Chapter 1

Introduction to Computer Network

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 Outline:
1.1 Uses of Computer Network
1.2 Networking model client/server, p2p, active network
1.3 Protocols and Standards
1.4 OSI model and TCP/IP model
1.5 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP model
1.6 Example network: The Internet, X.25, Frame Relay, Ethernet, VoIP,
NGN and MPLS, xDSL

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 What is a Network?
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
 Network is the collection of computer, software and hardware that are all connected to
each other to help their work together.
 A network connects computers by means of cabling system (or wireless media),
specialized software and devices that manage data traffic.
 A network enables users to share files and resources such as printer as well as send
message electrically to each other.

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 Application of Network
 Marketing and Sales: use to collect, exchange, and analyze data relating to customer needs
and product development cycles. Teleshopping, online services etc.
 Financial Services: Foreign exchange, electronics fund transfer etc.
 Manufacturing: multiple users allow to work on a project simultaneously.
 Electronics Messaging: email
 Cable television
 Teleconferencing
 Sharing information – collaborative documents, intranet, group calendaring, etc.
 Facilitating communications – email, chat, videoconferencing
 Remote Services: E-Commerce, e-governance, ATM
 Resource sharing: Printer, Software

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 Network Criteria
 The most important criteria are performance, reliability, and security.
• Performance: The performance of a network depends on a number of
factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
• Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from
a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses. A good
network is protected from viruses by hardware and software designed
specifically for that purpose.
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 Networking Model: Client/Server network
 A network built around one or more dedicated servers and is administered from a central location.
 Clients connect to the dedicated servers through the network to access the resources, such as printers,
servers, and so on.
 It supports many thousands of clients and multiple computer platforms. The clients have their own
local storage and processing power.
 Communication takes the form of the client process sending a message over the network to the server
process. The client process then waits for a reply message. When the server process gets the request,
it performs the requested work or looks up the requested data and sends back a reply.
 The server is a larger, faster more expensive computer that is designed to handle a number of tasks at
once.
 Thin client: it is a network computer with no local storage. It processes information
independently, but relies on servers for applications, data storage, and administration.
Largely used for interaction with processing layer.
 Thick client: a typically powerful personal computer capable of handling independent application
processes like notebook computer or PC.
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Common network services
 File services
 Print services
 Message services( e.g. email)
 Application services
 Database services

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 Networking Model: Client/Server network
Advantages Disadvantages
 Scalable and cost less than centralized  They are more expensive to implement
networks and Running cost high
 Support many users  More complicated to administer than peer-
 More powerful than peer-to-peer networks to-peer networks
 Centralize security and administration  Server failures can bring down the entire
while controlling access to resources network
 Communicate with other networks and
support remote access, Internet sites, and
multiple computing platforms

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 Networking Model: Peer-to-Peer network
 In peer to peer networking architecture each computer (workstation) has equivalent
capabilities and responsibilities.
 There is no server, and computers simply connect with each other in a workgroup to share
files, printers, and internet access.
 It is practical for workgroups of dozen or less computers where each PC acts as an
independent workstation that stores data on its own hard drive but which can share it with all
other PCs on the network.
 All computers and users have equal authority and rights.
 Used at home or in small organisations with trusted users.
 Nodes are autonomous (no administrative authority)
 Network is dynamic (nodes enter and leave the network frequently)
 Nodes collaborate directly with each other with having widely varying capabilities.

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 Networking Model: Peer-to-Peer network

Advantages Disadvantages
 Ease of installation  Multiple passwords.
 Easy to implement & operate.  Lack of central repository (Central store
 No dedicated server or NOS house).
 individual control of user resources
 Security distributed through out network
terminals.
 Inexpensive – no specific device &
configuration.
 Uncoordinated & inconsistent backup.
 No administrative stuff.
 Not for large number of computer.
 limitations in geographic area
 difficulty in ensuring security

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 Network Transmission Technology
 There are two types of transmission technology that are in widespread use: broadcast links
and point-to-point links.
 Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines. To go from the source to the
destination on a network made up of point-to-point links, short messages, called packets in
certain contexts, may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines. Often multiple
routes, of different lengths, are possible, so finding good ones is important in point-to-point
networks. Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one receiver is
sometimes called unicasting.
 In contrast, on a broadcast network, the communication channel is shared by all the
machines on the network; packets sent by any machine are received by all the others. An
address field within each packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon receiving a packet, a
machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for the receiving machine, that
machine processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some other machine, it is just
ignored.
 A wireless network is a common example of a broadcast link. 12
 Type of Network
 It is classified by Scale:
• Local Area network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

