Computer Science and Engineering Faculty

Patuakhali Science and Technology University

Assignment
On

Course code:

Course Title:

Level: 2 Semester: II Date: / /

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Name: Md. Moshiur Rahman Khan Name: Md. Kamrul Hasan
Roll: 21. Lecturer
Reg.No: 00600 . CSE Faculty, PSTU
Independent & Dependent Variables

Independent Variables (IV) & Dependent Variables (DV)

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the
researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured.

An independent variable is the presumed cause, whereas the dependent variable is the presumed
effect.

The IV is the antecedent, whereas the DV is the consequent.

In experiments, the IV is the variable that is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter;
whereas the DV is not manipulated, instead the DV is observed or measured for variation as a
presumed result of the variation in the IV.

"In nonexperimental research, where there is no experimental manipulation, the IV is the

variable that 'logically' has some effect on a DV. For example, in the research on cigarette-
smoking and lung cancer, cigarette-smoking, which has already been done by many subjects, is
the independent variable." (Kerlinger, 1986, p.32)

When reseaerchers are not able to actually control and manipulate an IV, it is technically referred
to as a status variable (e.g., gender, ethnicity, etc.). Even though researchers do not actually
control or manipulate status variables, researchers can, and often do, treat them as IVs (Heppner,
Kivlighan & Wampold, 1999).

"The DV refers to the status of the 'effect'(or outcome) in which the researcher is interested; the
independent variable refers to the status of the presumed 'cause,' changes in which lead to
changes in the status of the dependent variable…any event or condition can be conceptualized as
either an independent or a dependent variable. For example, it has been observed that rumor-
mongering can sometimes cause a riot to erupt, but it has also been observed that riots can cause
rumors to surface. Rumors are variables that can be conceived of as causes (IVs) and as effects
(DVs)." (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991, p. 71)

Some Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables

The following is a hypothesis for a study.

1. "There will be a statistically significant difference in graduation rates of at-risk high-school

seniors who participate in an intensive study program as opposed to at-risk high-school seniors
who do not participate in the intensive study program." (LaFountain & Bartos, 2002, p. 57)

IV: Participation in intensive study program. DV: Graduation rates.

The following is a description of a study.

2. "A director of residential living on a large university campus is concerned about the large
turnover rate in resident assistants. In recent years many resident assistants have left their
positions before completing even 1 year in their assignments. The director wants to identify the
factors that predict commitment as a resident assistant (defined as continuing in the position a
minimum of 2 years). The director decides to assess knowledge of the position, attitude toward
residential policies, and ability to handle conflicts as predictors for commitment to the position."
(LaFountain & Bartos, 2002, p. 8)

IV: knowledge of position, attitude toward policies, and ability to handle conflicts. DV:
commitment to position (continuing in position for 2 years or not continuing).

References

Extraneous Variables are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the
variables that an experimenter is examining. Another way to think of this, is that these are
variables the influence the outcome of an experiment, though they are not the variables that are
actually of interest. These variables are undesirable because they add error to an experiment. A
major goal in research design is to decrease or control the influence of extraneous variables as
much as possible.

For example, let’s say that an educational psychologist has developed a new learning strategy
and is interested in examining the effectiveness of this strategy. The experimenter randomly
assigns students to two groups. All of the students study text materials on a biology topic for
thirty minutes. One group uses the new strategy and the other uses a strategy of their choice.
Then all students complete a test over the materials. One obvious confounding variable in this
case would be pre-knowledge of the biology topic that was studied. This variable will most likely
influence student scores, regardless of which strategy they use. Because of this extraneous
variable (and surely others) there will be some spread within each of the groups. It would be
better, of course, if all students came in with the exact same pre-knowledge. However, the
experimenter has taken an important step to greatly increase the chances that, at least, the
extraneous variable will add error variance equivalently between the two groups. That is, the
experimenter randomly assigned students to the two groups.

Random assignment is a powerful tool though it does nothing to decrease the amount of error
that occurs as a result of extraneous variables, in only equalizes it between groups. In fact, even
if the experimenter gave a pre-knowledge test ahead of time and then assigned students to
groups, so that the groups were as equal as possible on pre-knowledge scores, this still would not
change the fact that students would differ one from the other in terms of pre-knowledge and this
would add "error variance" in the experiment.

