CHAPTER 3

FUELS

Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting with oxygen or
air, produces heat. Thus, the substance classified as fuel must necessarily contain one or several of
the combustible elements: carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, etc. In the process of combustion, the chemical
energy of the furl is converted into heat energy.
To utilize the energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to transform the fuel from one
state to another, i.e. from solid to liquid or gaseous state, liquid to gaseous state, or from its chemical
energy to some other form of energy via single or many stages. In this way, the energy of fuels can be
utilized more effectively and efficiently for various purposes.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways:

1. according to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid, liquid and gaseous
2. according to the mode of their procurement – natural and manufactured

Table 3.1 Natural and Manufactured Fuels

Natural Fuels Manufactured Fuels

Solid Fuels
Wood Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw
Coal Charcoal
Oil Shale Coke
Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohol, etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas Coal gas
Producer gas
Water gas
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blast furnace gas
Oil gas

SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e., natural fuels, such as wood, coal,
etc. and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke briquettes, etc.
The various advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels:
Advantages:
a) They are easy to transport .
b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
c) Their cost of production is low.
d) They posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages:
a) Their ash content is high.
b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
 c) They burn with clinker formation.
d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
e) Their cost of handling is high.

Wood and Their Characteristics

The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of fuel
which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself.
Constituents of Wood
Wood is vegetable tissue of trees and bushes. It consists of mainly cellular tissue and lignin
and lesser parts of fat and tar, as well as sugar.
Ash
The ash content of wood is negligible. The ash consists of mineral water that is found in the
wood itself, with an admixture of some impurities which accure during transportation, etc. The ash
consists of mainly potassium carbonate with varying degrees of calcium, magnesium and sodium
carbonate, as well as minute quantities of iron oxides, alumina and silica . Pure ash is white in color.
Moisture
A freshly felled tree anything from 40% to 60% of hygroscopic moisture depending upon the
species of the tree as well as the seasons of the year. On exposure to atmospheric air, the moisture
dries up and reduces to 15-20% in about 18 months. When wood is seasoned with water, it absorbs
nearly 150% of water by weight.
Characteristics of Flame
The nature of the flame depends on the tar content of wood. Pine and birch tree contain more
tar and hence burn with a thick and bright flame, while aspen and alder burn with dim, transparent
flame. The length of the flame also depends on the tar content.
Combustion Characteristics
The lighter the wood, the more intensely it burns with a long flame. This is because it
penetrates easily throughout the whole piece during combustion. If the wood is heavy, i.e. hard, the
penetration of air rendered difficult and a concentrated flame results with the development of more
heat at the point of burning.

Coals and Their Characteristics

It is commonly adapted view that coal is a mineral substance of vegetable origin. The large
deposits of coal in India are in Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Most of the Indian coal is of low
grade variety and coal washing to obtain low ash metallurgical coal is unavoidable. Over 30% of coal
output is consumed by railways, another similar proportion is used by industry including iron and steel
works. This leaves barely 40% of coal mine for use of the power supply undertakings.
Coal is classified into three major types namely: anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. Anthracite
is the oldest coal from geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little
volatile content and practically no moisture. Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective. It
is a soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture content with low fixed carbon. Fixed
carbon refer to carbon in a free state, not combine with other elements. Volatile matter refers to those
combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when coal is heated.

Figure 3.1 Coal

Analysis of Coal
To ascertain the commercial value of coal certain tests regarding its burning properties are
performed before it is commercially marketed. Two commonly used tests are: Proximate analysis and
Ultimate analysis of coal. Calorific value of coal is defined as the quantity of heat given out by burning
one unit weight of coal in a calorimeter.
Proximate Analysis of Coal
This analysis of coal gives good indication about heating and burning properties of coal. The
test gives the composition of coal in respect of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. The
result of proximate analysis of most coals indicate the following broad ranges of various constituents
by weight:

Moisture 3 – 30%
Volatile matter 3 – 50%
Ash 2 – 30%
Fixed Carbon 16 - 92%
The importance of volatile matter in coal is due to the fact that it largely governs the combustion which
in turn governs the design of grate and combustion space used. High volatile matter is desirable in
gas making, while low volatile matter for manufacturing of metallurgical coke.
The Ultimate Analysis of Coal
This analysis of coal is more precise way to find the chemical composition of coal with respect
to the elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and ash. The chemical composition is
very useful in combustion calculations and finding the composition of flue gases. The broad range in
which the constituents of coal vary by weight as determine by ultimate analysis are given below:

