Short Notes:

CS 601 Data Communication & Networking

TOPIC 124 – 125
Chap….#...9

Data link Layer + Nodes & Links:

 The Internet is a combination of networks glued together by connecting
devices (routers or switches)
 If a packet is to travel from a host to another host, it needs to pass through
these networks
 Data Link layer controls node-to-node communication

The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of
computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between nodes
on a network segment across the physical layer. The data link layer provides the
functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and might
provide the means to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical
layer. Data link layer control Node-to-Node communication.

Example of data link protocols are Ethernet for local area networks (multi-node), the
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point (dual-node)
connections. In the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP), the data link layer functionality is
contained within the link layer, the lowest layer of the descriptive model, which is
assumed to be independent of physical infrastructure.

Nodes & Links:

As we study before that communication in data link layer is nod to node. We also know
about data unit from one point to another point in Internet needs to pass through many
networks like (LANs and WANs) to reach another point.
We refer to the two endpoints that are called hosts and the router as notes and the
networks in between as links.
 Topic 126 - 127. Serves provided by Data link Layer:

Data link layer provides the following services:

 framing
 flow control
 error control
 congestion control

Framing: First and foremost function of data link layer is framing. Date link layer divides
data packets into small frames. Framing is a primary service of data link layer.

In case of framing we gone talk about two processes encapsulation and de capsulation,
both combined are call framing. We know that data travel in the form of packets. Data
link layer encapsulate this Packets into multiple frames. Encapsulation means
breakdown of a packet into multiple frames which is stream of bit for transmission. Data
Link Layer is also add its own header to each off frame .When data receive data link
layer de-capsulate these frames. It Takes multiple frames and combined it in form of
packet.

Example of Encapsulation & De Capsulation:

Suppose you have to travel from one city to another, the first thing you will do is you will
take taxi for railway station and get off here for the train, and get on the train and go to
another city. After landing in another city, you will take the taxi again and reach your
destination.
Flow Control: Second Services flow control the transmission of frames from the source
Host to the destination it actually needs some sort of control .Whenever your sender is
transmitting data and your receiver is consuming the data we need to make sure some
sort of control between sender and receiver. So that the speed of Data transmitting and
the speed of data consuming they are same and data get not loss.

In data communications, flow control is the process of managing the rate of data
transmission between two nodes to prevent a fast sender from overwhelming a slow
receiver. It provides a mechanism for the receiver to control the transmission speed, so
that the receiving node is not overwhelmed with data from transmitting node.

Flow control is important because it is possible for a sending computer to transmit

information at a faster rate than the destination computer can receive and process it.
This can happen if the receiving computers have a heavy traffic load in comparison to
the sending computer, or if the receiving computer has less processing power than the
sending computer.

Error Control: Data link layer is the layer where deploy some sort of error correction
first of all detection and then error correction as well.

Congestion control: is a method used for monitoring the process of regulating the total
amount of data entering the network so as to keep traffic levels at an acceptable value.
This is done in order to avoid the telecommunication network reaching.

Topic 128 two types of DLL

There are two types of DLL:

 Point-to-point link
 Broadcast link

Point -to-point link: A point-to-point link refers to a communications connection

between two communication endpoints or nodes. An example is a telephone call, in
which one telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can
only be heard by the other.

The term is also used in computer networking and computer architecture to refer to a
wire or other connection that links only two computers or circuits, as opposed to other
network topologies such as buses or crossbar switches which can connect many
communications devices. Point-to-point is sometimes abbreviated as P2P.

Broadcast link: Broadcast links connect two or more nodes and support broadcast
transmission, where one node can transmit so that all other nodes can receive the same
transmission. Ethernet is an example.

Sub layers of DLL:

There are two sub layers of Data link layer:

Data link control (DLC): it deals with point-to-point link as well as broadcast link.

Media Access Control (MAC): it deals with only broadcast link.

Topic 129 - 130 Link Addressing:

Link layer addresses

 IP addresses:
 Link layer addresses / physical addresses / MAC addresses:

IP Addresses: IP addresses are the identifiers at the network layer in Internet we

cannot make a packet reach its destination using only IP addresses.

Link Layer Addresses: Source and destination IP addresses Define Two ends but
cannot Define which links the packet and path will take. Encapsulation and de
capsulation processes are involved In these link layer addresses. In process of
encapsulation also involve header. This header contains the link layer addresses of the
source and destination.

Topic 131 Types of address

Three types of address

i. Unicast
ii. Multicast
iii. Broadcast

Unicast: one to one communication. Unicast is the term used to describe

communication where a piece of information is sent from one point to another point. In
this case there is just one sender, and one receiver.
Unicast transmission, in which a packet is sent from a single source to a specified
destination, is still the predominant form of transmission on LANs and within the
Internet. All LANs (e.g. Ethernet) and IP networks support the unicast transfer mode,
and most users are familiar with the standard unicast applications (e.g. http, smtp, ftp
and telnet) which employ the TCP transport protocol.

Multicast: Multicast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of

information is sent from one or more points to a set of other points. In this case there is
may be one or more senders, and the information is distributed to a set of receivers.

Multicasting is the networking technique of delivering the same packet simultaneously to

a group of clients. IP multicast provides dynamic many-to-many connectivity between a
set of senders (at least 1) and a group of receivers.

Broadcast: Broadcast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of

information is sent from one point to all other points. In this case there is just one
sender, but the information is sent to all connected receivers.

Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANs (e.g. Ethernet), and may be used to
send the same message to all computers on the LAN (e.g. the address resolution
protocol (arp) uses this to send an address resolution query to all computers on a LAN,
and this is used to communicate with an IPv4 DHC server). Network layer protocols
(such as IPv4) also support a form of broadcast that allows the same packet to be sent
to every system in a logical network (in IPv4 this consists of the IP network ID and an all
1's host number). This is defined in network layer.

Topic 132 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

In networking if a host send data to another host then it must have IP address. This
process is done by using DNS. DNS finding IP address of the destination. IP address is
very good, but it is not enough to find out the destination nodes.

In this case IP address is not helpful for moving the frame through different nodes and
links that make up the rote from the source to the destination. Here we need address
resolution protocol.
Any time a host or a router needs to find the link layer address to other hots it will send
an ARP request to the subsequent node. This packet will include the link layer and IP
address of the source node, because the sender does not know the link layer address
of the receiver the query is actually broadcast over the network.

Topic 133 – 134 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Operation

ARP Operation:

ARP broadcast request package to all the machines on LAN and ask if any of the
machine know they are using particular IP address. when a Machinery can recognize
the IP address as it's own it sends a reply. So to ARP can update the cash for future
reference and proceed with communication.

Note: ARP request is always broadcast. ARP reply is always Unicast.

Caching:

In caching system A the link layer address of system B once it received. If once store
address in cash then all the Future transactions from system A to system B are normally
unit cost.

Topic 135 – 136

Chap…#...10
Types of Error

Data transmission suffers unpredictable change because of interference. This

interference can change the shape of signal.

There are two types of errors:

 Single bit error

 Burst error

Single bit Error: means that only one bit of given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or 0
to 1.