The thing that makes random assignment so powerful is that greatly decreases systematic error –
error that varies with the independent variable. Extraneous variables that vary with the levels of
the independent variable are the most dangerous type in terms of challenging the validity of
experimental results. These types of extraneous variables have a special name, confounding
variables. For example, instead of randomly assigning students, the instructor may test the new
strategy in the gifted classroom and test the control strategy in a regular class. Clearly, ability
would most likely vary with the levels of the independent variable. In this case pre-knowledge
would become a confounding extraneous variable. (Animated illustration of extraneous and
confounding variables and systematic vs. non-systematic error variance.)

One of the most common types of confounding occurs when an experimenter does not or can not
randomly assign participants to groups, and some type of individual difference (e.g., ability,
extroversion, shyness, height, weight) acts as a confounding variable. For example, any
experiment that involves a comparison of men and women is inherently plagued with
confounding variables, the most commonly cited of which is that the social environment for
males and females is very different. This does not mean that there is no meaning or value in
gender comparison studies, or other studies in which random assignment is not employed, it
simply means that we need to be more cautious in interpreting the results.

Multistage sampling
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. Using all the sample elements in all
the selected clusters may be prohibitively expensive or not necessary. Under these
circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful. Instead of using all the elements
contained in the selected clusters, the researcher randomly selects elements from each cluster.
Constructing the clusters is the first stage. Deciding what elements within the cluster to use is the
second stage. The technique is used frequently when a complete list of all members of the
population does not exist and is inappropriate.

In some cases, several levels of cluster selection may be applied before the final sample elements
are reached. For example, household surveys conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics
begin by dividing metropolitan regions into 'collection districts', and selecting some of these
collection districts (first stage). The selected collection districts are then divided into blocks, and
blocks are chosen from within each selected collection district (second stage). Next, dwellings
are listed within each selected block, and some of these dwellings are selected (third stage). This
method means that it is not necessary to create a list of every dwelling in the region, only for
selected blocks. In remote areas, an additional stage of clustering is used, in order to reduce
travel requirements.[1]

Although cluster sampling and stratified sampling bear some superficial similarities, they are
substantially different. In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from all the strata,
where in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are studied, either in single stage or multi

Sequential analysis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

In statistics, sequential analysis or sequential hypothesis testing is statistical analysis where

the sample size is not fixed in advance. Instead data are evaluated as they are collected, and
further sampling is stopped in accordance with a pre-defined stopping rule as soon as significant
results are observed. Thus a conclusion may sometimes be reached at a much earlier stage than
would be possible with more classical hypothesis testing or estimation, at consequently lower
financial and/or human cost.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Applications of sequential analysis
o 2.1 Clinical trials
o 2.2 Other applications
• 3 See also
• 4 Notes
• 5 References

• 6 External links

[edit] History

Sequential analysis was first developed by Abraham Wald[1] with Jacob Wolfowitz, W. Allen
Wallis, and Milton Friedman[2] while at Columbia University's Statistical Research Group as a
tool for more efficient industrial quality control during World War II. Another early contribution
to the method was made by K.J. Arrow with D. Blackwell and M.A. Girshick.[3]

A similar approach was independently developed at the same time by Alan Turing, as part of the
Banburismus technique used at Bletchley Park, to test hypotheses about whether different
messages coded by German Enigma machines should be connected and analysed together. This
work remained secret until the early 1980s.[4]

[edit] Applications of sequential analysis

[edit] Clinical trials

In a randomized trial with two treatment groups, classical group sequential testing is used in the
following manner: If n subjects in each group are available, an interim analysis is conducted on
the 2n subjects. The statistical analysis is performed to compare the two groups, and if the
alternative hypothesis is accepted, the trial is terminated. Otherwise, the trial continues for
another 2n subjects, with n subjects per group. The statistical analysis is performed again on the
4n subjects. If the alternative is accepted, then the trial is terminated. Otherwise, it continues
with periodic evaluations until N sets of 2n subjects are available. At this point, the last statistical
test is conducted, and the trial is

Diagram
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Further information: Chart

Sample flowchart representing the decision process to add a new article to Wikipedia.