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 Type of Network: LAN
 A LAN is a privately-owned networks within a single building or campus.
 LAN is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters , and no more than a mile.
 The most common communication links used in LANs are twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber
optics.
 A LAN utilizes high-speed data transfer capabilities. Transmission rates in LANs usually range from
10 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
 Nodes in LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies may be Bus, Ring, Star
etc.
 LAN technologies are: Token bus, Token Ring, FDDI

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 Type of Network: MAN
 A MAN is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large Campus.
 The main objectives of MANs is to interconnect LAN located in an entire city or Campus.
 The MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 KM diameter.
 The MAN speed is nearly around LAN speed.

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 Type of Network: WAN
 WAN covers a large geography area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.
 The worlds most popular WAN is the internet.
 A WAN is formed by connecting Multiples LANs which may belongs to different
organizations.
 WAN Technologies: Frame Relay, ISDN, Point to point protocol etc.

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 Network Topology
 Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements of a communications
networks.
 Two types:
 Physical Topology: It describes the geometric arrangement of components that make up
the LAN. It refers to the way the computers are cabled together.
 Logical Topology: It describes the possible connections between pairs of networked end
–points that can communicate.
 Physical Topologies are Bus topology, Ring topology, Star topology, Mesh topology, Tree
topology, Hybrid topology, and Daisy Chain topology.
 Logical topologies are Token Bus, Token Ring, CSMA/CD etc.

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 Bus Topology
 All nodes are connected to a single common cable known as the backbone.
 Both end of the backbone must be terminated with a terminating resister to prevent signal bounce
and complete the circuit.
 If the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.
 Bus ( backbone) carries all network data.
 Bus networks work best with a limited number of devices.
 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) is the protocols used for this type of LAN.
 When one computer send a signal up the wire all the computers receive the information but only one
with the address that matches accepts the information, the rest disregard the message.
 Advantages
 Easy to implement.
 Requires least amount of cable to connect the computers together.
 Failures of one station does not affect the others.

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 Bus Topology
 Disadvantages
• A central cable break can disable the entire network.
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
• A cable break or loose connector causes reflection and stops all the activity.
• Collisions occurs when two nodes send message simultaneously.

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 Star Topology
 Most dominant topology type in contemporary LANs.
 Every node on the network is connected through a central device.
 Each computer on a star network communicates with a central device that resends the message either
to each computer or only to the destination computer.
 A central device (hub) connects hubs and nodes to the network.
 Each node connects to its own dedicated port on the hub.
 Hubs broadcast transmitted signals to all connected devices.
 we can connect multiple hubs to form a hierarchical star topology.

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 Star Topology
 Advantages:
 Single computer failure does not necessarily bring down the whole star network
 Easy to connect new nodes or devices.
 Centralized management.
 Most popular topology in use; wide variety of equipment available
 The center of the star network is a good place to diagnose the faults.
 Compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance.
 Disadvantages:
 If central device fails, the entire network goes down.
 Requires more cable than the bus topology.
 Performance is depends on central device.

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 Ring Topology
 Each node is connected to the two nearest nodes so the entire network forms a circle.
 Ring network consists of nodes that are joined by point- to- point connections to form a ring.
 Data are transmitted around the ring using token passing either clockwise or
counterclockwise.
 No central hub
 Each node will repeat any signal that is on the network regardless its destination. The
destination station recognizes its address and copies the frame into a local buffer as it goes
by. The frame continues to circulate until it returns to the source station, where it is
removed.
 A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
 Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) is the most popular Ring topology protocol.
 Advantages:
• Each computer has equal access to resource.
• Performance is better than that of Bus topology
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• Network is point- to- point connections. Hence, easier to locate defective node.
 Ring Topology
 Disadvantages:
• Failure of one computer on the ring can affect the whole network.
• Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination,
slower than star topology.
• If diameter of a network is high, the number of edges involved in each communications
will also be very high resulting in high signal attenuation and network blocking
probability.

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 Mesh Topology
 The Internet is a mesh topology.
 Two Types:
 Fully Connected
 Partially Connected
 Fully Connected Mesh Topology
• All nodes are interconnected.
• Each and every node has a unique point to point link with all the other nodes. This
features leads to the reliability and fault tolerance.
• In mesh topology it will connect or share traffic between two nodes only.
• Messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. Hence, static routing impractical. Use dynamic routing practical,
 In Partial mesh topology, nodes are connected to only some, not all, of the other nodes.