Example:

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Burst Error: means that two or more bits in data unit have change from 1 to 0 or from 0
to 1.

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
Length of burst error is 8 bits.

Number of impacted bits actually depends on two things:

 Data rate
 Duration of rate

Note: higher data rate cause of more bits impacted. And more duration of noise is
source of higher number of bits going to be impacted. Because of these two things burst
error is common then single bit error.

Topic 137 Redundancy

Redundancy

Central concept of detecting or correcting error is redundancy to be able to detect or

correct error we send some extra bits with our data. The presence of these redundant
bits allowed the receiver to detect or correct corrupted bits.

Error detection VS Error correction

Error Detection:

Error detection is simple while error correction is complex. In error detection we are only
looking to see if error has occurred (yes or no). We are not interested in the number of
corrupted bits. In error detection single bit error is same as burst errors.

Error Correction:

In error correction we need to know:

 The exact numbers of corrupted bits, and

 The location of corrupted bits.

Topic 138 – 139 Coding Schemes

Coding schemes can be derived into two broad categories:

 Block coding
 Convolution coding

Block coding: In block coding we divide our message into blocks, each of them has ‘k’
bits, called as data word. Here “k” means a certain number of bits. Then we add ‘r’
redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The resulting ‘n’ bit blocks are
called code word.

Note: sender sends code words to receiver and receiver checks code words.

Block coding in error detecting:

If the following two conditions are met, the receiver can detect a change in the original
code words:

 The receiver has a list of valid code words

 The original code word has changed to an invalid one.

Topic 140 Block Coding

Example:

Let us assume that k = 2 and n = 3, table below shows that list of code word and data
word. Letter we will see how to derive a code from a data word.

Data word Code word Data word Code word

00 000 10 101
01 011 11 110

Look at 2nd code word that is ‘011’:

Let suppose:

i. If receiver get ‘011’ and this is valid code word, then ‘01’ is extracted and it is
passed to receiver.
ii. If we send ‘011’ and received as ‘000’ this is invalid code word. It is corrupted
code word. This will not be processed by the receiver, and this will be discarded.
 iii. If code word is corrupted during transmission and we receive the corruption of
two bits. We receive ‘011’ instead of ‘000’. In this case this matches with a valid
code word in given data.

Topic 141 Hamming Distance

Hamming distance is a metric for comparing two binary data strings. While comparing
two binary strings of equal length, Hamming distance is the number of bit positions in
which the two bits are different. The Hamming distance between two strings, x and y is
denoted as d(x,y).
Hamming Distance between receiver code word and sent code word is actually number
of bits that are corrupted.
Example:
1. d (000, 011) ; 000 is x and 011 is y.
d (000, 011); 0 0 0 , 0 1 1
Here hamming distance is 2 because two bits are different:
2. d ( 10101, 11110) => ‘10101’ is x and ‘11110’ is y
d(10101, 11110) => 1 0 1 0 1 , 1 1 1 1 0
Here hamming distance is 3 because 3 bits are corrupted:
In simple words hamming distance tells us how many bits are corrupted.
If d (x,y) ≠ 0 → that means there is an error in our data.

Topic 142 Minimum Hamming Distance

Minimum Hamming distance is a smallest hamming distance between all possible pair
of code words.
dmin = s + 1
Where s → no of detected error
dmin → minimum hamming distance:

Example:
A code scheme has a hemming distance dmin=4. This code guarantees the detection.
Up how to many errors.
dmin = 4
dmin = s + 1
s = dmin - 1
S=4–1
S =3

If you got a block code which has got a minimum hamming distance 4, it means that this
block code guarantees error detection up to three bears in the cold word.
Linear block code: Is all subsets of block code in which the exclusive OR of two valid
code words creates another world code.

Data word Code word Data word Code word

00 000 10 101
01 011 11 110

If we do exclusive OR ⊕ between two code words:

001 ⊕10 =110 → linear block code.

Topic 143 Parity check code

Parity check is a simple way to add redundancy bits to the packets such that the total
number of 1's is even or odd.
 Most common error detecting code.
 Linear block code (n = k + 1).
 The extra parity bits is selected to make total number of 1s coed word even.

Example:
C (5, 4) => k= 4, n=5

Data word (k) Code word (n) Data word (k) Code word (n)

0000 00000 1000 10001

0001 00011 1001 10010

0010 00101 1010 10100

0011 00110 1011 10111

0100 01001 1100 11000

1010 10100 1101 11011

0110 01100 1110 11101

0111 01111 1111 11110

n > k → no of code word > no of data word

If total number of 1s is odd then our extra parity bit is 1 to make our total number of 1 is
even. If the total number of 1s is already even then extract parity bit that we are adding
to our code word is 0.

Topic 144 to 145 CYCLIC CODES:

In coding Theory a cyclic code is a block code where the circular shift of each codeword
gives another word that belongs to the code. They are error correcting codes that have
algebraic properties that are convenient for efficient error detection and correction.

Example:
CRC

 CRC is an error detection technique to detect change to Raw data and is used
widely in today's computer networks
 CRC codes are also known as polynomial codes since it is possible to view the
bit string to be sent as a polynomial.

Cyclic Code Analysis using Polynomials

Advantages of Cyclic Codes

i. Good performance in detection:

• Single-bit errors

• Double errors

• Odd number of errors

• Burst errors

ii. Easy Implementation

iii. Fast Implementation

Topic 146 CHECKSUM:

A checksum is a small-sized block of data derived from another block of digital data for
the purpose of detecting errors that may have been introduced during its transmission
or storage.
  Error-detection technique that can be applied to a message of any length.
 Checksum mostly used at the network and transport layer rather than the
data-link layer

Watch topic 146 for this diagram:

Concept behind Checksum

• The idea of the traditional checksum is simple. We show this using a simple
example:

Suppose the message is a list of five 4-bit numbers that we want to send to a
destination. In addition to sending these numbers, we send the sum of the numbers.

Set of numbers is (7, 11, 12, 0, 6)

Example:

7 + 11 + 12 + 0 + 6 = 36

We should to send as follow (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 36) but here five 4–bit word that are (7,
11, 12, 0, 6) and 36 is not 4 bit number. So for sending 36 with our data we shout
convert it 4 bit number first as following method:

In the previous example, the decimal number 36 in binary is (100100)2. To change

it into a 4-bit number we add the extra leftmost bit to the right four bits as shown
below

(10)2 + (0100) 2 = (0110) 2

(6) 10
So instead of sending (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 36) we will send (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 6) now checksum
is in 4 bit form. Now receiver again add these numbers and if the result is 6 then it will
accepted otherwise rejected.

Topic 147-148 Forward Error Correction (FEC)

 Retransmission of corrupted and lost packets is not useful for real-time
multimedia transmission
 We need to correct the error or reproduce the packet immediately
 Several techniques developed and are commonly called Forward Error
Correction techniques
1. Using Hamming Distance
 For error detection, we definitely need more distance
 It can be shown that to correct ‘t’ errors, we need to have:
dmin = 2t + 1
 If we want to correct 10 bits in a packet, we need to make the minimum hamming
distance 21 bits
 A lot of redundant bits need to be sent with the data

Example:

If we want to correct 10 bits in a packet, we need to make the minimum

hamming distance 21 bits

dmin = 2t + 1

dmin = 2(10) + 1

dmin = 21 this is amount of redundant bits that you send with your data word.

