the signals, in the
form of narrow spot beams, which allow the reuse of the same frequency carrier for
physically separate locations on the earth.

 Polarization reuse and spot beams can be combined to provide four times, six times, eight
times, or even higher frequency reuse factors in advanced satellite systems.

80
 Transponder
 The communications satellite transponder is implemented in one of two general types of
configurations:
-Frequency translation transponder
-On-board processing transponder.

Frequency Translation Transponder

 The frequency translation transponder, also referred to as a non-regenerative repeater, or bent

pipe, receives the uplink signal and, after amplification, retransmits it with only a translation
in carrier frequency.

 Fig.1 shows the typical implementation of a dual conversion frequency translation

transponder, where the uplink radio frequency, fup, is converted to an intermediate lower
frequency, fif , amplified, and then converted back up to the downlink RF frequency, fdwn,
for transmission to earth.

81
 Frequency Translation Transponder

Fig.1 Dual conversion frequency translation transponder

 The uplinks and downlinks are codependent, meaning that any degradation introduced on
the uplink will be transferred to the downlink, affecting the total communications link.

82
 This has significant impact on the performance of the end-to-end link.
 On-board Processing Transponder
On-board Processing Transponder
 On-board processing transponder is also called a regenerative repeater demod/remod
transponder, or smart satellite [Fig.2] .

 The uplink signal at fup is demodulated to baseband, fbaseband .

 The baseband signal is available for processing on-board, including reformatting and
error-correction.

 The baseband information is then remodulated to the downlink carrier at fdwn,

possibly in a different modulation format to the uplink and, after final amplification,
transmitted to the ground.

 The demodulation/remodulation process removes uplink noise and interference from

the downlink, while allowing additional on-board processing to be accomplished.

83
 On-board Processing Transponder
 Thus the uplinks and downlinks are independent with respect to evaluation of overall link
performance.

Fig.2 On-board Processing Transponder

84
 On-board Processing Transponder
 On-board processing satellites tend to be more complex and expensive than
frequency translation satellites; however, they offer significant performance
advantages, particularly for small terminal users or for large diverse networks.

 Traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) or solid state amplifiers (SSPAs) are used
to provide the final output power required for each transponder channel.

 The major advantage of the TWTA is its wide bandwidth capability at microwave
frequencies.

 TWTAs for space applications can operate to well above 30 GHz, with output
powers of 150 watts or more, and RF bandwidths exceeding 1 GHz.

 Other devices in the basic transponder configurations of Fig.1 and 2, include band
pass filters, switches, input multiplexers, switch matrices, and output multiplexers.

85
 Transponder

86
 Transponder

87
 Satellite Antennas
 Four main types of antennas are used on satellites:
1. Wire antennas: monopoles and dipoles.
2. Horn antennas.
3. Reflector antennas.
4. Phased array antennas.

 Wire antennas are used primarily at VHF and UHF to provide communications for
the TTC&M systems. They are positioned with great care on the body of the satellite
in an attempt to provide omnidirectional coverage.

Antenna Parameters
 An antenna pattern is a plot of the field strength in the far field of the antenna when
the antenna is driven by a transmitter. It is usually measured in decibels (dB) below
the maximum field strength.

88
 Satellite Antennas
 The gain of an antenna is a measure of the antenna’s capability to direct energy in
one direction, rather than all around.

 Reciprocity means that an antenna has the same gain and pattern at any given
frequency whether it transmits or receives.

 An antenna pattern measured when receiving is identical to the pattern when

transmitting.

 A global beam is 17° wide and can be generated with a horn antenna.

 A GEO satellite that is required to have coverage over the visible earth must have a
global beam.

 A global beam antenna has a relatively low gain and is only used on GEO satellites
that must provide coverage to isolated areas such as islands a long distance from any
89 continent.
 Satellite Antennas
 Spot beams require reflector antennas and multiple spot beams need a reflector with
multiple feeds.

 Regional and spot beams are more widely used, often overlaid as with DBS-TV
satellites.

 Regional beams are carefully shaped to direct radiated power to a specific area.

 Scanning beams typically are generated with a phased array antenna.

 Satellites with phased array antennas can move their beams to track moving earth
stations, for example aircraft.

 Orthogonally polarized beams using V and H linear polarizations or left hand and
right hand circular polarizations.

90  Orthogonal polarizations, either linear or circular, allow beams to be overlapped

 Satellite Antennas

91 Fig.3 Typical satellite antenna patterns and coverage zones.

 Horn Antennas
 Horn antennas are used at microwave frequencies when relatively wide beams are
required, as for global coverage.

 A horn is a flared section of waveguide that provides an aperture several

wavelengths wide and a good match between the waveguide impedance and free
space.

 Horns are also used as feeds for reflectors.

 Horns and reflectors are examples of aperture antennas that launch a wave into free
space from a waveguide.

 It is difficult to obtain gains much greater than 23 dB or beamwidths narrower than

about 10° with horn antennas.

 For higher gains or narrow beamwidths a reflector antenna or array must be used.
92
 Reflector Antennas
 Reflector antennas are usually illuminated by one or more horns and provide a larger
aperture than can be achieved with a horn alone.

 For maximum gain, it is necessary to generate a plane wave in the aperture of the
reflector.

 This is achieved by choosing a reflector profile that has equal path lengths from the
feed to the aperture, so that all the energy radiated by the feed and reflected by the
reflector reaches the aperture with the same phase angle and creates a uniform phase
front.

 One reflector shape that achieves this with a point source of radiation is the
paraboloid, with a feed placed at its focus.

 It is commonly used for earth station antennas.

93
 Phased array Antennas
 Phased array antennas are also used on satellites to create multiple beams from a
single aperture.

 These have been used by Iridium and Globalstar to generate up to 48 beams from a
single aperture for their LEO mobile telephone systems.

94