Tree Interview Question: Write a C program to delete a tree (i.

e, free up its nodes)

clear(struct node* pNode)

{
if (pNode != NULL)
{
clear(pNode->left);
clear(pNode->right);
delete pNode;
}
}

Tree Interview Question: Write a C program to determine the number of elements (or size) in a
tree. 

int tree_size(struct node* node)  {

  if (node==NULL)
 {
    return(0);
 }
  else
 {
    return(tree_size(node->left) + tree_size(node->right) + 1);
  }  }

Tree Interview Question: Write a C program to find the depth or height of a tree.

tree_height(mynode *p) {
   if(p==NULL)return(0);
   if(p->left){h1=tree_height(p->left);}
   if(p=>right){h2=tree_height(p->right);}
   return(max(h1,h2)+1); }

The degree of the leaf is zero. The degree of a tree is the max of its element degrees. A binary tree of
height n, h > 0, has at least h and at most (2^h -1) elements in it. The height of a binary tree that contains
n, n>0, elements is at most n and atleast log(n+1) to the base 2.

Log(n+1) to the base 2 = h

n = (2^h - 1)

C/C++ Data Structures Interview Question:How to create a copy of a linked list? Write a C program to
create a copy of a linked list.

copy_linked_lists(struct node *q, struct node **s) {

    if(q!=NULL)
    {
        *s=malloc(sizeof(struct node));
        (*s)->data=q->data;
        (*s)->link=NULL;
        copy_linked_list(q->link, &((*s)->link));
    } }

C/C++ Data Structures Interview Question:How to compare two linked lists? Write a C program to
compare two linked lists. 

int compare_linked_lists(struct node *q, struct node *r) {

    static int flag;
   
    if((q==NULL ) && (r==NULL))
    {
         flag=1;
    }
    else
    {
        if(q==NULL || r==NULL)
        {
            flag=0;
        }
        if(q->data!=r->data)
        {
            flag=0;
        }
        else
        {
           compare_linked_lists(q->link,r->link);
        }
    }
    return(flag); }

C/C++ Data Structures Interview Question:If you are using C language to implement the
heterogeneous linked list, what pointer type will you use?

The heterogeneous linked list contains different data types in its nodes and we need a link, pointer, to
connect them. It is not possible to use ordinary pointers for this. So we go for void pointer. Void pointer is
capable of storing pointer to any type as it is a generic pointer type.

C/C++ Data Structures Interview Question:How would you detect a loop in a linked list? Write a C
program to detect a loop in a linked list.

typedef struct node

{
void *data;
struct node *next;
}mynode;
mynode * find_loop(NODE * head)
{
mynode *current = head;
while(current->next != NULL)
{
mynode *temp = head;
while(temp->next != NULL && temp != current)
{
if(current->next == temp)
{
printf("\nFound a loop.");
return current;
}
temp = temp->next;
}
current = current->next;
}
return NULL;
}

C/C++ Data Structures Interview Question:How do you find the middle of a linked list? Write a C
program to return the middle of a linked list

Find_middleof_Linked
List.txt

C/C++ Data Structures Interview Question:How do you reverse a linked list without using any C
pointers?

 One way is to reverse the data in the nodes without changing the pointers themselves. One can also
create a new linked list which is the reverse of the original linked list. A simple C program can do that for
you. Please note that you would still use the "next" pointer fields to traverse through the linked list (So in
effect, you are using the pointers, but you are not changing them when reversing the linked list).

C/C++ Data Structures Interview Question:How to declare a structure of a linked list?

  struct node
{
int value;
struct node *next;
 }; typedef struct node *mynode;

C/C++ Interview Question: What leads to code-bloating in C++?

Inline functions and templates, if not used properly, may lead to code bloating. Multiple Inheritance may
also lead to code bloating (this is because the sub classes will end up getting members from all the base
classes even if only few members will suffice). Techniques to avoid code blot are discussed in “Effective
C++ programming”.

C/C++ Interview Question: What are references in C++? Why do you need them when you have
pointers?

A reference variable is actually just a pointer that reduces syntactical clumsiness related with pointers in
C (reference variables are internally implemented as a pointer; it’s just that programmers can't use it the
way they use pointers).