2. Using XOR

Another recommendation is to use the property of the exclusive OR operation as

shown below.

R = P1 + P2 +…+ Pi + … + PN

This means:
 Pi = P1 + P2 +…+ R +. . .+ PN

Chunk Interleaving

 Another way to achieve FEC in multimedia is to allow some small chunks to

be missing at the receiver
 We cannot afford to let all the chunks belonging to the same packet be
missing; however, we can afford to let one chunk be missing in each packet.

Combining Hamming Distance & Interleaving

 Hamming distance and interleaving can be combined

 We can first create n-bit packets that can correct t-bit errors
 Then we interleave m rows and send the bits column by column
 Possible to correct burst errors up to m × t bits of errors

Compounding High & Low Resolution Packets

 Creation of a duplicate of each packet with a low-resolution redundancy and

combine the redundant version with the next packet.
 For example, we can create four low-resolution packets out of five high-
resolution packets and send them.
 Topic 149 – 151
Chap…#...11
The data link control (DLC) deals with procedures for communication between two
adjacent nodes no matter whether the link is dedicated or broadcast. Data link control
functions include framing, flow control and error control.

Framing

Data-Link layer needs to pack bits into frames. So that each frame is distinguishable
from another. Our postal system practices a type of framing. Framing separates a
message by adding a sender address and a destination address. The destination
address defines where the packet is to go; the sender address helps the recipient
acknowledge the receipt.

Frame Size

• Why not one BIG Frame?

If we make one big size frame it creates a problem. In case of error if we have
one big frame our whole data will be lost. That is why we make number of small
frames instead of one big frame.

• Frames can be of:

 Fixed Size
o Size acts as a boundary/delimiter
o In fix size every frame have same size

The problem with fixed size framing is that, error detection, error correction, flow
control and all these kind of functions become very difficult.

 Variable Size
o How to define Beginning and End of a Frame?

In variable-size framing, we need a way to define the end of the frame and the
beginning of the next. Historically, two approaches were used for this purpose: a
character-oriented approach and a bit-oriented approach.
i. Character-Oriented Protocols:
ii. Bit-Oriented Protocols:

Topic 151 – 153

Character (Byte) Oriented Protocols or:

 In a character-oriented protocol, data to be carried are 8-bit characters from a

coding system such as ASCII.
 The header, which normally carries the source and destination addresses and
other control information.

 The trailer, which carries error detection or error correction redundant bits, are
also multiples of 8 bits.
 To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at the
beginning and the end of a frame. The flag, composed of protocol-dependent
special characters, signals the start or end of a frame.
 Figure shows the format of a frame in a character-oriented protocol.

 Character-oriented framing was popular when only text was exchanged by the
data link layers.
 The flag could be selected to be any character not used for text communication.
 Now, however, we send other types of information such as graphs, audio, and
video. Any pattern used for the flag could also be part of the information. If this
happens, the receiver, when it encounters this pattern in the middle of the data,
thinks it has reached the end of the frame. To fix this problem, a byte stuffing
strategy was added to character-oriented framing.

Byte stuffing (or character stuffing):

 In this sender's data link layer insert a special escape byte (ESC) just before
each ''accidental'' flag byte in the data.
 The data link layer on the receiving end removes the escape byte before the
data are given to the network layer.
 This technique is called byte stuffing or character stuffing.
 Thus, a framing flag byte can be distinguished from one in the data by the
absence or presence of an escape byte before it.
 Of course, the next question is: What happens if an escape byte occurs in the
middle of the data?
 The answer is that it, too, is stuffed with an escape byte.
 Thus, any single escape byte is part of an escape sequence, whereas a
doubled one indicates that a single escape occurred naturally in the data.
 Major disadvantage of Character-oriented protocols is it use 8-bits
characters. The universal coding systems in use today, such as Unicode,
have 16-bits and 32-bits characters that conflict with 8-bits characters.

Bit-Oriented Protocols:

 In this data frames contains an arbitrary number of bits and allows

character codes with an arbitrary number of bits per character.
 It works like this. Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern,
01111110 (in fact, a flag byte).
 Whenever the sender's data link layer encounters five consecutive 1s in
the data, it automatically stuffs a 0 bit into the outgoing bit stream.
 This bit stuffing is analogous to byte stuffing, in which an escape byte is
stuffed into the outgoing character stream before a flag byte in the data.
 When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0
bit, it automatically un stuffs (i.e., deletes) the 0 bit.
 Just as byte stuffing is completely transparent to the network layer in both
computers, so is bit stuffing.
 If the user data contain the flag pattern, 01111110, this flag is transmitted
as 011111010 but stored in the receiver's memory as 01111110.
 Look at the Slide below

Topic 154
FLOW Control:

 Balance between production and consumption rates

 If frames are produced faster than they are consumed at the receiving
data link layer, the frames will be discarded
 Use of buffers; one at sending end and other at receiving end

In data communications, flow control is the process of managing the rate of data
transmission between two nodes to prevent a fast sender from overwhelming a slow
receiver. It provides a mechanism for the receiver to control the transmission speed, so
that the receiving node is not overwhelmed with data from transmitting node. Flow
control should be distinguished from congestion control, which is used for controlling the
flow of data when congestion has actually occurred.

Flow control is important because it is possible for a sending computer to transmit

information at a faster rate than the destination computer can receive and process it.
This can happen if the receiving computers have a heavy traffic load in comparison to
the sending computer, or if the receiving computer has less processing power than the
sending computer.

Example

Consumers need to communicate with the producers on two occasions:

• When the buffer is full; &

• When there are vacancies
• If the two parties use a buffer with only one slot, the communication can be
easier

Topic 155
Error Control

Error Control at Data Link layer uses CRC in one of the two ways:

• If a frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded and if it is good, it is delivered to

network layer.
• If frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded and if it is good, an acknowledgement
is sent to sender that the frame is received safely.

Connectionless and Connection-Oriented

A DLC protocol can be either connectionless or connection-oriented

• Connectionless: No relationship between the frames.

• Connection-Oriented: Frames are numbered and sent in order.

Connectionless:
All frames are independent. Connectionless doesn't mean that no physical connection
between frames, but it means that you don't have any relationship between frames that
you are sending so you have one frame for one message and other frame for another
message.

Connection-Oriented:

In this particular case as we discussed in data link layer connection oriented protocol as
those that actually establish a connection first, then they do the setup, then they do the
data transmission and then they have to do connection dare down.

In this particular case the frames are sent in particular order. They have got a
transmission with another when a frame is successfully received. Receiver sends
acknowledgement back to the sender to tell the sender that this Frame is received
successfully and error free now send the Next one.

Topic 156
DATA-LINK LAYER PROTOCOLS:

Traditionally four protocols have been dsefined for the data-link layer to deal with flow
and error control:

 Simple Protocol

 Stop-and-Wait Protocol

 Go-Back-N Protocol

 Selective-Repeat Protocol

 Last two protocols have almost disappeared completely

Note: Before we have to discussion Data link layer protocol we have to discuss Finite
State Machine (FSM).