A diagram is a two-dimensional geometric symbolic representation of information according to

some visualization technique. Sometimes, the technique uses a three-dimensional visualization
which is then projected onto the two-dimensional surface. The word graph is sometimes used as
a synonym for diagram.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Overview
• 2 Main diagram types
• 3 Specific diagram types
o 3.1 A–D
o 3.2 E–H
o 3.3 I–L
o 3.4 M–P
o 3.5 R–U
o 3.6 V–Z
• 4 See also
• 5 References

• 6 Further reading

[edit] Overview

A diagram is a 2D geometric symbolic representation of information according to some

visualization technique. Sometimes, the technique uses a 3D visualization which is then
projected onto the 2D surface. The term diagram in common sense can have two meanings.

• visual information device : Like the term "illustration" the diagram is used as a collective
term standing for the whole class of technical genres, including graphs, technical
drawings and tables.[1]
• specific kind of visual display : This is only the genre, that show qualitative data with
shapes that are connected by lines, arrows, or other visual links.

In science the term is used in both ways. For example Anderson (1997) stated more generally:
"diagrams are pictorial, yet abstract, representations of information, and maps, line graphs, bar
charts, engineering blueprints, and architects' sketches are all examples of diagrams, whereas
photographs and video are not".[2] On the other hand Lowe (1993) defined diagrams as
specifically "abstract graphic portrayals of the subject matter they represent".[3]

In the specific sense diagrams and charts contrast computer graphics, technical illustrations,
infographics, maps, and technical drawings, by show "abstract rather than literal representations
of information".[1] The essences of a diagram can be seen as:[1]

• a form of visual formatting devices

• a display that do not show quantitative data, but rather relationships and abstract
information
• with building blocks such as geometrical shapes connected by lines, arrows, or other
visual links.
Or in Hall's (1996) words "diagrams are simplified figures, caricatures in a way, intended to
convey essential meaning".[4] These simplified figures are often based on set of rules. The basic
shape according to White (1984) can be characterized in terms of "elegance, clarity, ease,
pattern, simplicity, and validity"[1]. The elegance for a start is determined by whether or not the
diagram is "the simplest and most fitting solution to a problem".[5]

[edit] Main diagram types

There are at least the following types of diagrams:

• Graph-based diagrams: these take a collection of items and relationships between them,
and express them by giving each item a 2D position, while the relationships are expressed
as connections between the items or overlaps between the items; examples of such
techniques:

tree diagram

network diagram

flowchart

Venn diagram

•
 existential graph
• Chart-like diagram techniques, which display a relationship between two variables that
take either discrete or a continuous ranges of values; examples:

histogram

bar chart

pie chart

function graph

scatter plot
• Other types of diagrams, e.g.,

•
 train diagram

exploded view

population density map

Pioneer plaque

Three-dimensional diagram

Thousands of diagram techniques exist. Some more examples follow.

[edit] Specific diagram types
[edit] A–D [edit] M–P
A M

• Activity diagram used in UML and • Martin ERD

SysML • Message Sequence Chart
• Mind map – used for learning,
B brainstorming, memory, visual thinking
and problem solving
• Bachman diagram
• Booch – used in software engineering N
• Block diagram
• Block Definition Diagram (BDD) used • N2
in SysML • Nassi–Shneiderman diagram or
• Business & IT Diagram (B&IT) - used structogram – a representation for
in business and IT modelling structured programming
• Nomogram
C
O
• Cartogram
• Category theory diagrams • Object diagram – from UML
• Cause-and-effect diagram
• Circuit diagram P
• Class diagram – from UML
• Collaboration diagram – from UML 1.x • Package diagram from UML and SysML
• Communication diagram – from UML • Parametric diagram from SysML
2.0 • PERT
• Commutative diagram • Petri net – shows the structure of a
• Component diagram – from UML distributed system as a directed bipartite
• Composite structure diagram – from graph with annotations
UML • Piping and instrumentation diagram
• Concept map (P&ID)
• Constellation diagram • Phase diagram used to present
• Context diagram solid/liquid/gas information
• Control flow diagram • Plant Diagram
• Contour diagram • Pressure volume diagram used to
• Cordier diagram analyse engines
• Cross functional flowchart • Pourbaix diagram
• Process flow diagram or PFD – used in
D chemical engineering
• Program structure diagram
• Database model diagram
• Data flow diagram [edit] R–U
• Data structure diagram R
• Dendrogram
• Dependency diagram • Radial Diagram
• Deployment diagram – from UML • Requirement Diagram Used in SysML
[edit] See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: diagrams

Look up diagram in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Chart
• Diagramming Software
• Diagrammatic reasoning
• List of graphical methods
• Mathematical diagram
• Plot (graphics)
• commons:Specific diagram types - gallery of many diagram types.
•

A graph is a picture designed to express words, particularly the connection between two or more
quantities. You can see a graph on the right.