As a side note, a reference must refer to some object at all times, but a pointer can point to NULL. In this
way, references can be more efficient when you know that you'll always have an object to point to,
because you don't have to check against NULL:
void func(MyClass &obj)
{
obj.Foo();
}
Is better than:
void func(MyClass *obj)
{
if (obj) obj->Foo();
}

C/C++ Interview Question: How do you do dynamic memory allocation in C applications? List
advantages and disadvantages of dynamic memory allocation vs. static memory allocation.

In C, malloc, calloc and realloc are used to allocate memory dynamically. In C++, new(), is usually used to
allocate objects. Some advantages and disadvantages of dynamic memory allocation are:

Advantages:
• Memory is allocated on an as-needed basis. This helps remove the inefficiencies inherent to static
memory allocation (when the amount of memory needed is not known at compile time and one has to
make a guess).

Disadvantages:
• Dynamic memory allocation is slower than static memory allocation. This is because dynamic memory
allocation happens in the heap area.
• Dynamic memory needs to be carefully deleted after use. They are created in non-contiguous area of
memory segment.
• Dynamic memory allocation causes contention between threads, so it degrades performance when it
happens in a thread.
• Memory fragmentation.

How do I write code that reads data at memory location specified by segment and
offset?...

Use peekb( ) function. This function returns byte(s) read from specific segment and
offset locations in memory. The following program illustrates use of this function. In this
program from VDU memory we have read characters and its attributes of the first row.
The information stored in file is then further read and displayed using peek( ) function.

main( )
{
char far *scr = 0xB8000000 ;
FILE *fp ;
int offset ;
char ch ;
if ( ( fp = fopen ( "scr.dat", "wb" ) ) == NULL )
{
printf ( "\nUnable to open file" ) ;
exit( ) ;
}
// reads and writes to file
for ( offset = 0 ; offset < 160 ; offset++ )
fprintf ( fp, "%c", peekb ( scr, offset ) ) ;
fclose ( fp ) ;
if ( ( fp = fopen ( "scr.dat", "rb" ) ) == NULL )
{
printf ( "\nUnable to open file" ) ;
exit( ) ;
}
// reads and writes to file
for ( offset = 0 ; offset < 160 ; offset++ )
{
fscanf ( fp, "%c", &ch ) ;
printf ( "%c", ch ) ;
}
fclose ( fp ) ;
}

C Interview Question: Why doesn't the following statement work?...

char str[ ] = "Hello" ;

strcat(str,'!') ;

Answer:

The string function strcat( ) concatenates strings and not a character. The basic
difference between a string and a character is that a string is a collection of characters,
represented by an array of characters whereas a character is a single character. To
make the above statement work writes the statement as shown below:
strcat ( str, "!" ) ;
C Interview Question: What will be the output of the following code?...

void main ()
{
   int i = 0 , a[3] ;
   a[i] = i++;
   printf (“%d",a[i]) ;
}

Answer:

The output for the above code would be a garbage value. In the statement a[i] = i++; the
value of the variable i would get assigned first to a[i] i.e. a[0] and then the value of i
would get incremented by 1. Since a[i] i.e. a[1] has not been initialized, a[i] will have a
garbage value.

C/C++ Data Structures: Breadth First Search: Write code for doing a breadth first search in a Tree data
structure...

Breadth first search inspects items one level at a time starting with the root node. This is unlike the Depth
First Search where the nodes in the left most branch are visited until there are no more nodes and then
backtracks.

The problem with implementing a breadth first search is that we have to remember the list of nodes at the
same level before moving to the next level. This can be achieved by using a queue data structure. See
this post on details of how to implement a Queue using an array. Every time we visit a node, we inspect
the data contained in the node before Enqueueing both children to the Queue. If the node contains the
data we were searching for we return the pointer to that node.
//Breadth First Search (BFS) method searches the tree one level at a time

Node * Breadth-First-Search(Node *root, int searchValue)

{
Queue queue;
queue.Enqueue(root);
Node * currentNode;
while(currentNode = queue.Dequeue())
{
if(currentNode->data == searchVal)
return currentNode;

queue.Enqueue(currentNode->left);
queue.Enqueue(currentNode->right);
}
}
C/C++ Data Structures: Implement a Queue using an Array. Make efficient use of the space in the array.