Finite State Machine (FSM)

 A machine with a finite number of states

 Machines stays in one of the states until an event occurs
 Each event is associated with 2 reactions:

o List of actions to be performed

o Determining the next state

Definition:

A state-of-the-art machine is a model of counting based on a fictitious machine

consisting of one or more states. Only one mode of this machine can be activated at a
time. This means that the machine has to be moved from one state to another to
perform various functions.

Explanation:

Let's supposed the State is standing that is your starting stat you stay at your standing
State until a force applied to you.

Same concept of FSM it starts from a particular Stat and stay in this stat until a specific
event happens. When event is occurred there are two things your FSM does.

 List of actions to be performed

 Determining the next state

Topic 157
Simple Protocol

• Simple protocol has neither flow nor error control.

• Assumption: The receiver can immediately handle any frame it receives.
 • The receiver can never be overwhelmed with incoming frames.

FSM for Simple Protocol:

Example

Here is an example of communication using this protocol. It is very simple. The sender
sends frames one after another without even thinking about the receiver.

Topic 158
Stop-and-Wait Protocol

• Stop-and-Wait protocol uses both flow and error control.

• The sender sends one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment before
sending the next one.

• To detect corrupted frames, we add a CRC code.

Acknowledgement caring with two messages:

• I have received the previous frame please send next one.

• The frame that we have sent previously he has been received error free.

Topic 159
Example:

Topic 160
Piggybacking

• Both Simple and Stop-and-wait protocols are designed for unidirectional

communication

• Data flows in one direction and ACK travels in the other

 • To make the system efficient, the data in one direction is piggybacked with the
acknowledgment in the other direction

High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)

• Bit -oriented protocol for communication over point-to-point and multipoint links

• It implements Stop-and-Wait protocol

• Most of the concepts defined in this protocol is the basis for other protocols such
as PPP, Ethernet, or wireless LANs

Configurations & Transfer Modes in HDLC

HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different
configurations:
 Normal Response Mode (NRM)
 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

Normal Response Mode (NRM)

Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

 Topic 161

HDLC Framing
HDLC defines three types of frames:

• information frames (I-frames)

Information frames, or I-frames, transport user data from the network layer. They
can also include flow and error control information piggybacked on data.

• Supervisory frames (S-frames)

Supervisory frames, or S-frames, are used for flow and error control whenever
piggybacking is impossible or inappropriate, such as when a station does not
have data to send. S-frames do not have information fields.

• Unnumbered frames (U-frames)

Unnumbered frames, or U-frames, are used for various miscellaneous purposes,

including link management. Some U-frames contain an information field,
depending on the type.
 Topic 162

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

• Most common protocol for point-to-point access

• Millions of Internet users who need to connect their home computers to the
server of an Internet service provider use PPP

• To control and manage the transfer of data, there is a need for a PPP at the
data-link layer

Topic 163
Services provided by PPP

The designers of PPP have included several services to make it suitable for a point-to-
point protocol, but have ignored some traditional services to make it simple

Services Included Services Not Included

Framing Flow Control

Link Establishment and Data Error Correction (PPP has
Exchange CRC detection only)

Authentication No Sequence Numbering

Multilink PPP Address Absence of sophisticated

configuration Addressing Mechanism

Network Address configuration

PPP Frame Format

PPP uses a character-oriented (or byte-oriented) frame

Topic 164

Multiplexing in PPP
Although PPP is a link-layer protocol, it uses another set of protocols to establish the
link, authenticate and carry the network-layer data

Three sets of protocols are:

• Link Control Protocol (LCP): This is responsible for establishing, maintaining,

configuring and terminating our PPP links.
 • Two Authentication Protocols (APs): AP has two types: PAP stands for
Password Authentication Protocol.
CHAP stands for Challenge handshake Authentication protocol.

• Several Network Control Protocols (NCPs): It has OSI, CP and IPCP.s

LCP Packet encapsulated in a Frame

LCP Packets

Topic 165
Authentication Protocols in PPP

PAP Packets encapsulated in a PPP frame

CHAP Packets encapsulated in a PPP frame
Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP)

Code values for IPCP Packets

IP datagram encapsulated in a PPP frame

Topic-166
Chap#12
Media Access Control (MAC) Sub-Layer

• When nodes use a multipoint or broadcast link, we need a multiple-access

protocol to coordinate access to the link

• Many protocols have been devised to handle access to a shared link

• All of these protocols belong to Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer

Taxonomy of Multiple-Access Protocols

 Topic 167
Random Access Protocol

 In random-access or contention no station is superior to the other and none is

assigned control over the other.
 Station that has data to send uses a procedure defined by the protocol to
make a decision on whether or not to send.
 This decision depends on the state of the medium (idle or busy).
 It has three types:
 Aloha
 CSMA/CD
 CSMS/CA

Topic 168

ALOHA

 ALOHA, the earliest random access method, was developed in early 1970s.

 Designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.

 Potential collisions in this arrangement as the medium is shared between the

stations.
  When a station sends data, another station may attempt to do so at the same
time. The data from the two stations collide and become garbled and we will lose
that data.

ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data via a shared network
channel. It operates in the medium access control sub-layer (MAC sub-layer) of the
open systems interconnection (OSI) model. Using this protocol, several data streams
originating from multiple nodes are transferred through a multi-point transmission
channel.
In ALOHA, each node or station transmits a frame without trying to detect whether the
transmission channel is idle or busy. If the channel is idle, then the frames will be
successfully transmitted. If two frames attempt to occupy the channel simultaneously,
collision of frames will occur and the frames will be discarded. These stations may
choose to retransmit the corrupted frames repeatedly until successful transmission
occurs.

Frames in a pure ALOHA Network:

In pure ALOHA, the time of transmission is continuous. Whenever a station hasn’t

available frame, it sends the frame. If there is collision and the frame is destroyed, the
sender waits for a random amount of time before retransmitting it.
 Topic 169

Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol:

Vulnerable Time for pure ALOHA protocol:

 Topic 170

Slotted ALOHA:

 We divide time into slots of Tfr sec and force the station to send only at the
beginning of the slot
 Invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA
 If a station misses the time slot, it must wait until beginning of next time slot
reducing vulnerable time to Tfr (vs. 2 x Tfr for pure ALOHA)

The communicating stations agree upon the slot boundaries. Any station can
send only one frame at each slot. Also, the stations cannot transmit at any time
whenever a frame is available. They should wait for the beginning of the next
slot.
However, there still can be collisions. If more than one frame transmits at the
beginning of a slot, collisions occur. The collision duration is 1 slot. The situation
is depicted in the following diagram.

Frames in a Slotted ALOHA Network:

Vulnerable Time for Slotted ALOHA:

Topic 171

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):

 To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance,

CSMA was developed
 The chance of collision is reduced as the station is required to sense/listen to
the medium before sending data
 ‘sense before transmit’ or ‘listen before talk’.

