GEOPHYSICS

Introduction and Overview

Geology

Geophysics
Earth Sciences
Geography

Geodesy

Geology- the scientific study of the origin, history, composition

and structure of the Earth.

Geography- the science of the study of the surface of the Earth

such as topography, climate, ocean, plant and animal life

Geodesy- the study of the shape, size, inflexion point and

curvature of the Earth 1
Geophysics-
- is the subject of natural science concerned with the physical
processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding
space environment and the use of quantitative methods for their
analysis
- the application of the principles of physics to the study
of the Earth
- a study with the limits from the end of the universe to
the center of the Earth
Exploration (Applied) Geophysics

Solid Earth Geophysics

Geophysics Oceanography

Meteorology

Hydrology

Geocosmophysics
- ionospheric study and research 2
 Seismology

Volcanology

Geomagnetism

Geoelectricity

Solid Earth Geophysics

Tectnophysics

Gravimetry

Geothermy

Geochronology- the study of age of

the Earth and its different eras

Geocosmogony- study of meteors 3

Exploration Geophysics

- deals with the methods used to search for hidden treasures from
within the Earth that are economically important to mankind

The treasures may be

- hydrocarbon deposits (oil and natural gas)

- mineral deposits- metallic and non metallic minerals

(ore deposits, Fe, Cu, U, etc)

- groundwater
- geothermal resources

- environmental problems- waste disposal site characterization,

mapping of weak zones and subsurface discontinuities,
movement of pollutants,
- location of archaeological remains and buried structures,
location of cavities for waste disposal and energy storage,
buried pipes, cables, etc.

- determination of depth to competent zones and to basement,4

presence of weak zones, etc (esp. for construction work)
 • Methods to achieve these is by carrying out measurements of the
physical field

a) on the surface of the Earth- ground and ship borne surveys

b) above the surface- airborne geophysical surveys, and

c) inside the Earth’s surface- borehole geophysics

• The basis for the measurements are changes/contrasts/ anomalies

in the physical field such as: density, magnetic susceptibility,
conductivity, resistivity, elastic, thermal, radioactive and
geochemical properties properties

• Accordingly, there are different geophysical techniques/methods

to be employed and as such each relevant physical property
gives rise to a particular geophysical method

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Major methods
Gravity Methods
Magnetic Methods
Electrical Methods
Electromagnetic Methods
Seismic Methods
Magnetotelluric Methods
Well Logging Methods

Minor Methods
Radioactive Methods
Geochemical Methods
Geothermal (Heat Flow) Methods

• In general, all these methods may be grouped in two/three classes

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1) Static methods – methods in which distortions of a static
physical field are detected and accurately measured

- the static fields may be

i) Natural- like geomagnetic, gravitational or thermal

gradient fields, or

ii) Artificial- like self potential, electric potential

gradient, etc

2) Dynamic methods

- methods where signals are sent into the ground and their
returns or responses are measured/detected

- these are methods like seismic, electrical,

electromagnetic, etc.

3) Other class of methods

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a) Relaxation Methods- that record decay of imposed signals
e.g. the IP methods

+ --
+
+ --
+ - -
+ -
b) Integrated Effect Methods- methods in which statistical
averages of a property are recorded
e.g. radioactive methods

e-x N
Radioactive processes - random
- Statistical

N  N 0e  t
x
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 Overview of the Methods

1) The Gravity Methods (G)

- measure variations in density within the Earth’s surface

- absolute value of “g” is measured by using a sensitive
instrument- the GRAVIMETER

- common unit of “g” for geophysical purposes is the “milligal”

1 gal = 1 cm/s2

g
distance

x average crustal density  av  2.3  2.6 g / cm

3
- - - x x x - - -
x
x - -
x chromite ore   4.5  4.8 gm / cm3
- - x x - 9
-
 • Therefore, small variations in density of subsurface rocks gives rise
to measurable gravity anomaly on the surface

2) The Magnetic Methods (M)

- the method searches for changes in magnetic susceptibility

(K=I/H –the degree to which a body gets magnetized) of rocks
in the subsurface

- materials like magnetite, ilmenite, chromite show large K

values and moreover different rock units exhibit different
susceptibilities

- the natural field of the Earth is used as magnetizing force and

records are made by MAGNETOMETERS

- common unit in geophysical surveys is the “gamma”

1   10 5 Oe  10 8 G
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 Magnetic field
strength

distance

x
x x x host rock
x
x x magnetite
x x
3) Electrical Methods (EL)

- the measured parameter is the vertical or lateral variations

in resistivity of subsurface materials
I

V

x
2 x x x A  V 
 x
x 1x
Fe, Cu
  
x x L I 
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4) Electromagnetic Methods (EM)