Queue is a data structure that supports Enqueue and Dequeue methods. The Enqueue method adds an
item to the end of the list and Dequeue method removes an item from the beginning of the list. This
means that the Queue is a FIFO (First In First Out) data structure. Theoretically speaking a Queue
doesn't have a fixed size. It grows as items are added to the end of the list. The implementation below
has a fixed sized determined at the time of instantiating the Queue object. Ideally, the array should be
reallocated to accommodate more items. The implementations makes use of the space efficiently by
reusing space that is released when items are dequeued.

Code : http://technical-interview.com/Implement_a_Queue_using_an_Array.aspx

C/C++ Data Structures: Trees: What are the advantages and disadvantages of B-star trees over Binary
trees...

A1 B-star trees have better data structure and are faster in search than Binary trees, but it’s harder to
write codes for B-start trees

C++: What is the difference between an external iterator and an internal iterator?...

An internal iterator is implemented with member functions of the class that has items to step through. .An
external iterator is implemented as a separate class that can be "attach" to the object that has items to
step through. .An external iterator has the advantage that many difference iterators can be active
simultaneously on the same object.

C++: Which recursive sorting technique always makes recursive calls to sort...

Mergesort always makes recursive calls to sort subarrays that are about half size of the original array, resulting in O(n log n)
time

C/C++ Data Structures:Sort a linked list

C/C++ Data Structures:Reverse a string

C/C++ Data Structures:Insert a node in a sorted linked list

C Data Structures:Doubly Linked List: How do you reverse a doubly linked list?....
C Data Structures:Singly Linked List: How do you reverse a singly linked list?....

VC++: Tuple:  Explain tuple in visual c++

 Dangling pointer: What is a dangling pointer?

Can you overload a function with the return type?

What is the output of the program below? Why?

Class A
{
public:
void func();
};
class B:pubic A
{
void func(int a);
};
int main()
{
B derv;
derv.func();
}

 
Why are there no virtual constructors but there are virtual destructors?
 

Why is an array of reference not possible?

 
Because reference variables must be initialized in C++, but there is no way to initialize arrays!

What is the difference between copy constructor & assignment operator?

Copy constructor is a special type of constructor used in C++ language to create a copy of an object. If
we don't explicitly declare one, the compiler creates one by default. This default constructor doesn't do
much except for byte-by-byte copy. In special cases, where class owns a pointer or file-descriptor it is not
generally recommended to have byte-by-byte copy. In such cases, the developer has to create a
constructor customized for the use.

For example, in case Class A has a member which is pointer to an int. If a default copy-constructor is
used,
A obj2 = obj1 ;
obj2's member pointer will point to the same memory location is pointed by obj1's pointer. This can later
cause problems like memory leak, or dangling pointer.
So in such cases, if the developer writes his own copy-constructor and makes sure that obj2's pointer
now points to a different memory location which has the same data value as in obj1's pointer.

A::A (const A&) {

int *ptrMember = new int ;
*ptrMember= *A.ptrMember
}

Allocate an array of 16 short ints on the stack/heap?

Stack:short pa[16];
Heap:short *pa = new short[16];

Show a code fragment to prevent a dynamically allocated array from being leaked in the event of a
fault

short *pa = null;

try
{
pa = new short[16];
...
}
catch(...)
{
}
if (pa != null)
delete[] pa

What is meant by Resource Acquisition is Initialization (RAiI)?

A resource, such as memory, is acquired by creating an instance of an object, and released when the
object is destroyed. The goals are:

* Software Patterns
* C++ craftsmanship
What is encapsulation??

Containing and hiding information about an object, such as internal data structures and code.
Encapsulation isolates the internal complexity of an object's operation from the rest of the
application. For example, a client component asking for net revenue from a business object need
not know the data's origin.

What is inheritance?

Inheritance allows one class to reuse the state and behavior of another class. The derived class
inherits the properties and method implementations of the base class and extends it by overriding
methods and adding additional properties and methods.

What is Polymorphism??

Polymorphism allows a client to treat different objects in the same way even if they were created
from different classes and exhibit different behaviors.

You can use implementation inheritance to achieve polymorphism in languages such as C++ and
Java.

Base class object's pointer can invoke methods in derived class objects.

You can also achieve polymorphism in C++ by function overloading and operator overloading.