CSMA / CD (Career Sense Multiplus / Collision Detection) is a way to control media

access that was widely used in early Ethernet technology / LAN, when shared bus
topology And each node (computer) was connected by coaxial cables. Now a days
Ethernet is full duplex and CSMA / CD is not used because the topology is either star or
point to point but still They are supported.

Consider a scenario where there are "n" stations on a link and everyone is waiting for
data to be transmitted through this channel. In this case, all N stations will want to
access their link / channel to transfer their data. The problem arises when more than
one station transmits data at a time. In this case, the data from different stations will
clash.

CSMA / CD is one such technique where the various stations following this protocol
agree on certain conditions and collision detection measures for effective transmission.
This protocol decides which station to move when the data reaches its destination
without any corruption.

But even this technique doesn’t completely eliminate collisions because propagation
delay.

When a station sends a frame in CSMA/CD it still takes some time before this frame
gets to all the other stations that are sharing the medium.

The time that takes first bit of a frame that sent on medium to reach all the other stations
is called propagation delay.

Space/Time Model of a Collision in CSMA:

Vulnerable Time in CSMA:

Behavior of Three Persistence Methods:

I-persistence:

This is a simplest method. In this method after the station find link ideal it sends
immediately without waiting. This method has got highest chance of collision.

Non-persistence:

In this method the channel has time slots. A station that has frame to send, it sense the
link. If the link is Idle it send frame immediately. If links are not idle, it waits for a random
amount of time and the sense that link again. So Collision rate in this case goes down
as compared to I-persistence but the efficiency goes also down.

P-persistence:
In this case we have got a slot duration which is equal to or greater than the maximum
propagation time. This approach combined the advantages of both I-persistence and
Non-persistence.

Topic 172
 CSMA method does not specify the procedure following a collision.
 CSMA/CD arguments the algorithm to handle the collision.
 The station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the
transmission was successful. If there is a collision, the frame is sent again.

Collision of the First Bits in CSMA/CD:

Collision and Abortion in CSMA/CD:

Flow Diagram for the CSMA/CD:

Energy Level During Transmission, Idleness and Collision:
 Topic 173

CSMA/CA

 CSMA/CA was invented for Wireless Networks

 Collisions are avoided through the use of three strategies:

o The Inter frame Space

o The Contention Window

o Acknowledgements

Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) in computer

networking, is a network multiple access method in which carrier sensing is used, but
nodes attempt to avoid collisions by beginning transmission only after the channel is
sensed to be "idle".

The algorithm of CSMA/CA is:

 When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is
idle or busy.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
 If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount of
time and then sends the frame.
 After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
 The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives
the acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful
transmission.
 Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.
Flow Diagram for CSMA/CA:
 Topic 174
CSMA/CA

 Inter frame Space (IFS): Collisions are avoided by deferring transmission

even if the channel is idle
 Contention Window: Amount of time divided into slots. Station chooses a
random number of slots as its wait time (one slot first time and double each
time system cannot detect an idle channel)

Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) in computer

networking, is a network multiple access method in which carrier sensing is used,
but nodes attempt to avoid collisions by beginning transmission only after the channel is
sensed to be "idle".

Contention Window

CSMA/CA

Acknowledgement: Positive acknowledgement and time-out timer can help guarantee

that the receiver has received the frame.

CSMA/CA and Network Allocation Vector (NAV)

 Topic 175
CONTROLLED ACCESS

 The stations consult one another to find which station has the right to send
 A station cannot send unless authorized by other stations
 We discuss three controlled-access methods:

o Reservation

o Polling

o Token Passing

 In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending

data.
 Time is divided into intervals.
  In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in that
interval.

Reservation Access Method

Polling
 Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a
primary station and the other devices are secondary stations.
 All data exchanges must be made through primary device even when
the ultimate destination is a secondary device.
 The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices follow its
instructions.

Polling is the process where the computer or controlling device waits for an external
device to check for its state.

Select Poll
Token Passing

 In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical

ring

 For each station, there is a predecessor and a successor

 The predecessor is the station which is logically before the station in the ring; the
successor is the station which is after the station in the ring

 Special packet called TOKEN circulates through the ring

 Possession of TOKEN gives the station the right to send the data

 TOKEN Management is required to manage possession time, token monitoring,

priority assignment etc.
 Topic 177

CHANNELIZATION (Channel Partition)

 The available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code,

among different stations

 We discuss three protocols:

o Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

o Time Division multiple Access (TDMA)

o Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 In FDMA, the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.

 Each station is allocated a band to send its data i.e. each band is reserved for
a specific station, and it belongs to the station all the time.
 Each station also uses a band pass filter to confine the transmitter
frequencies.

Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) is a channel access method used in some

multiple-access protocols. FDMA allows multiple users to send data through a single
communication channel, such as a coaxial cable or microwave beam, by dividing the
bandwidth of the channel into separate non-overlapping frequency sub-channels and
allocating each sub-channel to a separate user. Users can send data through a sub-
channel by modulating it on a carrier wave at the sub-channel's frequency. It is used in
satellite communication systems and telephone trunk lines.

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Topic 178

TDMA
 Stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time
 Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data
 Each station transmits its data in its assigned time slot
 Topic 179
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 CDMA differs from FDMA in that only one channel occupies the entire
bandwidth of the link.
 CDMA differs from TDMA in that all stations can send data simultaneously;
there is no timesharing.

Data Rep-resentation in CDMA

 TOPIC 180
Chap..#..13

If two computers send data at the same time, a collision will occur. When this happens,
the data sent is not usable. In general, both computers will stop sending, and wait a
random amount of time, before they try again. A special protocol was developed to deal
with such problems. It is called CSMA/CD.
Ethernet Protocol

 Data-link layer and the physical layer are the territory of the local and
wide area networks.
 We can have wired or wireless networks.

Ethernet is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local

area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks
(WAN). It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE
802.3. Ethernet has since been refined to support higher bit rates, a greater number of
nodes, and longer link distances, but retains much backward compatibility. Over time,
Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as Token Ring,
FDDI and ARCNET.

It is a way of connecting computers together in a LAN. It has been the most widely used method
of linking computers together in LANs since the 1990. The basic idea of its design is that
multiple computers have access to it and can send data at any time.

IEEE Project 802

 In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project
802, to set standards to enable inter-communication among equipment from a
variety of manufacturers
 Project 802 did not seek to replace any part of the OSI model or TCP/IP
protocol suite
 A way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data-link layer of
major LAN protocols

IEEE 802 is a family of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

standards for LAN, PAN, and MAN. The IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee
(LMSC) maintains these standards. The IEEE 802 family of standards has twelve
members, numbered 802.1 through 802.12, with a focus group of the LMSC devoted to
each.
IEEE Standard for LANs

TOPIC 181

Ethernet Evolution

 The Ethernet LAN was developed in the 1970s

 Since then, it has gone through four generations:

o Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

o Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)

o Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)

o 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)

Standard Ethernet

 The original Ethernet technology with the data rate of 10 Mbps is called
Standard Ethernet.
 Most implementations have moved to later evolutions.
 Still some features of the Standard Ethernet that has not changed during the
evolution.

A standard Ethernet network can transmit data at a rate up to 10 Mbps per second.
Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit
Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
and Local Talk.