- measure variations in conductivity between subsurface

formations

Tx Rx

HS
HP
 surround   t arg et
surround

target Induced Current

- conductivity of subsurface materials vary over a wide range

from 10  4 to 10 4 mhos
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5) Seismic Methods (S)

- measure acoustic impedance (V) of the layers of the

subsurface
- compressional waves are used
- signals are picked up by geophones and recorded by
seismometers
- two methods
- Seismic reflection technique
- Seismic refraction depending on the type of waves
recorded, their depth of investigation, etc

Source Receivers (Geophones)

1 V1
K1
2 V2
K2
3 V3
K3
4 V4

- different reflection coefficients depending on different 13

V values of individual layers
6) Well Logging Methods (WL)
- instruments lowered into a well measure properties of the
formations, either
- directly- through measurement in the borehole,
G V
- almost directly- measurements past the drilling
mud.

- different techniques using almost all the methods

used in surface geophysical work- gravity,
magnetic, electrical, EM, seismic, thermal,
radiometric, etc
C’
- in the illustration, for example, the measurement
of current and potential enable one to determine
P’ the resistivity of the layers at the measurement
P depth
C
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7) Magnetotelluric (MT) Methods

- utilize current sheets induced by the ionosphere to flow just

beneath the Earth's surface

- the sheets get distorted depending on the presence of changes

in conductivity in the subsurface, and these distortions give
indication about the presence of conductive targets

- frequencies involved are very low (0.0005 – 1 Hz)

+ + + + +
+ +
+ Ionosphere

- - - - - Ground surface
- - - - -
-
x
x x x
x
x x conductive target 15
x x
8) Radiometric Methods (R)

- measure natural radioactivity of subsurface rocks

- Nuclear decay processes are
spontaneous and random
statistical- when one averages large decay data it is
found that the decay obey certain laws

- Proportional, Geiger Muller and Scintillation counters are used,

- records are counts/time

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 Geophysical Survey Applications

Summary
Appropriate Survey
Application Method(s)

Exploration for fossil fuels S, G, M, (EM)

(oil, coal, natural gas)

Exploration for metalliferous mineral M, EM, ER, IP, SP

deposits (Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, etc.)

Exploration for bulk mineral deposits S, (ER), G

Exploration for groundwater ER, S, EM

Engineering and construction site

ER, S, (G), M
investigations

Environmental problems ER, S, EM, (G), M 17

 Appropriate Survey
Application Method(s)

Exploration for geothermal energy (G), Th, S, ER, EM

Exploration for radioactive minerals R, (M)

Archaeological site investigations M, ER, S

Note: i) (…) denote subsidiary methods

ii) Geophysical methods are used in combination

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A study on each of these geophysical methods involve
discussions on

i) Principles and theoretical foundations

ii) Instrumentation

iii) Field procedure and data acquisition

iv) Result presentation, Interpretation and discussion on the results

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 Geophysical Survey Field Practices

In all geophysical survey problems, first the particular geophysical method

to be employed, the survey traverses, traverse spacing and measuring
station spacings have to be determined

The selection of these parameters (survey method, traverse directions,

spacing between traverses and measuring point spacing) depend
on several factors
A) Survey method-
- the particular method/technique or group of methods to be
employed depends on the type of contrast the target is expected
to show
- therefore the question would be what physical property variation is
expected to be present due to the target relative to the host
and surrounding Earth materials
B) Direction of survey traverse
- the traverse direction is usually chosen with reference to the
known/expected target
- is normally perpendicular to the strike of the local geology-
DIRECTION OF ANOMALY 20
C) Spacing between traverses and measuring stations- these again
depend on several factors, the important ones are
i) Dimension of the target
- depending upon the expected target dimension, profile spacings
and spacing between measuring points may be small or large.
- smaller size targets need smaller separations while larger ones
will not be missed even with large spacing
- eg. Oli vs mineral exploration
ii) Depth of the body
- deeper magnetic sources have their influence spread over a
wide area and hence can be explored with wider spacings
- shallow depth targets are better resolved with small spacings
iii) Type of survey
- depending on whether the survey is a reconnaissance or detailed
one, the spacings may be respectively made large or small
- for example 20-50 ft mineral exploration
0.25 mile for mineral exploration

iv) Requirements of other geophysical methods in use

- frequently, the magnetometer is one of the geophysical
instruments used in a survey and as such magnetic surveys are
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rarely carried out alone
- usually together with gravimetry and radiometric measurements
- therefore, the survey procedure (direction of survey and spacing)
would often be determined by the requirement of these other
sensors.

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