What is constructor or ctor?

Constructor creates an object and initializes it. It also creates vtable for virtual functions. It is
different from other methods in a class.

What is destructor?

Destructor usually deletes any extra resources allocated by the object. 

What is default constructor?

Constructor with no arguments or all the arguments has default values.

What is copy constructor?

Constructor which initializes the it's object member variables ( by shallow copying) with another
object of the same class. If you don't implement one in your class then compiler implements one
for you.
for example:
Boo Obj1(10); // calling Boo constructor

Boo Obj2(Obj1); // calling boo copy constructor

Boo Obj2 = Obj1;// calling boo copy constructor

When are copy constructors called?

Copy constructors are called in following cases: 

a) when a function returns an object of that class by value
b) when the object of that class is passed by value as an argument to a function
c) when you construct an object based on another object of the same class
d) When compiler generates a temporary object

What is assignment operator?

Default assignment operator handles assigning one object to another of the same class. Member
to member copy (shallow copy)

What are all the implicit member functions of the class? Or what are all the functions
which compiler implements for us if we don't define one.??

default ctor
copy ctor
assignment operator
default destructor
address operator

What is conversion constructor?

constructor with a single argument makes that constructor as conversion ctor and it can be used
for type conversion.

for example:

class Boo
{
  public:
    Boo( int i );
};

Boo BooObject = 10 ; // assigning int 10 Boo object

What is conversion operator??

class can have a public method for specific data type conversions.
for example:
class Boo
{
  double value;
  public:
    Boo(int i )
    operator double() 
    { 
  return value;
    }
};

Boo BooObject;

double i  = BooObject; // assigning object to variable i of type double. now conversion  operator
gets called to assign the value.

What is diff between malloc()/free() and new/delete?

malloc allocates memory for object in heap but doesn't invoke object's constructor to initiallize
the object.

new allocates memory and also invokes constructor to initialize the object.

malloc() and free() do not support object semantics 

Does not construct and destruct objects 
string * ptr = (string *)(malloc (sizeof(string)))
Are not safe 
Does not calculate the size of the objects that it construct 
Returns a pointer to void 
int *p = (int *) (malloc(sizeof(int)));
int *p = new int;
Are not extensible 
new and delete can be overloaded in a class 

"delete" first calls the object's termination routine (i.e. its destructor) and then releases the space
the object occupied on the heap memory. If an array of objects was created using new, then
delete must be told that it is dealing with an array by preceding the name with an empty []:-

Int_t *my_ints = new Int_t[10];

...

delete []my_ints;

what is the diff between "new" and "operator new" ?

"operator new" works like malloc.

What is difference between template and macro??

There is no way for the compiler to verify that the macro parameters are of compatible types.
The macro is expanded without any special type checking.

If macro parameter has a postincremented variable ( like c++ ), the increment is performed two
times.

Because macros are expanded by the preprocessor, compiler error messages will refer to the
expanded macro, rather than the macro definition itself. Also, the macro will show up in
expanded form during debugging.

for example:

Macro:

#define min(i, j) (i < j ? i : j)

template:
template<class T> 
T min (T i, T j) 
{ 
return i < j ? i : j;
}

What are C++ storage classes?

auto
register
static
extern

auto: the default. Variables are automatically created and initialized when they are defined and
are destroyed at the end of the block containing their definition. They are not visible outside that
block

register: a type of auto variable. a suggestion to the compiler to use a CPU register for
performance
static: a variable that is known only in the function that contains its definition but is never
destroyed and retains its value between calls to that function. It exists from the time the program
begins execution

extern: a static variable whose definition and placement is determined when all object and
library modules are combined (linked) to form the executable code file. It can be visible outside
the file where it is defined.

What are storage qualifiers in C++ ?

They are..

const
volatile
mutable

Const keyword indicates that memory once initialized, should not be altered by a program.

volatile keyword indicates that the value in the memory location can be altered even though
nothing in the program
code modifies the contents. for example if you have a pointer to hardware location that contains
the time, where hardware changes the value of this pointer variable and not the program. The
intent of this keyword to improve the optimization ability of the compiler.   

mutable keyword indicates that particular member of a structure or class can be altered even if a
particular structure variable, class, or class member function is constant.

struct data
{
char name[80];
mutable double salary;
}

const data MyStruct = { "Satish Shetty", 1000 }; //initlized by complier

strcpy ( MyStruct.name, "Shilpa Shetty"); // compiler error

MyStruct.salaray = 2000 ; // complier is happy allowed

What is reference ??

reference is a name that acts as an alias, or alternative name, for a previously defined variable or
an object.

prepending variable with "&" symbol makes it as reference.

for example:
int a;
int &b = a; 
 

What is passing by reference?