Connectionless & Unreliable Service

 Each frame is independent of other.

 No connection establishment or tear down process.
 The sender may overwhelm receiver with frames and frames are dropped.
 If frame drops, sender will not know about it unless we are using TCP
(Transport).
 Ethernet is unreliable like IP and UDP.
 If a frame is corrupted, receiver silently drops it.
 Left to high level protocols to find out about it.
 TOPIC 182
Ethernet Frame Format

TOPIC 183
Addressing in Standard Ethernet

 Each station on Ethernet has its own network interface card (NIC).
 Every NIC has got a unique link-layer address.
 The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a link-
layer/physical address.
 The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits), normally written in hexadecimal
notation, with a colon between the bytes.
 For example, the following shows an Ethernet MAC address:
4A:30:10:21:10:1A.

Transmission of Address Bits

How the address 47:20:1B:2E:08: EE is sent out online.

The address is sent left to right, byte by byte; for each byte, it is sent right to left,
bit by bit, as shown below:
 Unicast and Multicast Addresses

Example 13.2

Define the type of the following destination addresses:

a. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
b. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

To find the type of the address, we need to look at the second hexadecimal digit from
the left. If it is even, the address is unicast. If it is odd, the address is multicast. If all
digits are Fs, the address is broadcast. Therefore, we have the following:

a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010 (even).

b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111 (odd).
c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are Fs in hexadecimal.
Implementation of Standard Ethernet

As we know all the frames in Ethernet by nature is broadcast. If the all frame are
broadcast then how we know which of the unicast or multicast.

The answer is we know that by specifying the way these frame are actually treated
when they reach at destination.

Example:
 TOPIC 184

Access Method in Standard Ethernet

 Since the network that uses the standard Ethernet protocol is a broadcast
network, we need to use an access method to control access to the sharing
medium
 The standard Ethernet chose CSMA/CD with 1-Persistent Method.

TOPIC 185

Efficiency of Standard Ethernet

 The ratio of the time used by a station to send data to the time the medium is
occupied by this station
 The practical efficiency of standard Ethernet has been measured to be:
 Efficiency = 1/(1+ 6.4 x a)
 where a = number of frames that can fit on a medium
 TOPIC 186

Implementation of Standard Ethernet

 The Standard Ethernet defined several implementations, but only four of them
became popular during the 1980s

Summary of Standard Ethernet implementations

Encoding in Standard Ethernet

10Base5 Implementation
10Base2 Implementation
10Base-T Implementation
10Base-F Implementation

TOPIC 187
Changes in the Standard

The changes that occurred to the 10-Mbps Standard Ethernet opened the road to
the evolution of the Ethernet to become compatible with other high-data-rate LANs

 Bridged Ethernet
 Switched Ethernet
 Full-Duplex Ethernet
Bridged Ethernet

An Ethernet network bridge is a device which connects two different local area networks
together. Both networks must connect using the same Ethernet protocol. Bridges can
also be used to add remote computers to a LAN. Many bridges can connect multiple
computers or other compatible devices with or without wires.

A Network with and without Bridging:

Advantages:

 The basic advantage of bridging is that we can now divide 10Mbps capacity.
 We also separate the collision domains as well.

TOPIC 188
Switched Ethernet:

A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, and, by the IEEE, MAC
bridge) is networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by
using packet switching to receive and forward data to the destination device.
Full – Duplex Switched Ethernet (FDSE)

The Ethernet switch or Ethernet FDSE (Full Duplex Switched Ethernet), was born in
the early 1990s before the advent of switched Ethernet, shared Ethernet networks
were cut into shared subnets autonomous, interconnected by bridges. Therefore, the
traffic was multiplied by the number of subnets.

Advantages of FDSE

 This increases the direct capacity from 10MBS to 20MBS.

 Instead of using one link between stations, we use two links.
 CSMA / CD is not required.
 TOPIC 189
Fast Ethernet

 In the 1990s, Ethernet made a big jump by increasing the transmission rate to
100 Mbps, and the new generation was called the Fast Ethernet.
 To make it compatible with the Standard Ethernet, the MAC sub-layer was left
unchanged.
 But the features of the Standard Ethernet that depend on the transmission
rate, had to be changed.
 To be able to handle a 100 Mbps data rate, several changes need to be made
at the physical layer.

In computer networking, Fast Ethernet physical layers carry traffic at the nominal rate of
100 Mbs. The prior Ethernet speed was 10 Mbs. Of the Fast Ethernet physical layers,
100BASE-TX is by far the most common.

Goals of Fast Ethernet:

 Upgrade data rate to 100Mbps

 Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet
 Keep same 48-bit address
 Keep same frame format

100BASE - TX

The 100BASE-TX is a prominent form of Fast Ethernet, and connects more than two
wires within a category of 5 or higher cable. Each network segment can have a
maximum cabling distance of 100 meters (328 feet). One pair is used for each direction,
providing full duplex operation with 100 Mbps in each direction.
100BASE - FX

100BASE-FX is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber. The 100BASE-FX Physical
Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayer is defined by FDDI's PMD, so 100BASE-FX is not
compatible with 10BASE-FL, the 10 Mbits version over optical fiber.

100BASE-FX is still used for existing installation of multimode fiber where more speed
is not required, like industrial automation plants.

100BASE - T4

100BASE-T4 was an early implementation of Fast Ethernet. It requires four twisted

copper pairs of voice grade twisted pair, a lower performing cable compared to category
5 cable used by 100BASE-TX. Maximum distance is limited to 100 meters. One pair is
reserved for transmit, one for receive, and the remaining two switch direction. The fact
that 3 pairs are used to transmit in each direction makes 100BASE-T4 inherently half-
duplex.
 TOPIC 190
Gigabit Ethernet

 Need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of IEEE Standard
802.3z Gigabit Ethernet Protocol (1000 Mbps).

Gigabit Ethernet (GbE or 1 GigE) is a term used in computer networking to transmit

Ethernet frames at gigabits per second (1 billion bits per second). The most popular
variety 1000BASE-T is defined by the IEEE 802.3ab standard. It came into use in 1999,
and due to its significant improvement over Fast Ethernet, as well as the use of cables
and equipment, Fast Ethernet was converted to wired local networks. Which are more
widely available than previous standards, economical and soon.

The goals of the Gigabit Ethernet were:

 Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps

 Make it compatible with standard or Fast Ethernet
 Use same 48 bit address
 Use the same frame format
 Keep same minimum and maximum frame lengths
 The physical layer in Gigabit Ethernet is more complicated than that in
Standard or Fast Ethernet.

MAC Sub-layer

 A main consideration in the evolution of Ethernet was to keep the MAC sub-
layer untouched
 To achieve a data rate of 1 Gbps, this was no longer possible
 Gigabit Ethernet has two distinctive approaches for medium access:

o Half-duplex

o Full-duplex

Encoding in Gigabit Ethernet:

Giga bit Ethernet is either a 2 wire or 4 wire Implementation.

In case of 2 wire implementation it uses the fiber optic cable for 1000 Mbps or 1 gigabit.
1000 base SX is use for short waves and 1000 base XL for long waves.

