Introduction

Operating Systems (CS-220)

Spring 2021, FAST NUCES

Google Classroom Code: dpjhurs

COURSE SUPERVISOR: ANAUM HAMID

anaum.hamid@nu.edu.pk

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 Course Outline

Hardware
Before mid 1

Deadlock/ Process/
Disk scheduling
Scheduling Before and
After mid2 after mid 1
Linux Scripting
C/C# programming

Memory Multithreading/
Synchronization
Before and
after mid 2 mid 2

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 Evaluation Instruments and Marks Distributions
• Assignments = 20 marks
• Project = 10 marks
• Midterm = 30 marks (15 for each)
• Final Term = 50 marks
• Total = 100 Marks

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 Course Recourses
TEXTBOOK:
• Operating Systems Concepts, 10th edition, by Abraham
Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin, and Greg Gagne.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
• Operating Systems – Internals and Design Principles, 8th
edition, by William Stallings.

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 Introduction
Road Map.
1. What is an Operating System?
2. CS structures.
3. Interrupt
4. I/O
5. Memory
6. CS Architecture
7. Clustered Systems
8. OS Structure + Operations
9. Computing Environments
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 Operating System: Overview
• Operating system (OS): a system software that exploits the
hardware resources to provide a set of services to system users.
• The OS manages the processor(s), memory and input/output
(I/O) devices on behalf of its users.
• Note: it is important to have some fundamental understanding of
basic data structures, computer organization and a high-level
programming language, such as C or Java, before examining
topics related to operating systems.

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 Operating System: Overview (Cont.)

Relationship between application software and system software

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 Computer System Structure
• Computer system can be divided into four
components:

1. Hardware – provides basic computing

resources

2. Operating system

3. Application programs

4. Users

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Spring 2021

Four Components
of a Computer
System

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 Operating System Definition

• OS is a resource allocator
– Manages all resources
– Decides between conflicting requests for
efficient and fair resource use

• OS is a control program
– Controls execution of programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer

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 Computer Startup
• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or
reboot
– Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally
known as firmware
– Initializes all aspects of system
– Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution

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 • Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers
connect through common bus providing
access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and
devices competing for memory cycles
Computer
System
Organization

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Spring 2021

• I/O devices and the CPU can execute

concurrently

• Each device controller is in charge of a

particular device type

Computer- • Each device controller has a local buffer

System
• CPU moves data from/to main memory
Operation to/from local buffers

• I/O is from the device to local buffer of

controller

• Device controller informs CPU that it has

finished its operation by causing an
INTERRUPT
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 Interrupts
• Interrupt: a mechanism by which other modules (I/O, memory)
may interrupt the “normal sequencing of the processor”.
• Most common classes of Interrupts are:
Generated by an I/O controller, to signal normal completion of
I/O
an operation or to signal a variety of error conditions.
Generated by a condition that occurs as a result of an
instruction execution, such as arithmetic overflow, division by
Program
zero, attempt to execute an illegal machine instruction, and
reference outside a user’s allowed memory space.
Timer Generated by a timer within the processor.
Hardware failure Generated by a failure, such as memory error.
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 Common Functions of Interrupts
● Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt
service routine generally, through the
interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
● Interrupt architecture must save the
address of the interrupted instruction
● A trap or exception is a software-
generated interrupt caused either by an
error or a user request
● An operating system is interrupt driven
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 Interrupt Handling
1. The operating system preserves the state of the
CPU by storing registers and the program
counter

2. Determines which type of interrupt has

occurred:
1. polling
2. vectored interrupt system

3. Separate segments of code determine what

action should be taken for each type of
interrupt
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 Multiple Interrupts

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 I/O Structure
1. After I/O starts, control returns to user program only
upon I/O completion
◦ Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt

◦ Wait loop (contention for memory access)

◦ At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no

simultaneous I/O processing.

2. After I/O starts, control returns to user program without

waiting for I/O completion
◦ System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O
completion
◦ Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating
its type, address, and state
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 Direct Memory Access Structure
➢ Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to
memory speeds

➢ Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to

main memory without CPU intervention

➢ Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per
byte
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Memory

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 Storage Structure
1. Main memory – only large storage media that the
CPU can access directly

2. Secondary storage – extension of main memory that

provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.

3. Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered

with magnetic recording material
◦ Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors
◦ The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer

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 Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
◦ Speed
◦ Cost
◦ Volatility

1. Caching – copying information into faster storage

system; main memory can be viewed as a cache for
secondary storage

2. Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O

◦ Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

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 Caching
1. Important principle, performed at many
levels in a computer (in hardware,
operating system, software).

2. Faster storage (cache) checked first to

determine if information is there
◦ If it is, information used directly from the cache
(fast)
◦ If not, data copied to cache and used there

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Computing Architectures

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 Computer-System Architecture

• Multiprocessor systems growing in use and

importance
– Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled
systems
– Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault
tolerance
– Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing

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 Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual-Core Design
• UMA and NUMA architecture variations
• Multi-chip and multicore

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 Clustered Systems

• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple

systems working together
– Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network
(SAN)
– Provides a high-availability service which survives
failures
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby
mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other

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 Clustered Systems

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 Operating System
Structures + Operations

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 Operating System Structure
• Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
❖ Single user cannot always keep CPU and I/O devices busy
❖ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
❖ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
❖ One job selected and run via job scheduling
❖ When it must wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact
with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
❖ Response time should be < 1 second
❖ Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
❖ If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
❖ If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run

❖ Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogram System

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 • Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and
other system components
• User mode and kernel mode
• Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is

Operating- running user code or kernel code

• Some instructions designated as privileged,
only executable in kernel mode
System • System call changes mode to kernel, return
from call resets it to user

Operations • Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations

• i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for
guest VMs.

• “The one program running at all times on the

computer” is the kernel.

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 • Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging
resources
• Set interrupt after specific period
• Operating system decrements counter
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
Transition • Set up before scheduling process to regain
control or terminate program that exceeds
from User to allotted time

Kernel
Mode

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 Process Management
• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity; process is an
active entity.

• Process needs resources to accomplish its task

– CPU, memory, I/O, files
– Initialization data

• Program counter (PC): Contains the address of an

instruction to be fetched

• Single-threaded process has one program counter

specifying location of next instruction to execute

• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per

thread

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 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:

• Creating and deleting both user and system processes

• Suspending and resuming processes

• process synchronization

• process communication

• deadlock handling

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 Memory Management

• Memory management activities

– Keeping track of which parts of memory are
currently being used and by whom

– Deciding which processes (or parts thereof)

and data to move into and out of memory

– Allocating and deallocating memory space as

needed

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 Storage Management
• File-System management
– Files usually organized into directories
– Access control on most systems to determine
who can access what
– OS activities include

• Creating and deleting files and directories

• Primitives to manipulate files and dirs

• Mapping files onto secondary storage

• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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 Mass-Storage Management
• OS activities

– Free-space management

– Storage allocation

– Disk scheduling

• Some storage need not be fast

– Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape

– Still must be managed – by OS or applications

– Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW

(read-write)

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 I/O Subsystem
• I/O subsystem responsible for
– Memory management of I/O

– caching (storing parts of data in faster storage

for performance)

– spooling (the overlapping of output of one job

with input of other jobs)

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 Protection and Security

• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access

of processes or users to resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of the system against internal
and external attacks
– Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service

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Computing Environments

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• Distributed
• Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous,
systems networked together
Computing • Network is a communications path,
Environments • Local Area Network (LAN)
-Distributed
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Network Operating System provides features

between systems across network

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Computing • Client-Server
Environments Computing
• Dumb terminals
– Client- supplanted by
smart PCs
Server • Many systems now
servers, responding
to requests
generated by clients

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Computing • Another model of

distributed system
Environments
- Peer-to-Peer • P2P does not
distinguish clients and
servers

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 Computing
Environments
– Cloud
Computing

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• Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of

computers
• Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose
Real-Time OS, real-time OS
Embedded • Use expanding
• Many other special computing environments as well
Systems • Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
• Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
• Processing must be done within constraint
• Correct operation only if constraints met

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 Thank You!
Chapter 1 Completed

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