Method of passing arguments to a function which takes parameter of type reference.

for example:

void swap( int & x, int & y )

{
 int temp = x;
 x = y;
 y = temp;
}

int a=2, b=3;

swap( a, b );

Basically, inside the function there won't be any copy of the arguments "x" and "y" instead they
refer to original variables a and b. so no extra memory needed to pass arguments and it is more
efficient. 
 

When do use "const" reference arguments in function?

a) Using const protects you against programming errors that inadvertently alter data.
b) Using const allows function to process both const and non-const actual arguments, while a
function without const in the prototype can only accept non constant arguments.
c) Using a const reference allows the function to generate and use a temporary variable
appropriately.
 

When are temporary variables created by C++ compiler?

Provided that function parameter is a "const reference", compiler generates temporary variable in
following 2 ways.

a) The actual argument is the correct type, but it isn't Lvalue

double Cube(const double & num)

{
  num = num * num * num;
  return num;
}

double temp = 2.0;

double value = cube(3.0 + temp); // argument is a expression and not a Lvalue;

b) The actual argument is of the wrong type, but of a type that can be converted to the correct
type

long temp = 3L;

double value = cuberoot ( temp); // long to double conversion 

What is virtual function?

When derived class overrides the base class method by redefining the same function, then if
client wants to access redefined the method from derived class through a pointer from base class
object, then you must define this function in base class as virtual function.

class parent
{
   void Show() 
{ 
cout << "i'm parent" << endl;
}
};

class child: public parent

{
   void Show() 
{ 
cout << "i'm child" << endl;
}

};

parent * parent_object_ptr = new child;

parent_object_ptr->show() // calls parent->show() i 

now we goto virtual world...

class parent
{
   virtual void Show() 
{ 
cout << "i'm parent" << endl;
}
};

class child: public parent

{
   void Show() 
{ 
cout << "i'm child" << endl;
}

};

parent * parent_object_ptr = new child;

parent_object_ptr->show() // calls child->show()  

What is pure virtual function? or what is abstract class?

When you define only function prototype in a base class without implementation and do the
complete implementation in derived class. This base class is called abstract class and client won't
able to instantiate an object using this base class.

You can make a pure virtual function or abstract class this way..

class Boo
{
void foo() = 0;
}

Boo MyBoo; // compilation error

 
What is Memory alignment??

The term alignment primarily means the tendency of an address pointer value to be a multiple of
some power of two. So a pointer with two byte alignment has a zero in the least significant bit.
And a pointer with four byte alignment has a zero in both the two least significant bits. And so
on. More alignment means a longer sequence of zero bits in the lowest bits of a pointer.

What problem does the namespace feature solve?

Multiple providers of libraries might use common global identifiers causing a name collision
when an application tries to link with two or more such libraries. The namespace feature
surrounds a library's external declarations with a unique namespace that eliminates the potential
for those collisions.
namespace [identifier] { namespace-body }

A namespace declaration identifies and assigns a name to a declarative region.

The identifier in a namespace declaration must be unique in the declarative region in which it is
used. The identifier is the name of the namespace and is used to reference its members.

What is the use of 'using' declaration?

A using declaration makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the scope
operator. 

What is an Iterator class?

A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container class. There are five
categories of iterators: input iterators, output iterators, forward iterators, bidirectional iterators,
random access. An iterator is an entity that gives access to the contents of a container object
without violating encapsulation constraints. Access to the contents is granted on a one-at-a-time
basis in order. The order can be storage order (as in lists and queues) or some arbitrary order (as
in array indices) or according to some ordering relation (as in an ordered binary tree). The
iterator is a construct, which provides an interface that, when called, yields either the next
element in the container, or some value denoting the fact that there are no more elements to
examine. Iterators hide the details of access to and update of the elements of a container class.
Something like a pointer. 

