SUBJECT: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION MODULE 5

ND
PROFESSOR: MRS. MARICAR T. CALILIW 2 YEAR SUMMER CLASS

MODULE 5: FUNDAMENTALS
OF
FREQUENCY MODULATION
TOPICS COVERED
 Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation
 Principles of Phase Modulation
 Modulation Index and Sidebands
 Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
 Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude
Modulation

5 – 1: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FREQUENCY

MODULATION
A sine wave carrier can be modified for the
purpose of transmitting information from one place to
another by varying its frequency. This is known as
frequency modulation (FM).

In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant

and the carrier frequency is changed by the modulating
signal.
As the amplitude of the information signal varies,
the carrier frequency shifts proportionately.

As the modulating signal amplitude increases,

the carrier frequency increases.

With no modulation the carrier is at its normal

center or resting frequency. Figure 5-1: FM and PM signals. The carrier is drawn
as a triangular wave for simplicity, but in practice it
Frequency deviation (𝑓𝑑 ) is the amount of is a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c)
change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating FM signal. (d) PM signal.
signal.
5 – 2: PRINCIPLES OF PHASE MODULATION
The frequency deviation rate is how many times When the amount of phase shift of a constant-
per second the carrier frequency deviates above or frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a
below its center frequency. modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase-
modulation (PM) signal.
The frequency of the modulating signal
determines the frequency deviation rate. Phase modulators produce a phase shift which
is a time separation between two sine waves of the
A type of modulation called frequency-shift same frequency.
keying (FSK) is used in transmission of binary data in
digital cell phones and low-speed computer modems. The greater the amplitude of the modulating
signal, the greater the phase shift.

The maximum frequency deviation produced by

a phase modulator occurs during the time that the
modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate.
SUBJECT: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION MODULE 5
ND
PROFESSOR: MRS. MARICAR T. CALILIW 2 YEAR SUMMER CLASS

(b) modulating signal frequency.

CONVERTING PM TO FM
 In order to make PM compatible with
FM, the deviation produced by
frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
 This compensation can be
accomplished by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass
RC network.
 This RC low-pass filter is called a
frequency-correcting network,
predistorter, or 1/f filter and causes the
higher modulating frequencies to be
attenuated.
 The FM produced by a phase modulator
is called indirect FM.

PHASE – SHIFT KEYING

The process of phase modulating a
carrier with binary data is called phase-shift
keying (PSK) or binary phase-shift keying
(BPSK).

The PSK signal has a constant

frequency, but the phase of the signal from
some reference changes as the binary
modulating signal occurs.
Figure 5-3: A frequency shift occurs in PM only when
the modulating signal amplitude varies. (a)
Modulating signal. (b) FM signal. (c) PM signal.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE

MODULATING SIGNAL AND CARRIER
DEVIATION

 In FM and in PM, the frequency

deviation is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
Figure 5-6: Phase modulation of a carrier by binary
 In PM, the maximum amount of leading
data produces PSK.
or lagging phase shift occurs at the peak
amplitudes of the modulating signal.
5 – 3: MODULATION INDEX AND SIDEBANDS
 In PM the carrier deviation is
Any modulation process produces sidebands.
proportional to both the modulating
frequency and the amplitude.
When a constant-frequency sine wave
modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are produced.

Side frequencies are the sum and difference of

the carrier and modulating frequency.

The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually much

wider than that of an AM signal with the same
modulating signal.

Figure 5-4: Frequency deviation as a function of (a)

modulating signal amplitude and
SUBJECT: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION MODULE 5
ND
PROFESSOR: MRS. MARICAR T. CALILIW 2 YEAR SUMMER CLASS

MODULATION INDEX The symbol ! means factorial. This tells

The ratio of the frequency deviation to you to multiply all integers from 1 through the
the modulating frequency is known as the number to which the symbol is attached. (e.g. 5!
modulation index (mf). Means 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120)

In most communication systems using Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM

FM, maximum limits are put on both the system in which the modulation index is less
frequency deviation and the modulating than
frequency.

In standard FM broadcasting, the

maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75
kHz and the maximum permitted modulating or,
frequency is 15 kHz.

The modulation index for standard FM

broadcasting is therefore 5.
NBFM is widely used in communication.
It conserves spectrum space at the expense of
BESSEL FUNCTIONS
the signal-to-noise ratio.
The equation that expresses the phase
angle in terms of the sine wave modulating
FM SIGNAL BANDWIDTH
signal is solved with a complex mathematical
The higher the modulation index in FM,
process known as Bessel functions.
the greater the number of significant sidebands
and the wider the bandwidth of the signal.
Bessel coefficients are widely available
and it is not necessary to memorize or calculate
When spectrum conservation is
them.
necessary, the bandwidth of an FM signal can
be restricted by putting an upper limit on the
modulation index.

Example: If the highest modulating frequency is

3 kHz and the maximum deviation is 6 kHz, what
is the modulation index?
6 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑓 3 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝒎𝒇 𝟐

Figure 5-8: Carrier and sideband amplitudes for What is the bandwidth?
different modulation indexes of FM signals based on
the Bessel functions.

Where N is the number of significant sidebands

𝐵𝑊 2(3𝑘𝐻𝑧)(4)
𝑩𝑾 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑯𝒛

5 – 4: NOISE – SUPPRESSION EFFECTS ON FM

Noise is interference generated by lightning,
motors, automotive ignition systems, and power line
switching that produces transient signals.

Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with

high frequencies.

Figure 5-9: Plot of the Bessel function data from Fig. Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
5-8. interfere with it.
SUBJECT: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION MODULE 5
ND
PROFESSOR: MRS. MARICAR T. CALILIW 2 YEAR SUMMER CLASS

Some noise completely obliterates signal during transmission so that they will be stronger
information. and not masked by noise.

FM signals have constant modulated carrier

amplitude.

FM receivers contain limiter circuits that

deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.

Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM

signal are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.

This amplitude clipping does not affect the

information content of the FM signal, since it is contained
solely within the frequency variations of the carrier. Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (a)
Preemphasis circuit.

Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.

Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (c)
PREEMPHASIS Deemphasis circuit.
Noise can interfere with an FM signal
and particularly with the high-frequency 5 – 5: FREQUENCY MODULATION VERSUS
components of the modulating signal. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy ADVANTAGES OF FM

and contains a lot of harmonics and other high- FM typically offers some significant
frequency components. benefits over AM.

To overcome high-frequency noise, a FM has superior immunity to noise,

technique known as preemphasis is used. made possible by clipper limiter circuits in the
receiver.
A simple high-pass filter can serve as a
transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit. In FM, interfering signals on the same
frequency are rejected. This is known as the
Pre-emphasis provides more capture effect.
amplification of only high-frequency
components. FM signals have a constant amplitude
and there is no need to use linear amplifiers to
A simple low-pass filter can operate as a increase power levels. This increases transmitter
deemphasis circuit in a receiver. efficiency.

A deemphasis circuit returns the DISADVANTAGES OF FM

frequency response to its normal flat level. FM uses considerably more frequency
spectrum space.
The combined effect of preemphasis
and deemphasis is to increase the signal-to- FM has used more complex circuitry for
noise ratio for the high-frequency components modulation and demodulation.
SUBJECT: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION MODULE 5
ND
PROFESSOR: MRS. MARICAR T. CALILIW 2 YEAR SUMMER CLASS

In the past, the circuits used for

frequency modulation and demodulation
involved was complex. With the proliferation of
ICs, complex circuitry used in FM has all but
disappeared. ICs are inexpensive and easy to
use. FM and PM have become the most widely
used modulation method in electronic
communication today.

Major applications of AM and FM