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 Mesh Topology
 Advantages:
• When a link of other nodes fail to connect it will not affect the entire network.
• There is a facility of a unique link between nodes to ensure higher finest data rate and
remove traffic issues.
• Error identification and error isolation can be found easy.
• It is robust.
 Disadvantages:
• It is most expensive network from the point of view of link cost i.e. cost of cable.
• Bulk wiring is required.
• Installation and configuration are difficult if the connectivity gets more.

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Mesh Topology

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 Protocol
 Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
 A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern a particular
aspect of how devices on a network communicate.

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 Network Software
 Network software is highly structured.
 The software structuring technique in detail is below:
 Protocol Hierarchies
 To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or
levels, each one built upon the one below it.
 The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the function
of each layer differ from network to network.
 The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers while shielding
those layers from the details of how the offered services are actually implemented.
 In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to the layer
above it.
 Each layer talks to the ones above & below it

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 Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies
 The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers.
 The peers may be software processes, hardware devices, or even human beings. In other
words, it is the peers that communicate by using the protocol to talk to each other.
 A five-layer network :

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 Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies
 No data is transferred directly from one machine to another on that layer – the layers can
only talk to the ones above or below them on their host.
 A message from layer 5 will have to travel to layer 1, move across the physical medium, and
then back up to layer 5 on the different machine.
 Layer 1 is the only layer able to move data from one machine to another, through the
physical medium.
 Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. The interface defines which primitive
operations and services the lower layer makes available to the upper one.
 A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture. The specification of an
architecture must contain enough information to allow an implementer to write the program
or build the hardware for each layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol.
 A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol
stack.

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Header and Trailer Addition

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 Header and Trailer Addition
 A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given to layer 4
for transmission.
 Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes the result
to layer 3.
 The header includes control information, such as addresses, to allow layer 4 on the
destination machine to deliver the message.
 Consequently, layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller units, packets,
prepending a layer 3 header to each packet. In this example, M is split into two parts, M1
and M2, that will be transmitted separately.
 Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2.
 Layer 2 adds to each piece not only a header but also a trailer, and gives the resulting unit
to layer 1 for physical transmission.
 At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with headers
being stripped off as it progresses.
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
 Design Issue for the Layers
 Error detection and Error correction: One mechanism for finding errors in received
information uses codes for error detection. Information that is incorrectly received can then
be retransmitted until it is received correctly. More powerful codes allow for error
correction, where the correct message is recovered from the possibly incorrect bits that were
originally received.
 Routing Algorithm: finding a working path through a network. Often there are multiple
paths between a source and destination, and in a large network, there may be some links or
routers that are broken.
 Addressing: every layer needs a mechanism for identifying the senders and receivers that
are involved in a particular message.
 Flow control: An allocation problem that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender
from swamping a slow receiver with data. Feedback from the receiver to the sender is often
used.

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 Design Issue for the Layers
 Confidentiality:
• The design issue is to secure the network by defending it against different kinds of
threats. One of the threats is that of eavesdropping on communications. Mechanisms that
provide confidentiality defend against this threat, and they are used in multiple layers.
• Mechanisms for authentication prevent someone from impersonating someone else.
They might be used to tell fake banking Web sites from the real one, or to let the cellular
network check that a call is really coming from your phone so that you will pay the bill.
• Other mechanisms for integrity prevent surreptitious changes to messages, such as
altering ‘‘debit my account 10’’ to ‘‘debit my account 1000.’

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 Connection Types
 Connection-Oriented service  Connectionless Service
• like the phone system • like the postal system.
• to use a connection-oriented network • Each message (letter) carries the full
service, the service user first establishes a destination address, and each one is
connection, uses the connection, and then routed through the intermediate nodes
releases the connection. inside the system independent of all the
• a “live” connection must be established subsequent messages.
• data is sent in “real time” and received by • data is packaged and sent to the
the other end destination
• the other end will respond back as data is • no time limit is placed on the transport
received of the data
• each packet of data is determined to be
a single message in and of itself with
no relation to other messages.
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 Service Primitives
 Service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to user processes
to access the service.
 These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken by a
peer entity.
 If the protocol stack is located in the operating system, as it often is, the primitives are
normally system calls.
 The primitives for connection-oriented service are

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 Service Primitives
 These primitives might be used for a request-reply interaction in a client-server
environment. To illustrate how, sketching a simple protocol that implements the service
using acknowledged datagrams.