What is a dangling pointer?

A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after its lifetime is over. This
may occur in situations like returning addresses of the automatic variables from a function or
using the address of the memory block after it is freed.

What do you mean by Stack unwinding?

It is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects in the
stack between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.

Name the operators that cannot be overloaded??

sizeof, ., .*, .->, ::, ?: 

What is a container class? What are the types of container classes?

A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external storage. A
container class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a predefined behavior and a well-
known interface. A container class is a supporting class whose purpose is to hide the topology
used for maintaining the list of objects in memory. When a container class contains a group of
mixed objects, the container is called a heterogeneous container; when the container is holding a
group of objects that are all the same, the container is called a homogeneous container. 

What is inline function??

The __inline keyword tells the compiler to substitute the code within the function definition for
every instance of a function call. However, substitution occurs only at the compiler's discretion.
For example, the compiler does not inline a function if its address is taken or if it is too large to
inline.
   

What is overloading??

With the C++ language, you can overload functions and operators. Overloading is the practice of
supplying more than one definition for a given function name in the same scope.

- Any two functions in a set of overloaded functions must have different argument lists.
- Overloading functions with argument lists of the same types, based on return type alone, is an
error. 

What is Overriding?

To override a method, a subclass of the class that originally declared the method must declare a
method with the same name, return type (or a subclass of that return type), and same parameter
list.
The definition of the method overriding is: 
· Must have same method name.  
· Must have same data type.  
· Must have same argument list.  
Overriding a method means that replacing a method functionality in child class. To imply
overriding functionality we need parent and child classes. In the child class you define the same
method signature as one defined in the parent class.

What is "this" pointer?

The this pointer is a pointer accessible only within the member functions of a class, struct, or
union type. It points to the object for which the member function is called. Static member
functions do not have a this pointer.

When a nonstatic member function is called for an object, the address of the object is passed as a
hidden argument to the function. For example, the following function call

myDate.setMonth( 3 );

can be interpreted this way:

setMonth( &myDate, 3 );

The object's address is available from within the member function as the this pointer. It is legal,
though unnecessary, to use the this pointer when referring to members of the class.

What happens when you make call "delete this;" ??

The code has two built-in pitfalls. First, if it executes in a member function for an extern, static,
or automatic object, the program will probably crash as soon as the delete statement executes.
There is no portable way for an object to tell that it was instantiated on the heap, so the class
cannot assert that its object is properly instantiated. Second, when an object commits suicide this
way, the using program might not know about its demise. As far as the instantiating program is
concerned, the object remains in scope and continues to exist even though the object did itself in.
Subsequent dereferencing of the pointer can and usually does lead to disaster.

You should never do this. Since compiler does not know whether the object was allocated on the
stack or on the heap, "delete this" could cause a disaster.

How virtual functions are implemented C++?

Virtual functions are implemented using a table of function pointers, called the vtable.  There is
one entry in the table per virtual function in the class.  This table is created by the constructor of
the class.  When a derived class is constructed, its base class is constructed first which creates the
vtable.  If the derived class overrides any of the base classes virtual functions, those entries in the
vtable are overwritten by the derived class constructor.  This is why you should never call virtual
functions from a constructor: because the vtable entries for the object may not have been set up
by the derived class constructor yet, so you might end up calling base class implementations of
those virtual functions

What is name mangling in C++??

The process of encoding the parameter types with the function/method name into a unique name
is called name mangling. The inverse process is called demangling.

For example Foo::bar(int, long) const is mangled as `bar__C3Fooil'. 

For a constructor, the method name is left out. That is Foo::Foo(int, long) const is mangled as
`__C3Fooil'.

What is the difference between a pointer and a reference?

A reference must always refer to some object and, therefore, must always be initialized; pointers
do not have such restrictions. A pointer can be reassigned to point to different objects while a
reference always refers to an object with which it was initialized.

How are prefix and postfix versions of operator++() differentiated?

The postfix version of operator++() has a dummy parameter of type int. The prefix version does
not have dummy parameter.

What is the difference between const char *myPointer and char *const myPointer?

Const char *myPointer is a non constant pointer to constant data; while char *const myPointer is
a constant pointer to non constant data.