Carbon 50 – 95%
Hydrogen 2.5 – 5%
Oxygen 2–4%
Sulfur 0.5 – 7%
Nitrogen 0.5 – 3%
Ash 2 – 30%

MANUFACTURED SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The manufactured solid fuels include charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc. They are obtained from
the natural fuels, like wood, coal, etc.
Charcoal and its Characteristics
Charcoal is a produce derive from destructive distillation of wood, being left in the shape of
solid residue. Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear flame, producing no smoke and developing heat of
about 6,050 cal/kg.
Coke and its Characteristics
It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid residue. Coke
can be classified in two categories: soft coke and hard coke. Soft coke is obtained as the solid residue
o
from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of 600-650 C. It contains 5 to 10%
volatile matter It burns without smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel. Hard coke is obtained
as solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of 1200-1400oC. It
burns with smoke and a useful fuel for metallurgical purposes.
Briquettes and Their Characteristics
The term briquettes is used in respect of the dust, culm, slack and other small size waste
remains of lignite, peat, coke, etc. compressed into different shapes of regular form, with or without
binder. Dust and rubble result in considerable percentage during mining, transportation, etc. and the
briquetting industry is, therefore an important step toward the saving of fuel economy.
Good briquettes should be quite hard and as little friable as possible. They must withstand the
hazard of weather, and must be suitable for storing and general handling in use. These properties are
impart to briquettes by a correctly selected binder, or suitable processing such as pre-heating,
pressing, etc. Amongst the binders, asphalt, pitch are most commonly used, giving fine results.
Bagasse and its Characteristics
Bagasse is the residue of sugarcane, left as waste in the sugar mill after extraction of sugar
juice. In weight, it is about 20% of the virgin cane. By nature, it is fibrous fuel which can be compared
to wood. It contains 35-45% fibre, 7-10% sucrose and other combustible, and 45-55% moisture, and
possesses an average calorific value of 2,200 cal/kg. On moisture-fibre basis the average
composition is:
C = 45%, H2 = 6%, O2 = 46% and Ash = 3%
Bagasse is the main fuel satisfying the needs of sugar industries and efforts are being made for
decreasing the percent moisture of bagasse with thw help of flue-gas waste heat dryers. Bagasse is a
quick burning fuel with good efficiency.

Fig. 3.2 Sugarcane bagasse for making fuel pellets

LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The liquid fuels can be classified as follows:

a) Natural or crude oil
b) Artificial or crude oil
The advantages and disadvantages of liquid fuels:
Advantages:
a) They possess higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel supply.
d) They are easy to transport through pipes.
e) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
f) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
g) Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
h) They require less excess for complete combustion.
i) They require less furnace space for combustion.
Disadvantages:
a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to the solid fuel.
b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
c) There is a greater risk of fire hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and volatile liquid
fuels.
d) They give bad odor.
e) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying apparatus are
required.
Petroleum and its Characteristics
Petroleum is a basic natural fuel, it is a dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found deep
in the earth’s crust. It is mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain paraffins,
cycloparrafins or naphthenes, olefins and aromatics) together with small amount of organic
compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. The average composition of crude petroleum is:
C = 79.5 to 87.1%, H = 11.5 to 14.8%, S = 0.1 to 3.5% and O = 0.1 to 0.5%
Petroleum are graded according to the following physio-chemical properties:
a) Specific gravity
b) Calorific value
c) Fish point or ignition point
d) Viscosity
e) Sulfur contents
f) Moisture and sediment content
g) Specific heat and coefficient of expansion
Classification of Petroleum
The chemical nature of crude petroleum varies with the part of the world in which it is found.
They appear, however, to be three principal varieties:
Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum. This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the
saturated hydrocarbon CH4 to C35H72 and a little of naphthenes and aromatics. The hydrocarbon from
C18H38 to C35H72 are sometimes called waxes.
Asphaltic Base Type Crude Petroleum. It contains mainly cycloparaffins or naphthenes with
smaller amount of paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum. It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons
and are generally rich in semi-solid waxes.