In case of 4 wire version, It uses 1000 Base-T and it was designed and responds to
users who already installed the twisted pair cable for fast Ethernet. It uses UTP for 1000
Base-T.
Summary of Gigabit Ethernet Implementations

10-gigabit Ehternet

 The idea is to extend the technology, the data rate, and the coverage
distance so that the Ethernet can be used in LANs and MANs (metropolitan
area network)
 The IEEE committee created 10 Gigabit Ethernet and called it Standard
802.3ae

Implementation

 10 Gigabit Ethernet operates only in full-duplex mode, which means there is

no need for contention; CSMA/CD is not used in 10 Gigabit Ethernet
 Four implementations are most common.
 TOPIC 191
Chap..#..14

Other Wired Networks

 Access Networks
o Networks that connect a small LAN to an ISP
 Wide Area Networks
o Wired networks used to transfer data over long distances

Telephone Network

 The telephone network had its beginnings in the late 1800s.

 Plain Old Telephone System (POTS) was originally an analog system using
analog signals to transmit voice.
 With the advent of the computer era, the network, in the 1980s, began to
carry data in addition to voice.
 During the last decade, the telephone network has undergone many technical
changes and the network is now Digital as well as Analog.

Major Components

 The telephone network is made of three major components:

o Local Loops it is twisted pair cable (4 khz) (first 3 office last 4 exact local
loop)
o Trunks they are optical fiber cables
o Switching offices

 The telephone network has several levels of switching offices:

o End offices
o Tandem offices
o Regional offices
A Telephone System

TOPIC 192

Local-Access Transport Areas (LATAs)

 A LATA can be a small or large metropolitan area.

 A small state may have a single LATA; a large state may have several
LATAs.
 A LATA boundary may overlap with state boundary; part of a LATA can be in
one state, part in another state.

Intra-LATA and Inter-LATA Services

 Services offered by Telephone companies inside a LATA are called Intra-

LATA services and between LATAs are called Inter-LATA services.
 Carrier that handles Intra-LATA are called a Local Exchange Carrier (LEC)
and the ones that handle Inter-LATA are called Interexchange Carriers
(IXCs).
Switching Offices in a LATA

Points of Presence (POPs)

 TOPIC 193

Signaling

 The telephone network in the beginning, used a circuit-switched network with

dedicated links to transfer voice communication.
 The operator connected the two parties by using a wire with two plugs
inserted into the corresponding two jacks.
 Later, the signaling system became automatic.
 Rotary telephones were invented that sent a digital signal defining each digit
in a multi-digit telephone number.
 As telephone networks evolved into a complex network, the functionality of
the signaling system increased.

Data Transfer and Signaling Network

Layers in SS7

TOPIC 194
Services

Telephone companies provide two types of services:

o Analog Services
 Analog Switched Services
 Analog Leased Services
o Digital Services
  Switched /56 Service
 Digital Data Service

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

 After traditional dial-up modems reached their peak data rate, telephone
companies developed another technology, DSL, to provide higher-speed access
to the Internet.
 DSL supports high-speed digital communication over the existing telephone.
 DSL technology is a set of technologies, each differing in the first letter (ADSL,
VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL).

ADSL Point-to-Point Network

In case of ADSL to use existing telephone lines as the local loop. So, your subscriber is
using the same local loop for voice. But as you can see below given figure ADSL that
was not able to achieve by using the same twisted pair with dial-up modem. the reason
for that is the telephone line is actually capable for getting approximately 1.1 MHz, But
in the case of dial-up modems we used to have some filters that are installed at the end
offices and when those filters were employed we used to have bandwidth confined to 4
kHz only which we use for our voice channels.

If these filters are removed we can use available bandwidth of approximately 1.104 MHz
for high-speed. Out of this 1.104 MHz 0-4 KHz is used for voice and the rest of it, then
you can use 26 to 108 KHz for Upstream Channel and 138 to 1104 KHz for
Downstream Channel.
 TOPIC-195
Cable Network

 The Cable TV networks were initially created to provide remote subscribers

access to TV programs.
 Cable networks enabled access to remote broadcasting stations via
microwave connections.
 Cable TV also found a good ISP market by using some of the channels
originally designed for video.

Traditional Cable Networks

 Cable TV started to distribute broadcast video signals to locations with poor

or no reception in the late 1940s.
 It was called community antenna television (CATV) because an antenna at
the top of a tall hill or building received the signals from the TV stations.
 CATV is transmission is only unidirectional.
 There are 35 amplifiers are used between Head end and end user.
Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) Network

 Second generation of cable network is called a Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC)

network
 The network uses a combination of fiber-optic and coaxial cable.
 One distribution hub can actually have up to 40,000 subscribers.
 In this type of Cable network we have multidirectional communication.

TOPIC 196

Cable TV for Data Transfer

 Cable companies are now competing with telephone companies for the
residential customer who wants high-speed data transfer.
 DSL technology provides high-data-rate connections for residential
subscribers over the local loop BUT UTP is susceptible to Inter fence.
 This imposes an upper limit on the data rate. A solution is the use of the cable
TV network.

Division of Coaxial Cable Band by CATV

This band is divided into three different Sub-bands.

1st band is video band and we have got This video band from 54 to 550 MHz which
means our video band has 496 MHz. Each of our TV channel takes 6 MHz. This
essentially means that actually use this video band to carry 80 TV channels.

2nd band is upstream and it carries from 5 to 42 MHz this is also divided into 6 MHz.
3rd band is data Down-stream band its range is 550 to 750 MHz this is also divided into
6 MHz.

Cable Modem Transmission System (CMTS)

TOPIC 197

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

 A wide area network (WAN) that is used as a transport network to carry loads
from other WANs.
 ITU–T standard called Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).
 Architecture of a SONET system consists of signals, devices, and
connections.
 Fiber optic cables are used in SONET.
SONET Architecture

 Signals
o Synchronous Transport Signals (STS)
o Optical Carriers (OCs)
o Synchronous Transport Module (STM)
 SONET Devcies
o STS Mux/Demux
o Regenerators
o Add-Drop Multiplexer and Terminals
 SONET Layers / Connections
o Section
o Line
o Path

TOPIC 198
SONET Signals
SONET Devices

TOPIC 199
SONET Layers / Connections

The SONET standard includes four functional layers:

 The Path Layer

 The Line Layer
 The Section Layer
 The Photonic Layer

The layers correspond to both the physical and the data-link layers.
Path Layer is responsible for the movement of a signal from source to the destination.

Line layer is a particular type of connection it is responsible for the movement of the
signal across a physical line.

Section layer is responsible for the movement of the same signal across the physical
section.

Photonic layer is equivalent to physical layer of OSI model. In this case use and
encoding and encoding here presence of light is represent 1 in binary and absence of
light is a represent 0.
Device-Layer Relationship in SONET

TOPIC 200

SONET Frames

 Each synchronous transport signal STS-n is composed of 8000 frames.