How can I handle a constructor that fails?

throw an exception. Constructors don't have a return type, so it's not possible to use return codes.
The best way to signal constructor failure is therefore to throw an exception.

How can I handle a destructor that fails?

Write a message to a log-file. But do not throw an exception. 

The C++ rule is that you must never throw an exception from a destructor that is being called
during the "stack unwinding" process of another exception. For example, if someone says throw
Foo(), the stack will be unwound so all the stack frames between the throw Foo() and the } catch
(Foo e) { will get popped. This is called stack unwinding. 
During stack unwinding, all the local objects in all those stack frames are destructed. If one of
those destructors throws an exception (say it throws a Bar object), the C++ runtime system is in a
no-win situation: should it ignore the Bar and end up in the } catch (Foo e) { where it was
originally headed? Should it ignore the Foo and look for a } catch (Bar e) { handler? There is no
good answer -- either choice loses information. 
So the C++ language guarantees that it will call terminate() at this point, and terminate() kills the
process. Bang you're dead. 

What is Virtual Destructor?

Using virtual destructors, you can destroy objects without knowing their type - the correct
destructor for the object is invoked using the virtual function mechanism. Note that destructors
can also be declared as pure virtual functions for abstract classes.

if someone will derive from your class, and if someone will say "new Derived", where "Derived"
is derived from your class, and if someone will say delete p, where the actual object's type is
"Derived" but the pointer p's type is your class.

 
Can you think of a situation where your program would crash without reaching the
breakpoint which you set at the beginning of main()?

C++ allows for dynamic initialization of global variables before main() is invoked. It is possible
that initialization of global will invoke some function. If this function crashes the crash will
occur before main() is entered. 
Name two cases where you MUST use initialization list as opposed to assignment in
constructors.

Both non-static const data members and reference data members cannot be assigned values;
instead, you should use initialization list to initialize them. 

Can you overload a function based only on whether a parameter is a value or a reference?

No. Passing by value and by reference looks identical to the caller. 

What are the differences between a C++ struct and C++ class?

The default member and base class access specifiers are different.

The C++ struct has all the features of the class. The only differences are that a struct defaults to
public member access and public base class inheritance, and a class defaults to the private access
specifier and private base class inheritance. 

What does extern "C" int func(int *, Foo) accomplish?

It will turn off "name mangling" for func so that one can link to code compiled by a C compiler. 

How do you access the static member of a class?

<ClassName>::<StaticMemberName>

What is multiple inheritance(virtual inheritance)? What are its advantages and

disadvantages?

Multiple Inheritance is the process whereby a child can be derived from more than one parent
class. The advantage of multiple inheritance is that it allows a class to inherit the functionality of
more than one base class thus allowing for modeling of complex relationships. The disadvantage
of multiple inheritance is that it can lead to a lot of confusion(ambiguity) when two base classes
implement a method with the same name.

What are the access privileges in C++? What is the default access level?

The access privileges in C++ are private, public and protected. The default access level assigned
to members of a class is private. Private members of a class are accessible only within the class
and by friends of the class. Protected members are accessible by the class itself and it's sub-
classes. Public members of a class can be accessed by anyone.

What is a nested class? Why can it be useful?

A nested class is a class enclosed within the scope of another class. For example:
  //  Example 1: Nested class
  //
  class OuterClass
 {
    class NestedClass
    {
      // ...
    };
    // ...
  };
Nested classes are useful for organizing code and controlling access and dependencies. Nested
classes obey access rules just like other parts of a class do; so, in Example 1, if NestedClass is
public then any code can name it as OuterClass::NestedClass. Often nested classes contain
private implementation details, and are therefore made private; in Example 1, if NestedClass is
private, then only OuterClass's members and friends can use NestedClass.

When you instantiate as outer class, it won't instantiate inside class.

What is a local class? Why can it be useful?

local class is a class defined within the scope of a function -- any function, whether a member
function or a free function. For example:

  //  Example 2: Local class

  //
  int f()
 {
    class LocalClass
    {
      // ...
    };
    // ...
  };
Like nested classes, local classes can be a useful tool for managing code dependencies. 

Can a copy constructor accept an object of the same class as parameter, instead of
reference of the object?
 

No. It is specified in the definition of the copy constructor itself. It should generate an error if a
programmer specifies a copy constructor with a first argument that is an object and not a
reference.