A simple graph usually shows the relationship between two numbers or measurements in the
form of a grid. If this is a rectagular graph, these two measurements will be arranged into two
different lines at right angles to one another. One of these lines will be going up (the vertical
axis). The other one will be going right (the horizontal axis). These lines (or axes, the plural of
axis) meet at their ends in the lower left corner of the graph.

Both of these axes have tick marks along their lengths. You can think of each axis as a ruler
drawn on paper. So each measurement is indicated by the length of the associated tick mark
along the particular axis.

Another word for graph is chart or diagram. However, a chart or a diagram may not relate one
quantity to other quantities. Flowcharts and tree diagrams are examples of charts or diagrams
that are not graphs.

Contents

• 1 How to draw a simple graph

• 2 Uses of graphs

• 3 Graph paper
[change] How to draw a simple graph

Let's say you wanted to make a graph showing your height as you were growing up. You might
show your height in centimeters on the vertical axis and your age in years on the horizontal axis.

For example, say you were 60 centimeters tall at age 1, 85 centimeters tall at age 2 and 95
centimeters tall at age 3. You would draw an imaginary straight line passing through the 50
centimeters height mark on the vertical axis. Then you would draw a second imaginary line
passing through the age of 1 year on the horizontal axis. At the place where the two imaginary
lines meet (called their intersection), you would then draw a dot. Really, the imaginary lines are
usually replaced by graph paper (see below). The drawing of this intersection is called "plotting
the point 50 centimeters for year 1".

You would then plot 85 centimeters for year 2 and 95 centimeters for year 3. If you had more
heights for more years, you would plot years 4, 5 and so forth. When you had enough points on
your graph, you could draw a line through each of the plotted points, making your graph a line
graph. For example, the line graph at the upper right shows the unemployment rate (as a percent)
on the vertical axis and the year (from 1950 to 2005) on the horizontal axis.

Let's say you wanted a single graph showing both your height and your brother's height. This
could be expressed as two sets of plotted points: one for you and one for your bother. You could
use different colors to tell your plot from your bother's. Or you might plot the Gross Domestic
Product (in billions of dollars) as a second line against the same years on the unemployment
graph above. This would show you the relationship between GDP and unemployment.

[change] Uses of graphs

See also Table (information)

Graphs make information easier to see. This is especially true when two or more sets of numbers
are related in some way.

For example, the unemployment rates graph at the beginning of this article could be expressed in
the form of a table. Like this:

Unemployment
Year
Rate
1950 4.5%
1951 3.1%
1952 3.4%
etc.

But a long string of numbers makes it difficult to see the underlying meaning. It's much simpler
to understand when the table is expressed in the form of a graph. In particular, it's easier to see
the relationships between the two sets of data. For example, by looking at the graph you can see
at a glance that unemployment was relatively low in the late sixties but relatively high in the
early eighties.

Scientists and engineers use graphs so that they can get a better understanding of the broad
meaning and importance of their data. Salesmen and businessmen often use graphs to add
importance to their points in a sales or business presentation. Graphs with many plotted points
may be created on a computer rather than being drawn by hand.

Mathematicians use graphs that "plot themselves", without taking measurements. For example,
the formula x = y says that the value of x will always be equal to the value of y. If you plot this
formula as a graph, with x as the horizontal axis and y as the vertical axis, you will get a graph
that looks like a straight line angled at precisely 45 degrees. The use of these graphs forms a
branch of mathematics called analytic geometry.

[change] Graph paper

Cartesian graph paper.

Usually, graphs are created on specially-designed paper called graph paper. This paper has
evenly drawn horizontal and vertical lines on it. On the right is an example of a sheet of graph
paper.

Different types of graphs require different forms of graph paper. What we have been talking
about in the article above is the commonest form of graphs and graph paper. It is known as
rectangular or Cartesian graphs. Please note however that the evenly drawn vertical and
horizontal lines on the paper are not the graph itself but are part of the graph paper. The graph is
the set of plotted points, along with its axes.

There are various types of graphs (and graph paper) other than Cartesian. These include: bar
graphs, pie graphs, polar graphs, scatter graphs, three-dimensional graphs, logarithmic graphs
and many others.