 Each frame is a two-dimensional matrix of bytes with 9 rows by 90×n
columns.
 STS-1 frame is 9 rows by 90 columns (810 bytes), and an STS-3 is 9 rows by
270 columns (2430 bytes).
An STS-1 and an STS-n Frame

STS-1 Frames in Transition

Example

Find the data rate of an STS-1 signal

Find the data rate of an STS-3 signal

STS-1 Frame Format

TOPIC 201
STS Multiplexing

 In SONET, frames of lower rate can be synchronously time-division

multiplexed into a higher-rate frame.
 For example, three STS-1 signals (channels) can be combined into one STS-
3 signal (channel), four STS-3s can be multiplexed into one STS-12, and so
on.

STS Multiplexing/De-multiplexing
Byte Interleaving

Add/Drop Multiplexer

SONET Networks

SONET network can be used as a high-speed backbone carrying loads from other
networks such as ATM or IP
We can roughly divide SONET networks into three categories:

o Linear Networks
o Ring Networks
o Mesh networks

1st type of SONET is Linear Networks.

It has two types:

Point-to-Point is a simple Network which is made up of an STS Mux and De-mux and a
couple of generators. In this case signals can flow unidirectional or bi-directional. We
can have both, but in the case of figure below we only have the data traveling in Down-
stream therefore this is unidirectional by Nature.

Multi-point network we use in this type "ADD & drop" multiplexer. In this case each
terminal can send the data one or more Down-stream channels. We can have a multi-
point network Bi-directional, but in this case we have our unidirectional multi-point
Channel.

2nd Type of SONET Networks is Ring Networks

It has two types:

UPSR stands for unidirectional path switching ring. We call it path switching ring
because it has two rings one is working ring which is clock wise and another is
protection ring which is anti-clock wise. Both these Rings carry the exact same type of
data. So each node which is connected to this kind of ring receives two different data
streams of same data. UPSR compare both data strings and choose the best one. We
have fast failure recovery rate in the case of UPSR and in general ring Network, but as
you can see because two rings doing the same job. One half the band-width is wasted,
there for efficiency is low as compared to linear Network.
BLSR stands for bi-directional line switching ring. In this case communication is bi-
directional. It means tha two rings for working line and also two rings for protection line
as well. BLSR used 4 Rings totally, and as you can imagine the Rate of faliure is
improve and efficiency more down.

3rd type of SONET Networks is Mesh Networks:

In mesh Network it is used switch which is known as a cross connected switches

multiple input and output force in this case.
 TOPIC 203
ATM

 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switched wide area network based

on the cell relay protocol designed by the ATM forum.
 The combination of ATM and SONET will allow high-speed interconnection of
networks.

Problems

 Some of the problems associated with existing systems are:

o Fixed Frame size
o Mixed Network Traffic
 Solution
o Cell Networks
o Asynchronous TDM

Multiplexing using Different Frame Size

Multiplexing using Cells

ATM Multiplexing

TOPIC 204

Architecture

 ATM is a cell-switched network.

 The user access devices, called the endpoints, are connected through a user-
to-network interface (UNI) to the switches inside the network.
 The switches are connected through network-to-network interfaces (NNIs).
TP, VPs, and VCs
Virtual connection identifiers in UNIs & NNIs

An ATM Cell
ATM Layers
 TOPIC 205
Chap….15

Introduction to Wireless

 Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies

 The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing
everywhere.
 Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and in
many public areas.

Architectural Comparison

Architecture comparison of wired and wireless LANs

 Medium in the case of wired Networks we need cables to connect our nodes.
While on the wireless network we don’t need cables.

 Hosts as we know in wired network our nodes are connected with switch through
a wire. So, we can’t move easily our nodes. While in case of wireless we can
easily move nodes.

 Isolated LANs

 Connection to other Networks

 Moving between Environments.

Just by doing two things we can move our wired network into wireless:

o Remove link layer switch and replace it with wireless access point.
o We will replace wired NIC with wireless NIC.

NOTE: wireless LAN exists bottom two layers (Layer 1 & Layer 2)
Isolated LANs: Wired versus Wireless

Connection of a Wired/Wireless LAN to other networks

 TOPIC 206

Characteristics of a Wireless LAN

Several characteristics of wireless LANs either do not apply to wired LANs or the
existence of these is negligible and can be ignored

 Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of signal strength in networking cables or connections.
This typically is measured in decibels (dB) or voltage and can occur due to a
variety of factors. It may cause signals to become distorted or indiscernible. An
example of this is Wi-Fi signal and strength getting noticeably weaker the further
that your device is from the router.

 Interference
Because the air is shared by all transmitters, transmissions by any device at the
same frequency as an access point's radio can cause interference.

 Multipath Propagation
In the case of multipath propagation the actual signals that you want to receive
you have to receive. But you also receive some multiple other versions of same
signals. Actually original signals reflected from ground, from walls or any other
things and create a noise. This noise is called Multipath propagation.

 Error

TOPIC 207
Access Control

 Most important issue in a wireless LAN is how a wireless host can get access to
the shared medium (air).
 CSMA/CD does not work in wireless LANs for three reasons:
o Wireless hosts don’t have power to send and receive at the same time.
o The hidden station problem prevents collision detection.
o The distance between stations can be large.
Hidden Station Problem

TOPIC 208
IEEE 802.1 PROJECT

 IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11,
which covers the physical and data-link layers.
 It is sometimes called Wireless Ethernet.
 The term WiFi (short for wireless fidelity) as a synonym for wireless LAN
(certified by WiFi alliance).

Architecture

The standard defines two kinds of services:

 The basic service set (BSS)

 The Extended service set (ESS)
Basic Service Sets (BSSs)

Extended Service Set (ESS)

Types of Stations

 No-Transition Mobility
 BSS-Transition Mobility
 ESS-Transition Mobility
 TOPIC 209
MAC Sub-layer

IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sub-layers:

 The Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)

 The Point Coordination Function (PCF)

MAC Layers in IEEE 802.11 Standard

CSMA/CA and NAV

 TOPIC 210
Frame Format of Point Coordination Function (PCF)

Subfields in FC field

Frame Types

 Management Frames
 Control Frames
 Data Frames
Control frame

Values of Subfields in Control Frames

Physical Layer

All physical implementations, except the infrared, operate in the industrial, scientific, and
medical (ISM) band, which defines 3 unlicensed bands in 3 ranges:

 902–928 MHz
 2.400–4.835 GHz
 5.725–5.850 GHz
Specifications

TOPIC 211
BLUETOOTH

 Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of

different functions when they are at a short distance from each other.
 A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network.
 The devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network
called a Piconet.

Architecture

Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

 Piconet in this case we can have up 8 active devices in a single time one of
them is primary and other 7 is secondary.
 Scatternet multiple piconet is connected with each other is called scatternet.
 TOPIC 212
BLUETOOTH devises

 A Bluetooth device has a built-in short-range radio transmitter.

 The current data rate is 1 Mbps without 2.4 gigahertz bandwidth.
 This means there is a possibility of interference between the IEEE 802. 11
Wireless LAN's and Bluetooth LAN's

Bluetooth Layers

Bluetooth uses several layers that do not exactly match those of the Internet model
we have defined in this book
L2CAP Data Packet Format

Single-Secondary Communication

Multiple-Secondary Communication
Frame Format Types