Aleesha Livingston L

AP/ECE/BIoE
o Covert ionic Potential into electronic potential
o It is used for measuring ECG,EEG,EMG
o The potential is generated due to the exchange of ions between metal
and the electrolyte of the body
o A wide variety of electrodes can be used to measure bioelectric events.
o Types
o Micro Electrodes
o Surface Electrode
o Needle Electrode
 o Measurement of the bioelectric potentials requires two electrodes
o The voltage measured is really the difference between the instantaneous
potential of the two electrodes

If two electrodes are of same type

The difference is usually
small and depends essentially on
the actual difference of ionic
potential between the two points of
the body from which measurements
are being taken
 If two electrodes are of different type
They produce a significant dc voltage that can cause current to flow
through both electrodes as well as through the input circuit of the amplifier to
which they are connected.
o The DC voltage due to the difference in electrode potential is called offset voltage of
electrode the two Electrodes of same material may also produce small electrode offset
voltage
o Chemical activity takes place within an electrode can cause voltage fluctuations to
appear without any physiological input. Such Variations may appear as noise on
bioelectric signal.
o It may reduce by proper choice of materials or by coating the electrodes to improve
stability, the best material for this is Silver-silver chloride
o The resistance capacitance networks shown in the above figure represent the
impedance of the electrodes as fixed value of resistance and capacitance
unfortunately the impedance is not constant
o The impedance is frequency dependent because of the effect of capacitance. Both the
electrode potential and the impedance are varied by an effect called polarization
o Polarization is the result of direct current passing through metal electrolyte
interface.
o Some Electrodes are designed to avoid or reduce polarization.
o If the amplifier to which electrodes are connected has an extremely high input
impedance, the effect of polarization & change in electrode impedance is minimized.
o Size & type of electrode is important for impedance determining
o Large electrodes tend to have lower impedance.
o Inaccessibility of variable to measurement: it is greatest difficulty in attempting
from a living system is the problem in gaining to the variable being measured. For
example neuro chemical activity of brain ,it is impossible to place transducer so we
need to do the indirect measurement. By using indirect measurement, however one
must be aware of the limitations.
o Variability of data: majority of physiological variables are nondeterministic,
means varies with respect to time.so these must be represented by some statistical
or probability distribution
o Lack of knowledge of inter relationship: physiological measurements with large
tolerance are often accepted by the physician because of lack of this knowledge and
the resultant in ability to control variations. Better understanding of physiological
relationship would also permit more effective use of indirect measurements as
substitutes for inaccessible measure.
o Interaction among physiological systems: large number of feedback loops involved in
the major physiological systems, a severe degree of interaction exists both within a
given system and among the major systems. The result is that stimulation of one part of
a given system generally affects all other parts of the system in some way and often
affects other systems as well.
o Effect of transducer: Transducer can be considered as a device converting one form of
energy to another form. Electrical transducers can be considered as a device meant to
convert a form of energy to equivalent electrical signals. The physical quantity to be
measured can be position, displacement, flow, temperature, strain, velocity etc. and the
output is in the form of electrical parameters like current, capacitance, voltage,
inductance, change in resistance etc. Transducer block diagram is given below.
o Transducer consists of two main parts, that is,
o Sensor or Sensing Element:
o This part is responsible for generating measurable response with
respect to the change in physical quantity to be measured.
o Transduction Element:
o Sensor output is carried on to the transduction element which converts
the non-electrical signal to electrical signal in proportion to the input

Input Sensing Transduction Output

Element Element
o Artifacts: it is component or variable is observed while doing experiment, which is
not naturally present. Thus random noise generated within the measuring
instrument, electrical interference (50/60 Hz),cross talk and all other unwanted
variations in a signal are considered artifacts.
o Energy limitations: many physiological measurement techniques that a certain
amount of energy be applied to the living system in order to obtain a measurement.
For example, resistance measurements require the flow of electric current through
the tissue or blood being measured. Some transducers generate small amount of
heat due to the current flow.
o Safety considerations: methods employed in measuring variables in a living
human subject must in no way endanger the life or normal functioning of the
subject. Recent emphasis on hospital safety requires that extra caution must be
taken in the design of any measurement system to protect the patient.
Components of man-instrument system
o Subject
o Stimulus Control
o Transducer Stimulus
Feedback
o Signal condition circuit
o Display device
Signal condition
o Recording, data processing & Transducer Display
circuit
transmission equipment
Recording, data processing &
Patient
transmission
o Subject: subject is the human being on whom the measurements are made. It constitutes a
many biopotentials and living organisms. Some of the biopotentials are electrocardiogram,
electromyogram, electroencephalogram and electroretinogram.
o Stimulus: In many measurements, the response to some of external stimulus is required.
The stimulus may ne visual (flash of light), auditory (tone), tactile or direct electrical
stimulation of some of the nervous system.
o Transducer: it is defined as capable of converting one of energy to another. It sense the
biopotential converts to electrical signal. For example thermistor converts temperature to
electrical signal, strain gauge produces electrical signal by sensing the pressure.
o Signal conditioning circuit: biomedical signal comes from transducer transferred to
signal conditioning circuit. It amplify the given signal some extent then process the signal
by removing the noise and measure signal parameters. Finally transfer measured
parameters to either display or memory for future purpose.
o Display device: output of signal conditioning circuit must be converted into form that can be
perceived by one of man’s senses and that can be convey the information obtained by the
measurements in a meaningful way. It can be visual, audible or tactile information.
o Recording, data processing and transmission: It is often necessary to record the
measured information for possible later use or to transmit it from one location to another. It
used, where computer control is employed so that automatic storage or processing is
required.
o Control feedback device: it is necessary or desirable to have automatic control of stimulus,
transducer or any part of man-instrument system, a control system is incorporated. This
system Transducer Stimulus Signal conditioning circuit Display Control feed back Recording,
data processing and transmission. usually consists of a feedback loop in which part of the
output from the signal conditioning or display equipment is used to control the operation of
the system in some way.