MANUFACTURED LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Manufactured liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha,
Lubricating oils, etc. These are obtained mostly by fractional distillation of crude petroleum or
liquefaction of coal.
Gasoline or Petrol and Its Characteristics
The straight run gasoline is obtained either from distillation of crude petroleum or by synthesis
It contains some undesirable unsaturated straight chain hydrocarbon and sulfur compounds. It has a
boiling range of 40-120oC.
Some of the characteristics of an ideal gasoline are the following:
a) It must be cheap and readily available.
b) It must burn clean and produce no corrosion on combustion.
c) It should mix readily with air and afford uniform manifold distribution, i.e. should easily
vaporize.
d) It must be knock resistant.
e) It should be pre-ignite easily.
f) It must have a high calorific value.
Diesel Fuel and its Characteristics
The diesel fuel or gas oil obtain between 250-320oC during fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. This oil generally contains 85% C, 12% H. Its calorific value is about 11,000 kcal/kg.
The main characteristics of a diesel fuel is that it should easily ignite below compression
temperature. The hydrocarbon molecules of a diesel fuel should be, as far as possible, the straight-
chain ones, with a minimum admixture of aromatic and side-chain hydrocarbon molecules. It is used
in diesel engines as heating oil for cracking to get gasoline.
Kerosene Oil and Its Characteristics
Kerosene oil is obtained between 180-250oC during fractional distillation of crude petroleum.
It is used as an illuminant, jet engine fuel, tractor fuel, and for preparing laboratory gas. With the
development of jet engine, kerosene has become a material of far greater importance than it is used
to be. When kerosene is used in domestic appliances, it is always vaporize before combustion. By
using a fair excess of air it burns with a smokeless blue flame.
Heavy Oil and Its Characteristics
o
It is a fraction obtained between 320-400 C during fractional distillation of crude petroleum.
This oil on refractionation gives:
a) Lubricating oils which are used as lubricants.
b) Petroleum-jelly (Vaseline) whis is used as lubricants in medicines and in cosmetics.
c) Greases which are used as lubricants.
d) Paraffin wax which are used in candles, boot polishes, wax paper, tarpaulin cloth and for
electrical insulation purposes.

GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels. The
advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels:
Advantages:
a) They can be conveyed easily through pipeline to the actual place of need, thereby eliminating
manual labor in transportation.
b) They can be lighted at ease.
c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having temperatures.
d) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.
e) Their combustion can readily be controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
f) They are clean in use.
g) They do not require any special burner.
h) They burn without any smoke and ashes.
i) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
Disadvantages:
a) Very large storage tank are needed.
b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.

Natural Gas and Its Characteristics

Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained from wells dug in
the oil-bearing regions. The approximate composition of natural gas is:
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%
3
The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m . It is an excellent domestic fuel and is
conveyed in pipelines over very large distances. In America, it is available to a great extent, and so, is
quite popular as a domestic fuel. It is now used in the manufacture of chemicals by synthetic process.
It is a colorless gas and is non-poisonous. Its specific gravity is usually between 0.57 to 0.7.

Fig. 3. Appliances burning gaseous fuels

MANUFACTURED GASES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Manufactured gases are obtained from solid and liquid fuels. Some of the important
manufactured gaseous fuels are: coal gas, blast furnace gas, water gas, producer gas and oil gas.
Coal Gas and Its Characteristics
Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in absence of air at about 1300oC in
either coke ovens or gas making retorts. In gas making retort process coal is fed in closed silica
retorts, which are then heated to about 1300oC by burning producer gas and air mixture>
C + O2 → CO + 29.5 kcal
Coal gas is a colorless gas having a characteristic odor. It is lighter than air and burns with a long
smoky flame. Its average composition is: H2 = 47%, CH4 = 32%, CO = 7%, C2H2 = 3%, N2 = 4%, CO2
= 1% and rest = 4%, Its calorific value is about 4,900 kcal/m 3. It is used as (a) illuminant in cities and
town, (b) a fuel and (c) in metallurgical operation for providing reducing atmosphere.
Blast Furnace Gas and Its Characteristics
It is a by product flue gas obtained during the reduction of ion ore by coke in the blast furnace.
Its calorific value is about 1,000 kcal/m 3. It contains about 20-25% CO along with CO2, N2, etc. About
⅓ of this gas is used for preheating air used in blast furnace itself; while the remaining ⅔ is available
for use in boilers or after cleaning in gas engines. It is also used for burning in a special type of stove
(called Cowper’s stove) where the furnace is preheated. This gas contains much dust and is usually
cleaned before use by dust settlers, cyclones or electric precipitators.
Water Gas and Its Characteristics
Water gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases CO and H2 with a little fraction of
non-combustible gases. It is made by passing alternatively steam and little air through a bed of red
o
hot coal or coke maintained at about 900 to 1000 C in a reactor, which consists of steel vessel about
3 m wide and 4 m in height. It is lined inside with fire-bricks. It has a cup and cone feeder at the top
and an opening at the top for the exit of water gas. At the base, it is provided with inlet pipes for
passing air and steam.
Reactions
Supplied steam reacts with red hot coke (or coal) at 900-1000oC to form CO2 and H2
C + H2O → CO + H2 – 29 kcal
C + O2 → CO2 + 97 kcal
Composition
The average composition of water gas is: H2 = 51%, CO = 41%, N2 = 4%, CO2 = 4%. Its
calorific value is about 2,800 kcal/m3
Uses
It is used as (a) source of hydrogen gas, (b) an illuminating gas, and (c) a fuel gas