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 The relation of services to protocols
 A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it.
 The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users,
but it says nothing at all about how these operations are implemented.
 A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer being the service
provider and the upper layer being the service user.
 A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets, or
messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
 Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions.

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 The OSI Reference Model
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
 The OSI model explains how packets travel through the various layers to another device on a
network, even if the sender and destination have different types of network media.
 The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as
follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does
not become unwieldy.
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 The OSI Reference Model
 Dividing the network into seven layers provides the following advantages:
 It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.
 It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and support.
 It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each
other.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
 It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to
understand.

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41
 The OSI Reference Model
 Physical layer
• It is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to
perform for transmission to occur.
• The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical.
• The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the physical
layer.
• Transmission Mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
• Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also
must be synchronized at the bit level.
• Line Configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link.
In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices. 42
 The OSI Reference Model
 Data link Layer
• Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame.
• Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control : The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
• Access control : When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.
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 The OSI Reference Model
 Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links), whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery
of the packet between two systems on the same network (links).
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer.
• However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting
devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to
accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
• Logical addressing: If a packet passes the network boundary, need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a
header to the packet coming from the upper layer that includes the logical addresses of the
sender and receiver.
• Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination. 44
 The OSI Reference Model
 Transport Layer
• Service-point addressing: The transport layer header must include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the
correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in transmission.
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection
oriented.
• Flow control: Flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single
link.
• Error Control: Error control at this layer is performed process-to process rather than
across a single link. 45
 The OSI Reference Model
 Session Layer
• The Session layer establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
• Dialog control: It allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the communication
between two processes to take place in either half duplex or full-duplex mode.
• Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data.
• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of
page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523.
Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

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 The OSI Reference Model
 Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems e.g.. ASCII, UNICODE etc.
• Translation: The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
• Data Encryption and Compression

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 The OSI Reference Model
 Application Layer
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
• One widely used application protocol is HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), which is the
basis for the World Wide Web.
• Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• File transfer, access, and management: This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for
use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
• Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
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 TCP/IP Reference Model
 Host to Network Layer/ Network Access Layer
• Network Access Layer is the first layer of the four layer TCP/IP model.
• Network Access layer defines details of how data is physically sent through the network,
including how bits are electrically or optically signaled by hardware devices that interface
directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper
wire.
• The protocols included in Network Access layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25,
Frame Relay etc.
• Ethernet uses an Access Method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection) to access the media. Application Layer

Transport Layer

Internet Layer

Host –to- Network

Layer 49
 TCP/IP Reference Model
 Internet Layer
• At the internet layer , TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol.
• The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet
Protocol). IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
• The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.
 Transport Layer
• Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here.
• The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable connection-oriented
protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error
on any other machine in the internet.
• The second protocol, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless
protocol for applications. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-
reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery, such as transmitting speech or video.
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 TCP/IP Reference Model
 Application Layer
• On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher- level
protocols. The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and
electronic mail (SMTP).
• The Domain Name System (DNS), for mapping host names onto their network addresses,
HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and RTP, the protocol for
delivering real-time media such as voice or movies.

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 OSI Vs. TCP/IP Reference Model
 Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of
the layers is roughly similar.
 The OSI model has Seven layers and TCP/IP has four layers.
 The OSI model makes the distinction between the Services, Interfaces, and Protocols, whereas
TCP/IP did not originally clearly distinguish between Services, Interfaces, and Protocols.
 The OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding protocols were invented. With
TCP/IP the reverse was true: the protocols came first, and the model was really just a
description of the existing protocols.
 The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection oriented communication in the
network layer, but only connection-oriented communication in the transport layer.
 The TCP/IP model supports only one mode in the network layer (connectionless) but both in
the transport layer, giving the users a choice.

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 Assignment 1
 Prepare Notes on Following
• PAN: Personal Area Network
• CAN: Campus Area Network
• SAN: Storage Area Network
• Active Networks

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 Thank You

References:
 Data Communications and Networking “ Behrouz A. Forouzan” Fourth Edition.
 Computer Networks “A. S. Tanenbaum” Fifth Edition
 Data and Computer Communications “William Stallings” Tenth Edition.

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