Producer Gas and Its Characteristics

Producer gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases carbon monoxide and hydrogen
associated with non-combustible gases N2, CO2, etc. It is prepared by passing air mixed with little
cream (about 0.35 kg/kg of coal) over a red hot coal or coke bed maintained at about 1100oC in a
special reactor called gas producer. It consists of steel vessel about 3 m in diameter and 4 m in height
The vessel is lined inside with fire bricks. It is provided with a cup and cone feeder at the top and a
side opening for the exit of producer gas. At the base it has an inlet for passing air and steam. The
producer at the base is also provided with an exit for the ash formed.
Reactions
The gas production reactions can be divided into four zones as follows:
Ash Zone
The lowest zone consists mainly of ash, and therefore, it is known as ash zone.
Combustion Zone
The zone next to the ash zone is known as oxidation or combustion zone. Here the
carbon burns and forms CO and CO2. The temperature of this zone is about 1100oC
The following reactions takes place.
 C + O2 → CO2 + 94 kcal
C + ½ O2 → CO + 29.5 kcal
Reduction Zone
Here carbon dioxide and steam combines with red hot carbon and liberates free
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The reactions are:
CO2 + C → 2CO – 94 kcal
C + H2O → CO + H2 → 29 kcal
C + 2H2O → CO2 + 2H2 – 19 kcal
All these reduction reactions are endothermic, so, the temperature in the reduction
zone falls to 1000oC.
Distillation Zone
o
In this zone (400-800 C) the incoming coal is heated by outgoing gases by giving
sensible heat to the coal. The heat given by the gases and heat radiated from the
reduction zone helps to distillate the fuel thereby volatile matter of coal is added to
the outgoing gas.
Composition
The average composition of producer gas is CO = 22.3%, H2 = 8.12%, N2 = 52.55%, CO2 =
3%. Its calorific value is about 1,300 kcal/m3.
Uses
It is cheap, clean and easily preparable gas and is used for heating open-hearth furnaces (in
steel and glass manufacture), muffle furnaces, retorts used in coke and coal gas manufacture
and as a reducing agent in metallurgical operation.

Oil Gas and its Characteristics

Oil gas is obtained by cracking kerosene oil. Oil in a thin steam is allowed to fall in a stout red
hot cast iron retort, which is heated in coal fired furnace. The resulting gaseous mixture passes out
through a bonet cover to a hydraulic main, a tank containing water. Here tar gets condensed. Then at
the testing cap, the proper cracking of oil is estimated from the color of the gas produced. A good oil
gas should have a golden color. By proper adjusting the supply of air, gas of required color can be
obtained. The gas is finally stored over water in gas holders.
Composition
The average composition of oil gas is: CH4 = 25.30%, H2 = 50.55%, CO = 10.12%, CO2 = 3%.
Its calorific value is about 6,600 kcal/m 3.
Uses
It is use as laboratory gas.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between natural and manufactured fuels?

2. What are the merits and demerits of solid fuels?

3. What are the main constituents of wood?

4. What is the difference between ultimate analysis and proximate analysis of coal?

5. Mention the uses of different types of coal.

6. What are the characteristics of coke and briquette fuels?

7. Mention the composition of crude petroleum.

8. Mention the uses of different types of manufactured liquid fuels.

9. Mention the origin and composition of natural gas.

10. Mention the characteristics of the following gaseous fuels:

a) Coal gas

b) Water gas

c) Producer gas

d) Blast furnace gas

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY: RESEARCH WORK # 1

FUELS

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